Automotive Batteries

Er. Syed M. Arif

 Requirements
The vehicle battery is used as a source of energy in the vehicle
when the engine, and hence the alternator, is not running. The
battery has a number of requirements, which are listed below
broadly in order of importance.
1. To provide power storage and be able to supply it quickly
enough to operate the vehicle starter motor.
2. To allow the use of parking lights for a reasonable time.
3. To allow operation of accessories when the engine is not
running.
4. To act as a swamp to damp out fluctuations of system voltage.
5. To allow dynamic memory and alarm systems to remain active
when the vehicle is left for a period of time.
 The lead-acid battery, in various similar forms, has to date
proved to be the most suitable choice for vehicle use. This is
particularly so when the cost of the battery is taken into account.
Batteries should be able to work from -30 to +70 °C.
The correct battery depends, in the main, on just two
conditions.
1. The ability to power the starter to enable minimum starting
speed under very cold conditions.
2. The expected use of the battery for running accessories
when the engine is not running.
Several basic points should be considered when
choosing the location for the vehicle battery:
• Weight distribution of vehicle components.
• Proximity to the starter to reduce cable length.
• Accessibility.
• Protection against contamination.
• Ambient temperature.
• Vibration protection.
 Types of Batteries
1. Lead –acid battery
2. Maintenance free battery
3. Hybrid battery (Ni-MH)
4. Dry cell battery
5. Lithium ion battery
 Battery ratings
In simple terms, the characteristics or rating of a particular
battery are determined by how much current it can produce and
how long it can sustain this current.
The rate at which a battery can produce current is determined by
the speed of the chemical reaction. This in turn is determined by
a number of factors:
• Surface area of the plates. • Temperature. • Electrolyte
strength. • Current demanded.
The actual current supplied therefore determines the overall
capacity of a battery. The rating of a battery has to specify the
current output and the time.
Ampere-hour
This method describes how much current the battery is able to supply for
either 10 or 20 hours. The 20-hour figure is the most common. For
example, a battery quoted as being 44 Ah (ampere-hour) will be able, if
fully charged, to supply 2.2 A for 20 hours before being completely
discharged (cell voltage above 1.75 V).
Reserve capacity
A system used now on all new batteries is reserve capacity. This is quoted
as a time in minutes for which the battery will supply 25 A at 25 °C to a
final voltage of 1.75 V per cell. This is used to give an indication of how
long the battery could run the car if the charging system was not working.
Typically, a 44 Ah battery will have a reserve capacity of about 60 minutes.
Cold cranking amps
Batteries are given a rating to indicate performance at high current output
and at low temperature. A typical value of 170 A means that the battery
will supply this current for one minute at a temperature of 18 °C, at
which point the cell voltage will fall to 1.4 V (BS – British Standards).
Note that the overall output of a battery is much greater when spread over a
longer time. As mentioned above, this is because the chemical reaction can
only work at a certain speed. Figure 5.7 shows the above three discharge
characteristics and how they can be compared.
The cold cranking amps (CCA) capacity rating methods do vary to some extent;
British standards, DIN standards and SAE standards are the three main
examples.
In summary, the capacity of a battery is the amount of electrical
energy that can be obtained from it. It is usually given in ampere-
hours (Ah), reserve capacity (RC) and cold cranking amps (CCA).
• A 44 Ah battery means it should give 2.2 A for 20 hours.
• The reserve capacity indicates the time in minutes for which the
battery will supply 25 A at 25 °C.
• Cold cranking current indicates the maximum battery current at
18°C (0°F) for a set time (standards vary).
A battery for normal light vehicle use may be rated as follows: 44 Ah,
60 RC and 170 A CCA (BS). Figure 5.7 shows the discharge
characteristics of this battery. A ‘heavy duty’ battery will have the
same Ah rating as its ‘standard duty’ counterpart, but it will have a
higher CCA and RC.
 Battery specifications
• Table 5.7 compares the potential energy density of several
types of battery. Wh/kg means watt-hours per kilogram. This
is a measure of the power it will supply, and for how long, per
kilogram.
• Some super capacitors can have an energy density of several
kWh/kg but are usually used for short term storage and rapid
release.
Battery specifications
Terminology
 Lead acid Battery
The lead-acid battery is still the best choice for motor vehicle use. This
is particularly so when cost and energy density are taken into account.
The basic construction of a nominal 12 V lead-acid battery consists
of six cells connected in series. Each cell, producing about 2 V, is
housed in an individual compartment within a polypropylene, or
similar, case. Figure 5.4 shows a cutaway battery showing the main
component parts. The active material is held in grids or baskets to
form the positive and negative plates. Separators made from a
micro-porous plastic insulate these plates from each other. The
grids, connecting strips and the battery posts are made from a lead
alloy. For many years this was lead antimony (PbSb) but this has
now been largely
• replaced by lead calcium (PbCa). The newer materials cause
less gassing of the electrolyte when the battery is fully
charged. This has been one of the main reasons why sealed
batteries became feasible, as water loss is considerably
reduced .
 Working
1.A fully charged lead-acid battery consists of lead peroxide
(PbO2) as the positive plates, spongy lead (Pb) as the negative
plates and diluted sulphuric acid (H2SO4) + (H2O). The dilution of
the electrolyte is at a relative density of 1.28.
2. Sulphuric acid is in an aqueous solution (mixed with water), it
dissociates into charged ions H++, H++ and SO4––. From the
‘outside’ the polarity of the electrolyte appears to be neutral as
these charges cancel out. The splitting of the electrolyte into
these parts is the reason that a charging or discharging current
can flow through the liquid.
3. A lead-acid battery has a nominal potential difference of 2V.
When a lead-acid cell is undergoing charging or discharging certain
chemical changes take place. This can be considered as two
reactions, one at the positive plate and one at the negative plate.
The electrode reaction at the positive plate is a combination of
