Automobile Electrical and Electronics Notes

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UNIT I BATTERIES AND STARTING SYSTEM 10

Different types of Batteries – principle, rating, testing and charging. Starter motors characteristics,
capacity requirements. Drive mechanisms. Starter switches.
Requirements of an automotive battery:
1. To provide power storage and be able to supply it quickly enough to operate the vehicle starter
motor.
2. To allow the use of parking lights for a reasonable time.
3. To allow operation of accessories when the engine is not running.
4. To act as a swamp to damp out fluctuations of system voltage.
5. To allow dynamic memory and alarm systems to remain active when the vehicle is left for a
period of time.
Types of batteries:
Lead acid type, alkaline type (Nickel Cadmium, Nickel metal), Hybrid type, Sodium sulphur
type, Aluminum air type.
Lead acid batteries:

Construction:
A lead acid battery consists of the following components:
1. Case /cover:
Cases (container or covers) are constructed of polypropylene, a thin (approximately 0.08
in., or 0.02 mm, thick), strong, and lightweight plastic. In contrast, containers for industrial batteries and
some truck batteries are constructed of a hard, thick rubber material.
2. Grids:
Each positive and negative plate in a battery is constructed on a framework, or grid, made primarily
of lead. Lead is a soft material and must be strengthened for use in an automotive battery grid. Adding
antimony or calcium to the pure lead adds strength to the lead grids. Battery grids hold the active material
and provide the electrical pathways for the current created in the plate.
Fig: Grid structure in a battery
Plates:
There are positive plates and negative plates in an automotive battery.
Positive plates:
The positive plates have lead dioxide (peroxides), in paste form placed onto the grid
framework. This process is called pasting. This active material can react with the sulfuric acid of the
battery and is dark brown in color.
Negative plates:
The negative plates are pasted to the grid with a pure porous lead, called sponge lead, and
are gray in color.
Separators:
The positive and the negative plates must be installed alternately next to each other without
touching. Non conducting separators are used, which allow room for the reaction of the acid with both
Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Faculty : AJD Nanthakumar
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plate materials, yet insulate the plates to prevent shorts. These separators are porous (with many small
holes) and have ribs facing the positive plate. Separators can be made from resin-coated paper, porous
rubber, fiberglass, or expanded plastic. Many batteries use envelope-type separators that encase the entire
plate and help prevent any material that may shed from the plates from causing a short circuit between
plates at the bottom of the battery.
3. Cells:
Cells are constructed of positive and negative plates with insulating separators between
each plate. Most batteries use one more negative plate than positive plate in each cell; however, many
newer batteries use the same number of positive and negative plates. A cell is also called an element. Each
cell is actually a 2.1 volt battery, regardless of the number of positive or negative plates used. The greater
the number of plates used in each cell, the greater the amount of current that can be produced. Typical
batteries contain four positive plates and five negative plates per cell. A 12 volt battery contains six cells
connected in series, which produce 12.6 volts (6 X 2.1 =12.6) and contain 54 plates (9 plates per cell X 6
cells). The amperage capacity of a battery is determined by the amount of active plate material in the
battery and the area of the plate material exposed to the electrolyte in the battery.
4. Partitions:
Each cell is separated from the other cells by partitions, which are made of the same
material as that used for the outside case of the battery. Electrical connections between cells are provided
by lead connectors that loop over the top of the partition and connect the plates of the cells together. Many
batteries connect the cells directly through the partition connectors, which provide the shortest path for
the current and the lowest resistance.
5. Electrolyte:
The electrolyte used in automotive batteries is a solution (liquid combination) of 36%
sulfuric acid and 64% water. This electrolyte is used for both lead-antimony and lead-calcium
(maintenance-free) batteries. The chemical symbol for this sulfuric acid solution is H2SO4. It is factory
installed or added to the battery when the battery is sold. Additional electrolyte must never be added to
any battery after the original electrolyte fill. It is normal for some water (H2O) in the form of hydrogen
and oxygen gases to escape during charging as a result of the chemical reactions. The escape of gases
from a battery during charging or discharging is called gassing. Only pure distilled water should be added
to a battery.
6. Vent plugs:
They are present in the cell cover for pouring electrolyte and water when needed. A hole
is provided in the vent plugs to permit escape of gasses.

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Principle of Working:
The current from a battery is obtained due to the chemical action between the active material in
the plates and sulphuric acid electrolyte. A fully charged lead-acid battery has a positive plate of lead
dioxide (peroxide) and a negative plate of lead surrounded by a sulfuric acid solution (electrolyte). The
difference in potential (voltage) between lead peroxide and lead in acid is approximately 2.1 volts.
Discharging:
The positive plate lead dioxide (PbO2) combines with the SO4 , forming PbSO4 from the electrolyte
and releases it’s O2 into the electrolyte, forming H2O. The negative plate also combines with the SO4 from
the electrolyte and becomes lead sulfate (PbSO4). When the battery is fully discharged, both the positive
and the negative plates are PbSO4 (lead sulfate) and the electrolyte has become water (H2O)
Charging:
The lead sulphate in both the plates combine with water to form Lead peroxide in positive plates
and pure lead in negative plates.
Discharing condition Charging condition
Sulphation of batteries:
The lead sulphate formed during discharging gets converted back into lead peroxide and lead
during charging. If a discharged battery has been left over without charging for a longer period of time,
the lead sulphate formed becomes hard and cannot be easily recharged. The volume of lead sulphate is
more than that of lead peroxide and lead, thus leading physical damaging such as cracks, failures of the
battery plates. The negative plates become greyish white and positive plates become milky white in color.
The charging of sulphated batteries can be done in two ways:
i) Charging the battery at half the normal charging rate for about 60 -100 hours in an attempt to
break the Sulphation
ii) Charging the battery with water instead of acid electrolyte.

