AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
CHAPTER – 2
BATTERIES
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF BATTERIES

TYPE AND CONSTRUCTION

BATTERIES

Lead Acid Battery

Electrochemical Action
BATTERY RATING
BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS

BATTERY TEST INSTRUMENTS

 INTRODUCTION
• An automotive battery is an electrochemical device capable of storing and
producing electrical energy.
Eg. In lead acid battery Electrical energy is produced in the battery by
the chemical reaction that occurs between two dissimilar plates that are
immersed in an electrolyte solution.
• The automotive battery produces direct current (DC) electricity that flows in only
one direction.
• When discharging the battery (current flowing from the battery), the battery
changes chemical energy into electrical energy. It is through this change that the
battery releases stored energy. During charging (current flowing through the
battery from the charging system), electrical energy is converted into chemical
energy. As a result, the battery can store energy until it is needed.
 IMPORTANCE OF BATTERIES
• It operates the starting motor, ignition system, electronic fuel injection,
and other electrical devices for the engine during cranking and
starting.
• It supplies all the electrical power for the vehicle accessories
whenever the engine is not running or when the vehicle’s charging
system is not working.
• It furnishes current for a limited time whenever electrical demands
exceed charging system output.
• It acts as a stabilizer of voltage for the entire automotive electrical
system.
• It stores energy for extended periods of time.
 TYPE AND CONSTRUCTION BATTERIES
The two main types batteries that are currently being used in automobiles are:

i. Lead – Acid (Conventional) batteries

ii. Sealed – Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries (Maintenance Free)
In addition to the above mentioned commonly used battery types there
are other types that can be taken into consideration;
• Hybrid (Conventional + Maintenance Free) batteries
• Recombination Batteries
• Hybrid Electric Vehicle(HEV) Batteries [Dry Cell]
i. Lead – Acid Batteries
• The conventional battery is constructed of seven basic components Positive plates,
Negative plates, Separators, Case, Plate straps, Electrolyte, Terminals.

Plates: A plate, either positive or negative, starts with a grid. Grids are generally
made of lead alloys, usually antimony. About 5% to 6% antimony is added to
increase the strength of the grid.

• The grid has horizontal and vertical grid bars that intersect at right angles
An active material made from ground lead oxide, acid, and material expanders is
pressed into the grid in paste form. The positive plate is given a “forming charge”
that converts the lead oxide(PbO) paste into lead peroxide (𝑃𝑏𝑂2 ). The negative
plate is given a “forming charge” that converts the paste into sponge lead (𝑃𝑏).
Separators: The negative and positive plates are arranged alternately in each
cell element. Each cell element can consist of 9 to 13 plates. The positive and
negative plates are insulated from each other by separators made of microporous
materials.
Plate Straps: are used to separately connect all the positive and negative plates
together.
The battery case: is made of polypropylene, hard rubber, and plastic base
materials. The battery case must be capable of withstanding temperature
extremes, vibration, and acid absorption.
• A typical 12-volt automotive battery is made up of six cells connected in series.
The six cells produce 2.1 volts each. Wiring the cells in series produces the 12.6
volts required by the automotive electrical system. The plate straps provide a
positive cell connection and a negative cell connection.
• The plate straps provide a positive cell connection and a negative
cell connection. The cell connection may be one of three types:
through the partition, over the partition, or external.
Electrolyte: The cell elements are submerged in a cell case filled with electrolyte
solution. Electrolyte consists of sulfuric acid diluted with water. The electrolyte
solution used in automotive batteries consists of 64% water and 36% sulfuric acid,
by weight. Electrolyte is both conductive and reactive.
Terminals: provide a means of connecting the battery plates to the vehicle’s
electrical system. All automotive batteries have two terminals. One terminal is a
positive connection; the other is a negative connection. The battery terminals extend
through the cover or the side of the battery case.
 Lead Acid Battery Electrochemical
Action
• Activation of the battery is through the addition of electrolyte. This solution
causes the chemical actions to take place between the lead peroxide of the
positive plates and the sponge lead of the negative plates.
• In operation, the battery is being partially discharged and then recharged.
This represents an actual reversing of the chemical action that takes place
within the battery.
What Happens to The Plates and Electrolyte During Discharge?
• The lead (Pb) from the positive plate combines with sulfate (SO4 ) from the acid,
forming lead sulfate (PbSO4 ). While this is occurring, oxygen (O2) in the active material of
the positive plate joins with the hydrogen (H2) from the electrolyte forming water (H2O). This
water dilutes the acid concentration.
• A similar reaction is occurring in the negative
plate. Lead (Pb) is combining with sulfate (SO4 ),
forming lead sulfate (PbSO4 ). The result of
discharging is changing the positive plate from
lead dioxide into lead sulfate and changing the
negative plate into lead sulfate. Discharging
a cell makes the positive and negative plates the same.
Once they are the same, the cell is discharged.
What Happens to The Plates and Electrolyte During Recharge?
• The charge cycle is exactly the opposite. The lead sulfate (PbSO4 ) in both plates is
split into its original forms of lead (Pb) and sulfate (SO4 ). The water in the
electrolyte splits into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen (H2) combines with the
sulfate to become sulfuric acid again (H2SO4 ). The oxygen combines with the
positive plate to form the lead peroxide. This now puts the plates and the
electrolyte back in their original form and the cell is charged
ii. Sealed – valve regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) Batteries [Maintenance Free]
• It contains cell plates made of a slightly different compound than what is in a
conventional battery. The plate grids contain calcium, cadmium, or strontium to
reduce gassing and self-discharge.
• Gassing is the conversion of the battery water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. This
process is also called electrolysis.
• The antimony used in conventional batteries is not used in maintenance-free
batteries because it increases the breakdown of water into hydrogen and oxygen
and because of its low resistance to overcharging.
• The grid may be constructed with additional supports to increase its strength and
to provide a shorter path, with less resistance, for the current to flow to the top tab
• Each plate is wrapped and sealed on three sides by an envelope made from
microporous plastic; thus the plate is insulated and reduces the shedding of the
active material from the plate.
• The battery is sealed except for a small vent so the electrolyte and vapors cannot
escape. An expansion or condensation chamber allows the water to condense and
drain back into the cells.
 STATE OF CHARGE AND CELL & BATTERY VOLTAGE AT VARIOUS
ACID DENSITIES