equations (a) and (b).
(a) PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e– → Pb++ + 2H2O
The lead peroxide combines with the dissociated hydrogen and
tends to become lead and water.
(b) Pb++ + SO4-- → PbSO4
The lead now tends to combine with the sulphate from the
electrolyte to become lead sulphate.
This gives the overall reaction at the positive pole (a + b) as:
(c) PbO2 + 4H+ + SO4-- + 2e– → PbSO4 + 2H2O
There is a production of water (a) and a deposition of lead sulphate
(b) together with a consumption of sulphuric acid.
The electrode reaction at the negative plate is:
(d) Pb → Pb++ + 2e–
The neutral lead loses two negative electrons to the solution
becoming positively charged.
(e) Pb++ + SO4-- → PbSO4
This then tends to attract the negative charged sulphate from the
solution and the pole becomes lead sulphate. The overall reaction at
the negative pole is therefore (d + e):
(f) Pb + SO4–– → PbSO4 + 2e–
This reaction leads to a consumption of sulphuric acid and the
production of water as the battery is discharged.
The reverse of the above process is when the battery is being
charged.
The charging reaction at the negative electrode:
(g) PbSO4 + 2e– + 2H+ → Pb + H2SO4
The electrons from the external circuit (2e-) combine with the
hydrogen ions in the solution (2H+) and then the sulphate to form
sulphuric acid as the plate tends to become lead.
The reaction at the positive pole is:
(h) PbSO4 – 2e– + 2H2O → PbO2 + H2SO4 + 2H+
The electrons given off to the external circuit (2e-), releases
hydrogen ions into the solution (2H+). This allows the positive plate
to tend towards lead peroxide and the concentration of sulphuric
acid in the electrolyte to increase.
The net two-way chemical reaction is the sum of the above
electrode processes (c + f or g + h):
(i) PbO2 + 2H2SO4 + Pb ⇔ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
This two-way or reversible chemical reaction (charged on the left
and discharged on the right), describes the full process of the
charge and discharge cycle of the lead-acid cell.
Gassing :
The other reaction of interest in a battery is that of gassing after it
has reached full charged condition.
This occurs because of the plates of the battery have become ‘pure’
lead and lead peroxide, the external electrical supply will cause the
water in the electrolyte to decompose.
This gassing voltage for a lead-acid battery is about 2.4V.
This gassing causes hydrogen and oxygen to be given off resulting in
loss of water (H2O), and an equally undesirable increase in
electrolyte acid density.
 Maintenance free battery
• By far the majority of batteries now available are classed as ‘maintenance
free’. This means that little attention is required during the life of the
battery. Earlier batteries and some heavier types, require the electrolyte
level to be checked and topped up periodically. Battery posts are prone to
corrosion and hence the usual service of cleaning with hot water if
appropriate and the application of petroleum jelly or terminal grease is
recommended. Ensuring that the battery case and, the top remains clean,
will help to reduce the rate of self-discharge.
• The state of charge of a battery is very important and, not advisable to allow
the state of charge to fall below 70% for long periods as the sulphate on the
plates can harden, making recharging difficult. If a battery is to be stored for
a long period (more than a few weeks), then it must be recharged often to
prevent it from becoming sulphated. Recommendations vary but a recharge
every six weeks is a reasonable suggestion.
• The nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery is the best and most common hybrid
battery so far, and the sheer volume of them is staggering. NiHM batteries
have been in use for well over 15 years, and out of the more than 7 million
hybrid cars on the road worldwide, 90% have NiMH battery packs.
Basic Battery Construction
• Hybrid car batteries consist of many cells that are connected in series and
packed into a container (plastic or metal). These are called modules, cassettes
or sticks depending on the manufacturer. Many modules are packaged into
“packs,” and many subsystems support the pack. Cooling, heating, voltage
and amperage management, high voltage leak detection and relays are added
to ensure a long, safe life.
• A NiMH battery left at 100% state of charge (SOC) will discharge at a faster
rate than one at 40% SOC. The lower the SOC, the slower the chemical
reactions; so the slower the chemical reactions, the longer they last. Reduced
temperature slows both the chemical reactions and the self-discharge rate, so
cooler temperatures (Massachusetts) are better for storage than warmer
(Southern California). But most hybrids (not plug-ins) will be at 40-60% SOC
when you see them, if all is well and your shop is not located on the top of a
mountain or the bottom of a huge hill.
• Construction: Nickel-metal hydride batteries consist of a
positive plate containing nickel hydroxide as its principal
active material, a negative plate mainly composed of
hydrogen-absorbing alloys, a separator made of fine fibers, an
alkaline electrolyte, a metal case and a sealing plate provided
with a self-resealing safety vent.
• Their basic structure is identical to that of Ni-Cd batteries.
• With cylindrical nickel-metal hydride batteries, the positive
and negative plates are seperated by the separator, wound into
a coil, inserted into the case, and sealed by the sealing plate
through an electrically insulated gasket.
 Working
Nickel-metal hydride batteries employ nickel hydroxide for the
positive electrode similar to Ni-Cd batteries. The hydrogen is
stored in a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode,
and an aqueous solution consisting mainly of potassium
hydroxide for the electrolyte. Their charge and discharge
reactions are shown below.
• As can be seen by the overall reaction given above, the chief
characteristics of the principle behind a nickel-metal hydride
battery is that hydrogen moves from the positive to negative
electrode during charge and reverse during discharge, with
the electrolyte taking no part in the reaction; which means
that there is no accompanying increase or decrease in the
electrolyte
 Hybrid battery (Ni-Mh)
• Hybrid batteries have two electrodes that sit in an iron-rich
solution, the electrolyte. To prevent a short circuit, each electrode
is separated by a polymer film, which prevents them from
touching.
• Although the hybrid battery is typically referred to as a battery, it is
actually a battery pack which houses many individual cells. These
batteries, if well cared for, can last about 10 years or 144,000 miles.
Differences Between The standard batteries and hybrid Batteries