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The above methods are only an attempt to reclaim the battery. Many of the cases, sulphated batteries has
to be disposed.
Battery failure causes:
1. Low electrolyte level:
Due to low electrolyte level, active material gets exposed and the lead sulphate formed gets
hardened resulting in loss of chemical reaction. Loss of electrolyte may be due to cracked case, severe
overcharging.
2. Overcharging:
It may lead to excessive gassing and high internal heat resulting in loss of active materials
and excessive water usage. High heat results in oxidation of plates and warping damage of plates.
3. Undercharging:
A faulty charging system fails to charge the battery and cannot maintain it at full charge.
Heavy undercharging results in hard sulphate formation in the plates and cannot be removed by normal
charging. The undercharged battery may fail to crank the engine.
4. Corrosion:
Spilled electrolyte and condensation from gassing may corrode the terminals, connectors
and metal connectors which may increase electrical resistance resulting in reduction of voltage and lower
efficiency of charging.
Alkaline type batteries:
There are certain disadvantages with lead acid batteries. Alkaline type batteries overcome some of
these disadvantages. The following table lists the comparison between the two.
S.
Lead Acid type Alkaline type
No
1 Heavy for a given capacity Lighter in weight for a given capacity
High initial cost but low maintenance
2 Low initial cost but more maintenance cost
cost.
3 Battery life time is comparatively low 2.5 to 3 times life time than lead acid type
Mechanically strong and insensitive to
4 Sensitive to shock and vibration
shock and vibration
5 Self-discharge rate is comparatively high Self-discharging is very low
Cannot withstand overcharging, rapid Can withstand overcharging, rapid
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discharging discharging
Cannot be used at lower temperatures due
7 Can withstand low temperatures.
to freezing problem
Nickel Cadmium batteries:

Ni-Cd batteries were created in 1899 by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden. The present day batteries
have the electrodes and separators rolled into spiral shapes to reduce internal resistance. Each cell produces
around 1.2 V with an energy density almost double that of lead acid batteries.
The electrode structure is constructed of sintered Nickel metal in porous form. Positive electrode
is coated with Nickel hydroxide (NiOH2), negative electrode with Cadmium and alkaline Potassium

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hydroxide (KOH) is used as electrolyte. The cells are sealed and utilize a recombinant system to prevent
electrolyte loss and extend the useful life.
Fig. Nickel Cadmium battery construction
Charging process is strongly endothermic-the battery cools during charging. This makes it possible
to charge very quickly, as the I2R heating and endothermic chemical reaction counteract each other. The
sealed nickel-cadmium cell can be stored in the charged or discharged state without damage. It can be
restored for service by recharging several charge/discharge cycles. The chemical reactions taking place is
given by the following equtions.
Disadvantages of Ni-Cd batteries:

1. Memory effect of Ni-Cd batteries:
Ni–Cd batteries may suffer from a "memory effect" if they are discharged and recharged to the
same state of charge hundreds of times. The apparent symptom is that the battery "remembers" the point
in its charge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a sudden drop in voltage at
that point, as if the battery had been discharged. The capacity of the battery is not actually reduced
substantially.
2. Environmental pollution:

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Ni–Cd batteries contain between 6% (for industrial batteries) and 18% (for consumer batteries)
cadmium, which is a toxic heavy metal and therefore requires special care during battery disposal. The
sale of consumer Ni–Cd batteries has now been banned within the European Union except for medical
use; alarm systems; emergency lighting; and portable power tools. Cadmium, being a heavy metal, can
cause substantial pollution when discarded in a landfill or incinerated.
Nickel Metal Hydride batteries (Ni-MH):

Nickel-metal-hydride batteries are related to sealed nickel-cadmium batteries and only differ from
them in that instead of cadmium, hydrogen is used as the active element at a hydrogen-absorbing negative
electrode (anode). This electrode is made from a metal hydride usually alloys of Lanthanum and rare
earths that serve as a solid source of reduced hydrogen that can be oxidized to form protons. The electrolyte
is alkaline potassium hydroxide. Cell voltage is 1.2 Volts. The basic concept of the nickel-metal hydride
cell negative electrode emanated from research on the storage of hydrogen for use as an alternative energy
source. Certain metallic alloys were observed to form hydrides that could capture (and release) Hydrogen
in volumes up to nearly a thousand times their own volume. By careful selection of the alloy constituents
and proportions, the thermodynamics could be balanced to permit the absorption and release process to
proceed at room temperatures and pressures. The components of NiMH batteries include a cathode of
Nickel-hydroxide, an anode of Hydrogen absorbing alloys and a Potassium-hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte.
Like Ni-Cd batteries, Nickel-metal Hydride batteries are susceptible to a "memory effect" although to a
lesser extent. They are more expensive than Lead-acid and Ni-Cd batteries, but they are considered better
for the environment.
Fig. Ni-MH battery construction Fig. chemical reaction in Ni-MH battery
Aluminium air batteries:

Aluminium–air batteries or Al–air batteries produce electricity from the reaction of oxygen in the
air with aluminium. They have one of the highest energy densities of all batteries, but they are not widely
used because of problems with high anode cost and byproduct removal when using traditional electrolytes
and this has restricted their use to mainly military applications. However, an electric vehicle with
aluminium batteries has the potential for up to eight times the range of a lithium-ion battery with a
significantly lower total weight.
Aluminium–air batteries are primary cells; i.e., non-rechargeable. Once the aluminium anode is consumed
by its reaction with atmospheric oxygen at a cathode immersed in a water-based electrolyte to form

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hydrated aluminium oxide, the battery will no longer produce electricity. However, it is possible to
mechanically recharge the battery with new aluminium anodes made from recycling the hydrated
aluminium oxide. Such recycling would be essential if aluminium–air batteries are to be widely adopted.
The anode oxidation half-reaction is

Al + 3OH− → Al(OH)
3 + 3e− + 2.31 V.
The cathode reduction half-reaction is

O2 + 2H2O + 4e− → 4OH− +0.40 V.
The total reaction is

4Al + 3O2 + 6H2O → 4Al(OH)3 + 2.71 V.
About 1.2 volts potential difference is created by these reactions, and is achievable in practice when
potassium hydroxide is used as the electrolyte. Saltwater electrolyte achieves approximately 0.7 volts per
cell.
Sodium sulphur batteries:

A sodium–sulfur battery is a type of molten-salt battery constructed from liquid sodium
(Na) and sulfur (S). This type of battery has a high energy density, high efficiency of charge/discharge
(89–92%) and long cycle life, and is fabricated from inexpensive materials. However, because of the
operating temperatures of 300 to 350 °C and the highly corrosive nature of the sodium polysulfides, such
cells are primarily suitable for large-scale non-mobile applications such as grid energy storage.
Typical batteries have a solid electrolyte membrane between the anode and cathode, compared
with liquid-metal batteries where the anode, the cathode, and also the membrane are liquids. The cell is
usually made in a tall cylindrical configuration. The entire cell is enclosed by a steel casing that is
protected, usually by chromium and molybdenum, from being corroded on the inside. This outside
container serves as the positive electrode, while the liquid sodium serves as the negative electrode. The
container is sealed at the top with an airtight alumina lid. An essential part of the cell is the presence of a
BASE (beta-alumina solid electrolyte) membrane, which selectively conducts Na+. The cell becomes
more economical with increasing size. In commercial applications the cells are arranged in blocks for
better heat conservation and are encased in a vacuum-insulated box.