Acid Density (electrolyte Cell voltage Battery Voltage % Charge

specific gravity)

1.28 2.12 12.7 100

1.24 2.08 12.5 70

1.20 2.04 12.3 50

1.15 1.99 12.0 20

1.12 1.96 11.8 0

 CHOOSING THE CORRECT BATTERY

The correct battery depends, in the main, on just two conditions.

1. The ability to power the starter to enable minimum starting speed under very
cold conditions [Cold cranking].
2. The expected use of the battery for running accessories when the engine is
not running.
 BATTERY RATING

• Rating of a particular battery is determined by how much current it

can produce and how long it can sustain this current.
• The rate at which a battery can produce current is determined by the
speed of the chemical reaction. This in turn is determined by a number
of factors:
• Surface area of the plates.
• Temperature.
• Electrolyte strength.
• Current demanded
The rating of a battery has to specify the current output and the time.
Ampere hour capacity (Ah)
This is now seldom used but describes how much current the battery is able to
supply for either 10 or 20 hours. The 20-hour figure is the most common. For
example, a battery quoted as being 44 Ah (ampere-hour) will be able, if fully
charged, to supply 2.2 A for 20 hours before being completely discharged (cell
voltage above 1.75 V).

Reserve Capacity (RC)

A system used now on all new batteries is reserve capacity. This is quoted as a
time in minutes for which the battery will supply 25 A at 25 ° C to a final voltage
of 1.75 V per cell (10.5V Battery Voltage). This is used to give an indication of
how long the battery could run the car if the charging system was not working.
Typically, a 44 Ah battery will have a reserve capacity of about 60 minutes.
Cold Cranking Ampere (CCA)
Cold cranking rating is the most common method of rating automotive batteries. It
is determined by the load, in amperes, that a battery is able to deliver for 30
seconds at 0°F (-17.7°C) without terminal voltage falling below 7.2 volts (1.2 volts
per cell) for a 12-volt battery.

Cranking Ampere
Cranking Amps (CA) is an indication of the battery’s ability to provide a
cranking amperage at 32°F (0°C). To convert CA to CCA, divide the CA by 1.25.
For example, a 650-CCA-rated battery is the same as 812 CA. It is important
that the technician does not misread the rating and think the battery is rated as
CCA instead of CA.
 BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS
Battery has the following characteristics that determine its operation and condition
Internal resistance
Any source of electrical energy is in series
with a resistor. This is used to represent the
reason why the terminal voltage of a battery
drops when a load is placed across it. As an open circuit, no current flows through the
internal resistance and hence no voltage is dropped. When a current is drawn from
the source a voltage drop across the internal resistance will occur. The actual value
can be calculated as follows
• The internal resistance can also be used as
an indicator of battery condition – the
lower the figure, the better the condition.
Efficiency
The efficiency of a battery can be calculated in two ways:
The Ampere-hour Efficiency: Typically a lead-acid battery will be 80 to 90%
efficient when considering ampere-hours (i.e. charge transferring efficiency). This
figure assumes that the charging and discharging voltages are the same
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝐴ℎ
𝐴ℎ 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴ℎ
The Power Efficiency: Power efficiency is lower than the ampere hour efficiency as it
takes into account the higher voltage required to force the charge into the battery.
The power efficiency is about 65-75%.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑊ℎ
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑊ℎ
 BATTERY TEST INSTRUMENTS

• For testing the state of charge of a non-sealed type of battery, a hydrometer can
be used. The hydrometer comprises a syringe (poppet) that draws electrolyte
from a cell, and a float that will float at a particular depth in the electrolyte
according to its density. The density or specific gravity is then read from the
graduated scale on the float. A fully charged cell should show 1.280, 1.200 when
half charged and 1.130 if discharged.
• A heavy-duty (HD) discharge tester is an instrument consisting of a low-value
resistor and a voltmeter connected to a pair of heavy test prods. The test prods
are firmly pressed on to the battery terminals. The voltmeter reads the voltage of
the battery on heavy discharge of 200–300 A. Assuming a battery to be in a
fully charged condition, a serviceable battery should read about 10 V for a
period of about 10 s. A sharply falling battery voltage to below 3 V indicates an
unserviceable cell. Note also if any cells are gassing, as this indicates a short
circuit. A zero or extremely low reading can indicate an open circuit cell. When
using the HD tester, the following precautions must be observed:
END OF CHAPTER – 2

Questions?