• A few differences exist between standard batteries and hybrid
batteries. Although the biggest difference is the lifespan of each
battery (6 years in standard batteries and 10 years in hybrid
batteries)
Battery Taxonomy. A hybrid battery is actually a pack of individual
cells, separated by a polymer film to keep the battery from short
circuiting. A standard battery is a single housing that contains the 6
or 12 cells.
Environmental Effects. for consumers purchasing hybrids is due to
their environmentally consciousness. The lead-acid battery in
standard vehicles have hazardous material, and should be recycled
properly as it adds toxic waste to the environment.
Fuel Efficiency. The hybrid vehicle is vastly more efficient when it
comes to fuel consumption, due in large part to its battery pack.
Although all hybrids contain a lead-acid battery in addition to a NiMH
(Nickel Metal Hydride) battery, they use less fuel due to the Ni-Mh
battery.
 Dry cell battery
• Dry cell car batteries consist of a fiberglass mat that contains
electrolytes. The electrolytes cause a chemical reaction that
produces electricity. Absorbed glass mat (AGM) car batteries are
referred to as dry cell batteries because fluid cannot escape.
Although dry cell car batteries are expensive, they last longer than
conventional wet cell batteries. They also have more power to
crank the car's engine in bad weather.
• Dry cell car batteries are considered maintenance-free and charge
faster than conventional wet cell batteries. Since AGM material
has a low electrical resistance, the battery emits more power and
efficiency than other types of batteries. A dry cell car battery that
remains in a car for six months loses only 0.2 volts of charge.
Safety
• The dry cell car battery is the safest of all lead acid batteries.
Because it recycles its internal gas within its sealed
encasement, there is a slim chance of a gas explosion,
corrosion, burning or damage to the chrome of nearby
components. You can tip the battery upside-down, mount it
sideways and not worry about leakage. There is also no risk of
freezing or damage due to extremely cold weather.
Long Service Life
• Dry cell batteries do not have to be replaced frequently. The
batteries feature a design life of eight to 12 years and a
service life of three to 10 years. Conventional batteries
average only a five-year design life and a one- to five-year
service life.
Lithium-ion battery
• this type or battery has a promising future as rechargeable battery
for the electric hybrid vehicles due its very high storage capacity,
while, coupled with the fact that it operates at room temperature.
• Presently its use in the form of small cylindrical cells is fast
increasing mainly in cellular phones, computers and camcorders.
• Like other batteries, lithium-ion batteries also work by shuttling
ions between their electrodes. During charging, ions travel in one
direction; during discharging process, they go in the other
direction.
• Positive electrode is usually made from cobalt or manganese oxide
and negative electrode is made from graphite. The electrolyte is a
lithium-based gel or polymer. the Li ions move through the
perforated separators during charging and discharging as shown in
fig.
• Mercedes-Benz S400 Hybrid was the first hybrid series production
car equipped with Li-ion battery, launched in 2009.
 II. Battery testing
• Battery terminal test
• Battery leakage test
• Specific gravity test
• Open ckt test
• Battery drain test
 Battery terminal test
• The battery terminal test quickly checks for poor electrical
connection between the terminals and the battery cables. A
voltmeter is used to measure voltage drop across terminals and
cables.
• To perform a battery terminal test (fig. below), connect the
negative voltmeter lead to the battery cable end. Touch the
positive lead to the battery terminal. With the ignition or injection
system disabled so that the engine will not start, crank the engine
while watching the voltmeter reading.
• If the voltmeter reading is .5 volts or above, there is high
resistance at the battery cable connection. This indicates that the
battery connections need to be cleaned. A good, clean battery will
have less than a .5 volt drop.
Figure - Battery terminal test.
 Battery leakage test
• A battery leakage test will determine if current is discharging
across the top of the battery. A dirty battery can discharge
when not in use. This condition shortens battery life and
causes starting problems.
• To perform a battery leakage test, set a voltmeter on a low
setting. Touch the probes on the battery, as shown in figure
below. If any current is registered on the voltmeter, the top of
the battery needs to be cleaned.
Figure - Battery leakage test.
 Specific gravity test
• For testing the state of charge of a non-sealed type of battery,
a hydrometer can be used, as shown in Figure below. The
hydrometer comprises a syringe that draws electrolyte from a
cell, and a float that will float at a particular depth in the
electrolyte according to its density. The density or specific
gravity is then read from the graduated scale on the float. A
fully charged cell should show 1.280, 1.200 when half charged
and 1.130 if discharged.
• Almost all vehicles are now fitted with maintenance-free
batteries and a hydrometer cannot be used to find the state of
charge. This can only be determined from the voltage of the
battery.
 Open ckt test
• Some maintenance free batteries do not have a charge
indicator in the top.
• To find the state of charge measure open circuit voltage
(OCV).
• This test is usually made by measuring terminal voltage with a
digital voltmeter.
• A battery with an OCV of 12.40V or higher is charged enough
for load testing.
• If the voltage is less than 12.40V charge the battery first.
• Blow gently across the top of the battery to remove flammable gases.
• The test prods must be positively and firmly pressed into the lead terminals of
the battery to minimize sparking.
• It should not be used while a battery is on charge.
 Battery drain test
• A battery drain test checks for abnormal current draw with
the ignition off. If a battery goes dead without being used, you
need to check for a current drain.
• To perform a battery drain test, set up an ammeter, as shown
in figure below Pull the fuse if the vehicle has a dash clock.
Close all doors and trunk (if applicable). Then read the
ammeter. If everything is off, there should be a zero reading.
Any reading indicates a problem. To help pinpoint the
problem, pull fuses one at a time until there is a zero reading
on the ammeter. This action isolates the circuit that has the
problem.
Figure - Battery drain test setup.
• Factors affecting charging (cycle failure)