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During the discharge phase, molten elemental sodium at the core serves as the anode, meaning that the Na
donates electrons to the external circuit. The sodium is separated by a beta-alumina solid electrolyte
(BASE) cylinder from the container of molten sulfur, which is fabricated from an inert metal serving as
the cathode. The sulfur is absorbed in a carbon sponge. BASE is a good conductor of sodium ions, but a
poor conductor of electrons, and thus avoids self-discharge. When sodium gives off an electron, the Na+
ion migrates to the sulfur container. The electron drives an electric current through the molten sodium to
the contact, through the electrical load and back to the sulfur container. Here, another electron reacts with
sulfur to form Sn2−, sodium polysulfide. The discharge process can be represented as follows:
2 Na + 4 S → Na2S4
As the cell discharges, the sodium
level drops. During the charging
phase the reverse process takes
place. Once running, the heat
produced by charging and
discharging cycles is sufficient to
maintain operating temperatures
and usually no external source is
required
Overall eqn. of Sodium sulphur
battery:

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Characteristics of battery: (Battery performance)
Charging / discharging characteristics: Voltage curve
From the figure, it is found that, while charging the cell voltage rises continuously for a period of
6 hours then there is a rapid increase in cell voltage upto 10 hours at which the voltage reaches 2.7 volts.
Once the charging stops, the cell voltage immediately drops to 2.2 volts and settles at 2.05 volts.
Charging / discharging characteristics: Specific gravity curve
The figure shows that for a fully charged battery, specific gravity is 1.28. When the battery is discharged
for 10 hours the specific gravity decreases to 1.125

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Specific gravity testing of battery electrolyte:

This solution consists of 65% water and 35% sulfuric acid. The specific gravity or weight of this
solution increases as the battery charges and decreases as the battery discharges. As the battery discharges,
sulfur moves away from the solution and toward the plates. The opposite is true as the battery is charged,
the sulfur returns to the electrolyte solution.
A battery's specific gravity is a great way of measuring a battery's state of charge. This is because
during a discharge, the specific gravity decreases linear with ampere-hours discharged. The specific
gravity also increases as the battery is recharged. The specific gravity values for different states of charge
is given below:
State of Charge Specific Gravity Voltage

12V 6V
100% 1.265 12.7 6.3
75% 1.225 12.4 6.2
50% 1.190 12.2 6.1
25% 1.155 12.0 6.0
Discharged 1.120 11.9 6.0
A hydrometer is used for checking the specific gravity of the electrolyte. A basic battery hydrometer
consists of a glass tube or barrel, rubber bulb, rubber tube, and a glass float or hydrometer with a scale
built into its upper stem. The glass tube encases the float and forms a reservoir for the test electrolyte.
Squeezing the bulb pulls electrolyte into the reservoir. When filled with test electrolyte, the sealed
hydrometer float bobs in the electrolyte. The depth to which the glass float sinks in the test electrolyte
indicates its relative weight compared to water. The reading is taken off the scale by sighting along the
level of the electrolyte. If the hydrometer floats deep in the electrolyte, the specific gravity is low.

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Battery rating:
 It is a measure of energy stored in a battery.
 It is expressed in terms of time period during which it gives the rated current before it
reaches a specified final voltage.
There are mainly five types of battery ratings:
1. 20 – hour rating:
It represents the capacity of a battery in terms of the amount of current it can deliver in a
time period of 20 hours holding the cell voltage above 1.75 V starting with an electrolyte
temperature of 27 °C.
For example if the battery delivers a steady current of 5 A for 20 hours the rating is 20 X
5 = 100 ampere-hours (Ah)
2. 25 ampere rating:
It is a measure of battery performance at moderate constant-current output at 27°C
temperature to a final limiting voltage 1.75 V per cell. It represents the ability of a battery
to carry the electrical load without aid from a generator-alternator supply.
3. Cold rating:
It is the number of minutes a battery can deliver 300 ampere of current at a starting
temperature of -18°C, before the cell voltage falls to 1 V. It indicates the ability of a battery
during cold weather starting. A battery with 100 Ah rating in 20 hour rating may be in a
position to deliver 300 ampere for a period of 3.6 minutes starting at -18 °C below the
voltage drops to 1 V. It is also known as Cold cranking ampere (CCA) rating and is widely
used as the industry standard.
4. 4 – hour rating:
It is used for batteries used in heavy vehicles. It represents the ampere hour rating of a
battery discharged in 4 hours. For example, a battery supplying 25 A for 4 hours will have
100 Ah on the 4 hour rating.
5. Reserve capacity rating:
The reserve capacity rating is the time needed to lower battery terminal voltage
below 10.2 V (1.7 V per cell) at a discharge rate of 25 amps. This is with the battery
fully charged and at 80°F. Reserve capacity will appear on the battery as a time
interval in minutes. For example, if a battery is rated at 90 minutes and the charging
system fails, the operator has approximately 90 minutes (1 1/2 hours) of driving time
under minimum electrical load before the battery goes completely dead.
Note:
The battery rating value for each rating type gives a different meaning. For example a battery
having 100 A-h rating under 20 hour test is not the same as 100 A-h rating under 10 hour test. So, it is
necessary to mention the rating method along with the rating value to understand the exact capacity of the
battery.

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Battery tests:
There are many tests to check the performance of a battery.
1. State of charge test (specific gravity test):
Battery electrolyte consists of 65% water and 35% sulfuric acid. The specific gravity or
weight of this solution increases as the battery charges and decreases as the battery discharges. As
the battery discharges, sulfur moves away from the solution and toward the plates. The opposite is
true as the battery is charged, the sulfur returns to the electrolyte solution. A battery's specific
gravity is a great way of measuring a battery's state of charge. This is because during a discharge,
the specific gravity decreases linear with ampere-hours discharged. The specific gravity also
increases as the battery is recharged. The specific gravity values for different states of charge is
given below:
State of Charge Specific Gravity Voltage

12V 6V
100% 1.265 12.7 6.3
75% 1.225 12.4 6.2
50% 1.190 12.2 6.1
25% 1.155 12.0 6.0
Discharged 1.120 11.9 6.0
A hydrometer is used for checking the specific gravity of the electrolyte. A basic battery
hydrometer consists of a glass tube or barrel, rubber bulb, rubber tube, and a glass float or
hydrometer with a scale built into its upper stem. The glass tube encases the float and forms a
reservoir for the test electrolyte. Squeezing the bulb pulls electrolyte into the reservoir. When filled
with test electrolyte, the sealed hydrometer float bobs in the electrolyte. The depth to which the
glass float sinks in the test electrolyte indicates its relative weight compared to water. The reading
is taken off the scale by sighting along the level of the electrolyte. If the hydrometer floats deep in
the electrolyte, the specific gravity is low.

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2. High discharge test:

This test can also be used to find the state of charge of a
battery. It consists of an instrument which inserts a resistance across
the cell terminals and the cell voltage is obtained on a voltmeter.
The prods are placed on the cell terminals. Due to the high
resistance, the cell is subjected to high discharge resulting in a
current flow of more than 100 A. The battery voltage is checked at
this point. A 12 V battery should not give a value less than 10 V.
Moreover all the cells should give the same voltage value. If there
is any difference, it indicates a fault in the corresponding cell.
3. Cranking motor test:

The primary coil of ignition is earthed so that the engine does not start. The test should not
be conducted more than 30 seconds at a stretch. The electrolyte level in all the cells should be
same. The cranking motor is operated and the voltage at each cell is checked. The cell voltage
should not fall less than 1.5 V and also the voltage difference between two cells should not be
more than 0.2 V. If not, a battery trouble is suspected.
4. Open circuit voltage test:

The voltage of each cell is measured at zero load. A sensitive voltmeter is required. The
actual cell voltage for a cell in good condition is 2.15 V. A discharged cell gives a voltage of 2
V. Thus there is a voltage value difference of 0.15 V between fully charged and discharged cell
meaning a 0.01 V equals 0.01 specific gravity change.
5. Cadmium test:
This test represents the chemical condition of battery plates. A cadmium strip is immersed
in the electrolyte with a perforated ebonite tube enclosing the ebonite strip. The voltage difference
between the cadmium strip and either a positive plate or negative plate is found out using a
voltmeter. The cell voltage is equal to the algebraic difference of the cadmium to positive plate
value and cadmium to negative pate value. For a battery in good condition with full charge, the
cadmium to positive plate voltage value is 2.35 to 2.50 V and cadmium to negative plate value is
-0.1 to -0.14 V. Thus the algebraic difference is 2.45 V to 2.64 V. For a discharged battery,
cadmium to negative plate voltage should not be more than +0.2 V and the cadmium to positive
plate voltage should not be less than 2.0 V.
6. Life test:
The battery is charged and discharged at one hour rate and continuing it till the capacity of
the battery is reduced to 30 to 40 % of s initial rating. The total number of cycles before this
capacity s reached is considered as the status of the battery. Generally 100 cycles are considered
satisfactory. In some cases even 200 cycles have been reached.

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Battery efficiency:
It is generally expressed in terms of ampere hours or watt hours. The efficiency of battery is low
when it is discharged rapidly and high when it is discharged slowly. This is because at rapid discharge
chemical reaction takes place only at the surface level. Also, the efficiency is low at lower temperatures
and comparatively high at higher temperatures.
Battery efficiency = W1/W2 in terms of Watt hours
=A1/A2 in terms of ampere hours
W1 is watt hour output for full discharge
W2 is watt hour input for full charge
A1 is ampere hour output for full discharge
A2 is ampere hour input for full charge
Battery charging methods:
1. Constant current charging:
It involves the use of a rectifier. The rectifier is of gas filled type or a series of copper oxide
or other chemical disks. The rectifier has a rheostat to adjust the amount of charging current as per the
battery manufacturers recommended value. The charging rate should be calculated on the basis of battery
with lowest rating. Charging is done till all the cells ae gassing freely and the specific gravity of the
electrolyte remains the same for two hours. The picture shows the charging for a 4 cell battery. The same
principle involves for a 6 cell battery.
2. Constant voltage charging:

It is based on the principle that as the battery nears its charge the terminal voltage increases.
It essentially consists of motor-generator set with the generator supplying 7.5 V for 6 V batteries and 15
V for 12 V batteries. When the battery is in discharged condition, the rate of current flow is high. When
the battery nears its charge completion the rate of current flow decreases whereas voltage increases. The
battery temperature has to be maintained constant during this charging. Else, the voltage will not increase
rather the current will increase resulting in overcharging problems. The following picture shows constant
voltage charging for a 4 cell battery.

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The following graph shows the current and voltage characteristics for constant voltage charging method.
3. Booster or high rate charging:

They supply current in the order of 40 to 100 amperes, depending upon the size of the
battery. The charging process can be boosted up. The battery can be charged to full charge condition in
hour with this process. The precautions to be observed in this charging method are:
a) The battery must be in good condition
b) An overcharged battery which has been discharged over a long period of time should be avoided
c) A sulphated battery should be avoided
d) The electrolyte temperature should be below 50° C.
4. Trickle charging:
Trickle charging is designed to compensate for the self-discharge of the battery.
Continuous charge. Long term constant current charging for standby use. The charge rate varies
according to the frequency of discharge. Not suitable for some battery chemistries, e.g. NiMH and
Lithium, which are susceptible to damage from overcharging. In some applications the charger is
designed to switch to trickle charging when the battery is fully charged.
5. Float charging:
The battery and the load are permanently connected in parallel across the DC charging
source and held at a constant voltage below the battery's upper voltage limit. Used for emergency power
back up systems. Mainly used with lead acid batteries.
Charging of sulphated batteries:
To charge a sulphated battery, the battery should be charged at half the normal charging rate for
about 60 to 100 hours and check whether the Sulphation has broken down. In some cases, the electrolyte
can be removed and replaced with distilled water and then charging is done.
Battery maintenance:
Self-study

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Starter motor:
Requirements:
1. Deliver high Horse power for short durations
2. Should have very small internal resistance
3. Easily rotate the crankshaft with its smaller size
4. Easily engage and disengage with the crankshaft through a mechanism
Construction:
Components:
1. Yoke:
Function
It provide mechanical Support for poles
It also provide protection to whole
machine from dust, moisture etc.
It also carries magnetic flux produced
by the poles
Yoke is also called as frame.
Material used
For small M/C yoke is made of cast iron.
For large M/C it is made of cast steel or rolled steel.