1. Temperature
Charging rate decreases with decrease of temperature, and vice versa. That means a
battery, at higher temperature would take less time for charging, all other conditions
remaining same.
2. Area of plates
Battery with small plates is charged faster compared to a similar battery with large plates.
3. State of the charge
A battery which remains long in severely discharged condition will have sulphate crystals
on its plate which increases the internal resistance and hence the decrease in charging
rate.
4. Gassing
Excessive hydrogen and oxygen bubbles due to overcharging may wash away active
material on the plates, decreasing the charging rate.
5. Impurities
Electrolyte impurities decrease the charging rate.
6. Corrosion of terminals and clamps
This may be caused due to spilled electrolyte and condensation from gases and would
increase internal resistance of the battery, resulting in decrease of charging rate.
 Internal short ckt
• Internal short-circuiting. It takes place due to
the damaged separators. It is also caused by
the active material dropping from the plates
which forms heap so high to make short
circuit. It results into rapid self discharge and
sulphation. To avoid internal short circuiting,
the damaged separators should be replaced
and the battery should be cleaned.
 Overcharging and sulphation
• If a vent-cap battery requires frequent addition of water, it is
probably being over-charged.
• So is a maintenance-free battery that has a low electrolyte level.
• Overcharging damages the plates and shortens battery life. The
exposed plate surfaces may be ruined.
• Overcharging causes excess heat that can buckle and crumble
the plates.
• The high voltage that causes overcharging can also damage
other electrical and electronic components.
• For example, high voltage and the resulting high current may
damage the ECM.
• High current may also burn out the filaments in light bulbs
Sulphation: When a battery is being discharged, the lead sulphate
forms and deposits on the plates. when it is being recharged, the
lead sulphate again converts into active materials-the lead peroxide
and spongy lead. However, if the battery is kept standing for a long
time in discharged condition, large lead Sulphate crystals, whitish in
colour, deposited on the plates, which do not convert back into the
active materials on recharging. This condition is called sulphation.
The accumulation of these crystals increases the internal resistance
of the cells; and causes the plates to buckle and break.

Very high specific gravity of electrolyte and insufficient electrolyte

are also the causes of sulphation. Care should be taken so that
sulphation may not take place. The sulphated battery can, however,
be recharged by Keeping the charging rate low. It is advisable not to
use heavily discharged batteries.
Factors affecting battery maintenance

1. Self discharging
2. Internal short circuiting
3. Cracking of container.
4. Loss of water
5. Sulphation
6. Deterioration of plates
7. Corrosion of battery terminals and clamps
8. Variations in specific gravity of electrolyte
Safety precautions:
1. battery electrolyte being corrosive, avoid its contact with eyes,
skin and clothes. In case it goes into the eyes accidentally, wash
the eyes with clean water and consult your doctor. In case of skin,
however, wash with solution of bicarbonate (baking soda) to
neutralise the acid and then wash clean water. Avoid the contact
of battery electrolyte with painted surfaces and metal parts, which
are easily attacked by the acid.

2. Do not bring any flame near the battery, as the highly explosive
vapours coming out of the battery may get ignited accidentally. For
the same season never use spark-producing tools near a battery.

3. To avoid accidental arcing, always remove the negative (ground)

cable first while disconnecting and connect the same last while
assembling.
4. Use proper protective clothing, i.e., apron, gloves and face
shield, while handling batteries.
5. While making battery connections, take special care to observe
proper polarities so that correct connections are made
6. Jump start batteries only if permitted by the battery
manufacturer. Some manufacturers specially prohibit jump start.
7. Do not use the ground terminal when checking for ignition
sparks.
8. Never disconnect the battery with the ignition switch ON.
9. Never use an electric welder without the battery cables
disconnected.
10. Never place tools on the battery.
11. As disconnecting the battery may erase the memory on
electronic devices; it is a good practice to note down trouble
codes and programmed settings before disconnecting the battery.