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2. Pole and Pole core:

Function
Pole of a generator is an electromagnet.
The field winding is winding over pale.
Pole provides magnetic flux when field
winding is excited.
Material used
Pole core or pole made of cast iron or cast
steel.
It built of these laminations of annealed steel.
The laminations is done to reduce the power lose due to eddy currents.
3. Pole shoe:
Function
It is extended part of pole. It enlarge area of pole
Due to this enlarged area, flux is spread out in the air gap and more flux can pass through
the air gap to armature.
Material used
It is made of cast iron or cast steed.
It built of this lamination of annealed steel. the lamination is done to reduce power loss
due to eddy currents
4. Field windings:
Function
It is wound around pole core and called as field coil
it is connected in series to from field winding
When Current is passed through field winding it electro
magnetize the poles which produce necessary flux.
Material used
The material used for field conductor is copper.
5. Armature core:
Function
It has large number of slots in its periphery
Armature conductor, are placed in this slots
It is also provide path of low reluctance to the
flux produced by field winding
Material used
High permeability low reluctance materials
such as cast or iron are used for armature core.
The lamination is provided so as to reduce the
loss due to eddy current.

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6. Armature winding:
Function
Armature conductor are inter connected to form armature Winding
When armature winding is rotated using prime mover. The magnetic flux and voltage
gets induced in it
Armature winding is connected to external circuit
Material used
It is made of conducting material such as coppers
7. Commutator:
Function
It Convert alternating current induce in the current in a unidirectional current
It collects the current form armature conductor and pass it load with the help of brushes
It also provide unidirectional torque for dc motor
Material used
It is made of a large number of edge shaped
segments of hard drawn copper.
The Segments are insulated from each other by thin
layer of mica or the Segment of commutator is made
of copper and insulating material between segments
is mica.
8. Brushes:
Function
Brushes collect the current from commutator and apply it to external load.
Brushes wear with time and it is should be inspected regularly.
Material used
Brushes are made of carbon or graphite it is rectangular in shape
Simple connection diagram:

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Loop connection with commutator and battery
Characteristic curves: Performance curves for diesel and petrol

engine starting systems
Types of starter motors:

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Four pole compound motor: Cranking motor with divided field current coils
Starter motor drive mechanisms:

Need for cranking motor drive mechanism:
1. Size:
Keeping the size of the motor small, it is not possible to drive the larger engine mass if it
is coupled directly. So a gear reduction is necessary which is implemented by means of a pinion in
armature shaft of motor with the flywheel ring gear.
2. Disengaging the motor after engine starts running:
The speed of cranking motor is 3000 rpm which makes the engine to run at 200 rpm. Once
the engine starts running it attains 4000 rpm which may run the cranking motor at around 60000 rpm. At
this speed, damages the motor instantly by throwing the windings off the armature slot and commutator
due to centrifugal force.
So, a mechanism is needed to disengage the cranking motor after the engine has started
running. The various mechanisms are explained:
1. Bendix drive mechanism:
It is one of the most widely used starter motor drive mechanism. It works on the principle
of inertia. The pinion gear is mounted on a hollow sleeve which has external square threads. The pinion
has screw threads on its inner face matching with that of Bendix and both are on a loose fit. The armature
shaft protrudes through the hollow sleeve into the bearing at the outer end of the cranking motor housing.
The hollow sleeve is bolted to one end of the drive spring. The other end of the drive spring is bolted to
the drive head unit which is keyed to the armature shaft.
When the cranking motor is turned ON, the drive head starts rotating with the armature shaft. The
drive spring connected to the drive head starts rotating which transmits this rotation to the sleeve. As the
sleeve and the pinion are in threaded connection, the rotation of the sleeve is connected into endwise
motion of the pinion gear. The pinion thus meshes with the flywheel ring gear. The teeth edges of flywheel
ring gear and pinion gear are chamfered for easy and smooth engagement.

21
Once the engine starts rotating, the engine speed is more than pinion speed. Thus pinion rotates
faster than sleeve, thereby the pinion move end wise in opposite direction and pinion is demeshed with
the flywheel. Thus the Bendix drive automatically meshes and demeshes the pinion from flywheel ring
gear. An anti-drift compression spring is provided to prevent pinion gear from striking the flywheel ring
gear accidentally. For heavy duty engines, cranking motor with gear reduction construction is provided.
2. Folo thru drive mechanism:

It is an improvement of Bendix drive mechanism to
overcome the premature disengagement of pinion gear with flywheel
ring gear. It has a sleeve attached to the armature shaft through a spiral
spring. The pinion has internal threads and the sleeve has matching
external threads. An ant drift pin is provided to prevent pinion from
striking the flywheel ring gear. A lock pin is provided to which drops
into the detent in the sleeve thread as the pinion meshes with the ring
gear. The lock pin makes the pinion mesh with flywheel ring gear till
the engine starts running. Once the engine starts running, the engine
speed increases at this high speeds, the lock pin moves out of the
detent due to centrifugal force and thus pinion demeshes from the
flywheel ring gear.
3. Over running clutch drive:
Now a days over running clutches are preferred against Bendix type drives. It consists of a
shift lever to slide the pinion along the armature shaft for meshing or demeshing the pinion gear with the
flywheel ring gear. The shift lever is either operated manually or by a solenoid linkage. Now a days
solenoid linkages are preferred.
The torque is transferred from the armature shaft to the flywheel via the pinion gear. Once the
engine starts running the pinion gear overruns the armature shaft. It consists of a shell and sleeve assembly
splined internally to match with the external splines of the armature shaft. The pinion collar contacts the
hardened steel rollers. They are assembled into notches cut from the shell. These notches taper slightly
away from the rollers. The plungers rest against the rollers which are spring loaded. When the shift lever
is operated, the clutch assembly moves endwise along the armature shaft and pinion engages with the
flywheel ring gear. When the cranking motor switch closes after the full shift lever travel, the armature
shaft rotates thus causing the shell and sleeve assembly thereby causing the rollers to rotate in between
22
shell and pinion collar. Then the rollers move away from the plungers towards the smaller portion of the
notches and jam tightly between the shell and pinion collar. When the engine starts operating, the pinion
rotates faster than the armature shaft, making the rollers move back to the larger space and allowing them
to slip freely. The pinion and collar now overrun the shell and sleeve assembly and armature shaft. When
the pressure on the shift lever is relieved, the spring slides the clutch assembly back along the armature
shaft thus disengaging the pinion and also opening the cranking motor switch.
Fig. : Sectional view of over running clutch
Disengaged position Engaged position
Manually operated shift lever Usage of sprag instead of rollers

23
4. Dyer drive:
It uses the principle of both Bendix and over running clutch type. It is fitted on heavy duty
engines. The pinion meshes with the flywheel ring gear before the motor starts running.
A shift lever operated by a solenoid is present. The shift lever moves the shift sleeve, pinion guide
and pinion endwise along the armature shaft. The spiral splines cause the rotation of the pinion guide and
pinion on the armature shaft. The meshing takes place immediately provided the teeth of pinion and
flywheel align. It there is teeth butt, the pinion guide is continually moved by the shift sleeve along the
armature shaft. As pinion guide fits snugly on the shaft splines and the pinion fits loosely, the rotation of
the pinion takes place without any further movement on its part until the alignment of teeth takes place
and complete meshing occurs. The cranking motor switch is closed when the shift lever travel is complete
thus supplying current from the battery and the cranking process takes place. The shift sleeve is spun back
out if the way, the moment the armature starts rotating. When the engine starts rotating the pinion faster
than the armature disengagement of pinion and flywheel ring gear occurs. The pinion is held in the locked
position by the milled section in the armature splines.
Dyer drive
5. Compression spring Bendix drive:
It operates very similar to other types of drive. When the pinion is engaged, the screw
sleeve is forced back against the drive spring by the drive pinion through the thrust washer. The drive
spring gets compressed between the thrust washer and the nut taking up the shock of the engagement.

24
Starter switches and solenoids:

The starting circuit of an automobile is shown below:
The starting system employs a magnetic switch (practically a relay) for its operation. A magnetic
switch in the starting system allows the control circuit to open and close the starter circuit. The switch can
be either of the following:
1. A relay, which uses the electromagnetic field of a coil to attract an armature and close the contact
points
2. A solenoid, which uses the electromagnetic field of a coil to pull a plunger into the coil and close
the contact points
In addition to closing the contact points, solenoid equipped circuits often use the movement of the
solenoid to engage the starter motor with the engine flywheel.
Solenoid switches:
The current supply to the starting motor is always a
significant amount (hundreds of amps) and this must be
controlled via a special switching arrangement commonly
known as a starter solenoid. The main purpose of the solenoid is
to switch the large current to the starter motor by using a smaller
‘control’ current and this means the starter motor cabling can be
kept as short as possible between the starter motor and the
battery. This helps to reduce unnecessary electrical resistance in
the supply circuit and ensures that maximum power can be
delivered to the starter with minimal losses due to resistance and
cable heating. A simple solenoid arrangement is shown in the
figure is a single coil/single stage solenoid typical of the type

25
used with inertia-type starter motors. In this application the only function is to switch the electrical supply
to the motor. Effectively the solenoid is a heavy duty relay controlled via a signal wire from the ignition
switch.
For pre-engaged type starters the solenoid is built into the starter motor and performs two
functions:
1. It moves the drive pinion/clutch assembly outwards to engage with the engine flywheel ring gear
2. It switches the current flowing into the motor armature.
A typical design of a pre-engaged solenoid is shown in the figure. The solenoid core protrudes into the
solenoid coil from one side, while the plunger protrudes from the other side. The distance between the
core and the plunger represents the total travel of the plunger. The solenoid windings, core and plunger
form the magnetic circuit. When the solenoid is energized, the magnetic field draws the plunger into the
coil. This movement is utilized to first move the pinion into engagement (via a lever) and then to close the
solenoid contacts (switch). Two windings are generally employed and these are known as ‘pull-in’ and
‘holding’ windings. The pull-in winding has its earth return path via the motor armature whereas the
holding winding has a direct earth connection via the body. When the solenoid is initially energized current
flows through both windings and this generates the strong magnetic field needed to overcome the forces
required to engage the pinion fully, and to provide sufficient field strength to overcome the large air gap
between the plunger and the coil. As the plunger travels into the magnetic field the air gap reduces and
thus the field strength increases. Once the plunger reaches its final position, closing the solenoid contacts,
the field strength required to maintain this position is much less. Therefore, due to the fact that the earth
path for the pull-in winding is via the motor armature, once the solenoid contacts close, the pull-in winding
is effectively short-circuited (thus switched off). The field strength of the holding winding alone is
sufficient to hold the plunger in position until starter operation is complete. This arrangement reduces
thermal stresses in the solenoid yet allows sufficient magnetic forces to be generated for the required
functionality. It also reduces the overall drain on the battery as the pull-in winding is low resistance and
can draw up to 50 A in some cases.

26
The overall circuit is shown below (for reference):

27
UNIT II CHARGING SYSTEM LIGHTING AND ACCESSORIES 9

DC Generators and Alternators their characteristics. Control unit – cut out, electronic regulators. Vehicle
interior lighting system. Vehicle exterior lighting system. Wiring requirements. Lighting design.
Dashboard instruments. Horn, trafficator
Charging systems:
For many years, automotive charging systems used only direct current (DC) generators to provide
electrical energy. Internally, generators produce an alternating current voltage, which is mechanically
rectified by the commutator into direct current voltage. Systems using DC generators are called DC
charging systems. Vehicles with DC generators are very rare today. AC generators or alternators also
produce alternating current (AC), but there was no simple way to rectify the current until semiconductor
technology finally provided the answer in the form of diodes, or one-way electrical valves. Since the mid-
1960s, virtually all new automobiles have diode-rectified AC generators (alternators) in their charging
systems
Generators and alternators:
1. In an alternator, electricity is produced when a magnetic field spins inside the stator (windings of
wire). On the other hand, the armature or the windings of wire in a generator spin inside a fixed
magnetic field to generate electricity.
2. Alternators conserve energy by using only the energy that is needed. Generators use all the energy
that is produced.
3. Alternators produce voltage when needed and generators produce voltage at all times.
4. Alternators generate a higher output than generators
So an alternator is widely used in automobiles.
Charging system components:
Overall layout of charging system

28
Basic layout of an automotive charging system

Advantages of alternators over dc generators:
1. Alternators can run at speeds 30% higher than dc generators.
2. For a given output, alternator construction is smaller and lighter
3. Alternators uses light slip ring bushes whereas dc generators uses heavy brush and commutator.
Hence maintenance is less for alternators.
4. The alternator output is high even at low engine speed. The battery can be charged even at
engine idling.
5. As alternators have rectifiers, cut out relay is not necessary.
6. Simple and robust design.
The charging system circuit thus consists of:
1. Battery
2. Alternator / Generator
3. Voltage regulator
4. Associated wiring
5. Electrical load
Construction of alternator:
The main components are:
1. Rotor:
The rotor carries the magnetic field. Unlike a DC generator, which usually has only two
magnetic poles, the AC generator rotor has several north (N) and south (S) poles. This increases the
number of flux lines within the AC generator and increases the voltage output. The rotor consists of two
steel rotor halves, or pole pieces, with fingers that interlace. These fingers are the poles. Each pole piece
has either all N or all S poles. The magnetic flux lines travel between adjacent N and S poles. Along the
outside of the rotor, note that the flux lines point first in one direction and then in the other. This means
as the rotor spins inside the AC generator, the fixed conductors are being cut by flux lines, which point in
alternating directions. The induced voltage alternates, just as in the example of a simple AC generator
with only two poles. Automotive AC generators may have any number of poles, as long as they are placed
N-S-N-S. Common designs use eight to fourteen poles. Current produces the magnetic field of the rotor
through the rotor winding, which is a coil of wire between the two pole pieces. This is also called the

29
excitation winding, or the field winding. Varying the amount of field current through the rotor winding
varies the strength of the magnetic field, which affects the voltage output of the AC generator. A soft iron
core is mounted inside the rotor-winding. One pole piece is attached to either end of the core; when field
current travels through the winding, the iron core is magnetized, and the pole pieces take on the magnetic
polarity of the end of the core to which they are attached. Current is supplied to the winding through slip
rings and brushes. The rotor pole pieces, winding, core, and slip rings are pressed onto a shaft. The ends
of this shaft are supported by bearings in the AC generator housing. Outside the housing, a drive pulley is
attached to the shaft. A belt, driven by the engine crankshaft-pulley, passes around the drive pulley to turn
the AC generator shaft and rotor assembly.
Rotor assembly
2. Stator:
The three AC generator windings are wound onto a
cylindrical, laminated core. The three groups of windings or coils produce
three separate ac currents. This is known as three-phase output. One end of
the windings is connected to the stator assembly and the other is
connected to a rectifier assembly. The lamination prevents unwanted
eddy currents from forming in the core. The assembled piece is called a
stator. Each conductor, called a stator winding, is formed into a number of
coils spaced evenly around the core. There are as many coil conductors as
there are pairs of N-S rotor poles. There are two ways to connect the three-
stator windings.
a) Y type design:
In a Y-type stator, two windings always form a series circuit between a positive and a
negative diode. At any given instant, the position of the rotor determines the direction of current through
these two windings. Current flows from the negative voltage to the positive voltage. A complete circuit
from ground, through a negative diode, through two of the windings, and through a positive diode to the
AC generator output terminal, exists throughout the 360-degree rotation of the rotor. The induced voltages

30
across the two windings added together produce the total voltage at the output terminal. The majority of
AC generators in use today have Y-type stators because of the need for high voltage output at low speeds.
b) Delta type design:

The delta-type stator or delta-connected stator has the three windings connected end-to-
end. The circuit diagram of a delta-type stator (Figure 8-26) looks like the Greek letter delta a triangle.
There is no neutral junction in a delta-type stator. The windings always form two parallel circuit paths
between one negative and two positive diodes. Current travels through two different circuit paths between
the diodes. The current-carrying capacity of the stator is double because there are two parallel circuit
paths. Delta type stators are used when a high current output is needed.
3. Housing:
The AC generator housing, or frame, is made of two pieces of cast aluminum. Aluminum
is lightweight and non-magnetic and conducts heat well. One housing piece holds a bearing for the end of
the rotor shaft where the drive pulley is mounted. This is often called the drive-end housing, or front
housing, of the AC generator. The other end holds the diodes, the brushes, and the electrical terminal
connections. It also holds a bearing for the slip ring end of the rotor shaft. This is often called the slip ring-
end housing, or rear housing. Together, the two pieces completely enclose the rotor and the stator
windings. The stator is rigidly bolted in place inside the AC generator housing. The housing is part of the
electrical ground path because it is bolted directly to the engine.
4. Slip rings and brushes:
The slip rings and brushes conduct current to the rotor winding. Most automotive AC
generators have two slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft. The slip rings are insulated from the shaft and
from each other. One end of the rotor winding is connected to each slip ring. One brush rides on each ring
to carry current to and from the winding. A brush holder supports each brush and a spring applies force to
keep the brush in constant contact with the rotating slip ring. The brushes are connected parallel with the

31
AC generator output circuit. They draw some of the AC generator current output and route it through the
rotor winding. Current through the winding must be DC. Field current in an AC generator is usually about
1.5 to 3.0 amperes. Because the brushes carry so little current, they do not require as much maintenance
as DC generator brushes, which must conduct all of the current output.
5. Diodes (rectifiers):
Automotive AC generators that have three stator windings generally use six diodes to
rectify the current output. Each conductor is connected to one positive and one negative diode. The three
positive diodes are always insulated from the AC generator housing. They are connected to the insulated
terminal of the battery and to the rest of the automotive electrical system. The battery cannot discharge
through this connection because the bias of the diodes blocks any current from the battery. The positive
diodes only conduct current traveling from the conductors toward the battery. The positive diodes are
mounted together on a conductor called a heat sink. The heat sink carries heat away from the diodes, the
negative diodes conduct only the current traveling from ground into the conductors. Each group of three
or more negative or positive diodes can be called a diode bridge, a diode trio, or a diode plate.
6. Field circuit:
Field current through the rotor windings creates the magnetic field of the rotor. Field
current is drawn from the AC generator output circuit once the AC generator has begun to produce current.
But while starting, battery voltage provides the excitation current for the rotor magnetic field and begins
output. Once the AC generator has started to produce current, field current is drawn from the AC generator
output. There are two types of field circuit designs:
a) A type circuit design:
The A-circuit AC generator is also called an externally grounded field AC generator. Both brushes
are insulated from the AC generator housing. One brush connects to the voltage regulator, where it is
grounded. The second brush connects to the output circuit within the AC generator, where it draws current
for the rotor winding. The regulator connects between the rotor field winding and ground. This type of
circuit is often used with solid-state regulators, which are small enough to be mounted on the AC generator
housing.
b) B type circuit design:
The B-circuit AC generator is also called an internally grounded field AC generator. One brush is
grounded within the AC generator housing. The other brush is insulated from the housing and connected

32
through the insulated voltage regulator to the AC generator output circuit. The rotor field winding is
between the regulator and ground. This type of circuit is most often used with electromagnetic voltage
regulators, which are mounted away from the AC generator housing.
A circuit design B circuit design

Working of alternator- 3 phase:
The AC generator stator has three windings. Each is formed into a number of coils, which are
spaced evenly around the stator core. The voltages induced across each winding by one rotor revolution
are shown in the graphs of the figure shown. The total voltage output of the AC generator is three
overlapping, evenly spaced, single-phase voltage waves, as shown in the bottom graph of the illustration.
If the stator windings are connected into a complete circuit, the three-phase voltages cause an AC output
called three-phase current.
Working of alternator – Single phase:

A single phase alternator has a stator made up of a number of windings in series, forming
a single circuit in which an output voltage is generated. The figure illustrates a schematic diagram of a
single phase alternator having four poles. The stator has four polar groups evenly spaced around the stator

33
frame. The rotor has four poles, with adjacent poles of opposite polarity. As the rotor revolves, ac voltages
are induced in the stator windings. Since one rotor pole is in the same position relative to a stator winding
as any other rotor pole, all stator polar groups are cut by equal numbers of magnetic lines of force at any
time.
As a result, the voltages induced in all the windings have the same amplitude, or value, at any
given instant. The four stator windings are connected to each other so that the ac voltages are in phase, or
"series adding." Assume that rotor pole 1, a south pole, induces a voltage in the direction indicated by the
arrow in stator winding 1. Since rotor pole 2 is a north pole, it will induce a voltage in the opposite direction
in stator coil 2 with respect to that in coil 1. For the two induced voltages to be in series addition, the two
coils are connected as shown in the diagram. Applying the same reasoning, the voltage induced in stator
coil 3 (clockwise rotation of the field) is the same direction (counterclockwise) as the voltage induced in
coil 1. Similarly, the direction of the voltage induced in winding 4 is opposite to the direction of the voltage
induced in coil 1. All four stator coil groups are connected in series so that the voltages induced in each
winding add to give a total voltage that is four times the voltage in any one winding.
Note:
The three phase alternator has three single phase windings spaced so that the voltage induced in
each winding is 120° out of phase with the voltages in the other two winding.
Cut out relay:
The generator is connected to the battery through a cut out relay. It opens and closes the
circuit from the generator to the battery as the generator stops or runs. When the generator is operating,
the circuit is closed thereby charging the battery, when the generator is not operating (engine not running)
the circuit is open thus avoiding discharging of the battery through the generator. The cut out is an
electromagnetic switch. It has a spring loaded armature made of steel carrying the contact points. The
armature is hinged and kept away from the windings by the spring when the generator is not operating. It
consists of two windings, shunt winding and a series winding.
On ignition, the engine starts running, generator starts operating and a voltage is applied across
the two windings. Due to the applied voltage, a current flow occurs in the windings developing a magnetic
field. When the voltage reaches a sufficient level from the generator, the magnetic field produced is strong
enough to pull the armature against the spring force allowing the two contact points to meet. Thus the
circuit is now closed and battery starts charging. When the generator is not operating (engine not running),
a current flows from the battery to the generator to the series winding. This current is in a direction
opposite to the current flow when the generator had been working. Now the current flow in the series
34
winding and shunt winding are in opposite direction. Thus the magnetic field of these two windings oppose
each other thereby the strength of the total magnetic field is reduced. The spring force in the armature is
more than the force due to the magnetic field, thereby opening the circuit between the generator and
battery. Thus the cut out relay provides protection to the battery and the generator.
Electronic regulator:
The output of the generator / alternator depends upon the speed of the engine. If the engine
speed increases the alternator output also increases correspondingly. Hence there is a chance that at high
engine speeds, the generator output is very high that it may damage the circuit components. Hence, it is
necessary to control the alternator output by some means.
There are two basic methods to control generator output by mechanical means in yester years:
1. Constant Current system / Third brush regulation
2. Constant voltage system
Now-a-days, electronic regulators have come in vogue.
Advantages of electronic regulators:
The problem with mechanical regulators is
the wear on the contacts and other moving parts. This
has been overcome with the use of electronic
regulators which, due to more accurate tolerances
and much faster switching, are far superior,
producing a more stable output. Due to the
compactness and vibration resistance of electronic
regulators they are now fitted almost universally on
the alternator, reducing the number of connecting
cables required. Thus the advantages are:
1. No mechanical wear
2. Faster switching
3. Stable output
4. Compact in size
5. Can withstand vibrations

35
6. Usage of connecting cables are reduced.

The key to electronic voltage regulation is the Zener diode. This diode can be constructed to
break down and conduct in the reverse direction at a precise level. This is used as the sensing element in
an electronic regulator. The figure shows a simplified electronic voltage regulator.
When the alternator first increases in speed the output will be below the pre-set level. Under
these circumstances transistor T2 will be switched on by a feed to its base via resistor R3. This allows full
field current to flow, thus increasing voltage output. When the pre-set voltage is reached, the Zener diode
will conduct. Resistors R1 and R2 are a simple series circuit to set the voltage appropriate to the value of
the diode when the supply is, say, 14.2V. Once ZD conducts, transistor T1 will switch on and pull the base
of T2 down to ground. This switches T2 off and so the field current is interrupted, causing output voltage
to fall. This will cause ZD to stop conducting, T1 will switch off, allowing T2 to switch back on and so the
cycle will continue. The conventional diode, D1, absorbs the back EMF from the field windings and so
prevents damage to the other components.
Vehicle interior lighting system:

Interior lighting
consists of several
systems, the main ones
being courtesy lights,
map lights and panel
illumination lights.
Features such as delay
and fade-out are now
common. This requires
some electronic control.
Map lights are an extra
feature to assist with
reading a map in the
dark. Many types are
available: some are
small spotlights, which
form part of the interior
light assembly, while
others are positioned on
the centre console of the
vehicle. Lights are
designed to illuminate the vehicle interior when the doors are opened. Most cars have one central interior
light above the rear-view mirror, or two lights, on the sides above the driver’s and passenger’s shoulders.
Door switches are simple spring-loaded contacts that are made as the door opens.
The contacts are broken again as the door closes. Rubber seals are sometimes used to keep water
out. The same switches may also be used for the alarm system. Interior lights are important for passenger

36
comfort. Most now operate via some type of electronic control. One enhancement is a switching-off delay,
after the doors are closed. Some manufacturers are linking functions such as interior lights with other
systems, by a central control module.
Vehicle exterior lighting system:
Regulations exist relating to external lights,
the following is a simplified interpretation and
amalgamation of current regulations, the range of
permissible luminous intensity is given in brackets
after each sub heading.
Sidelights (up to 60 cd):
A vehicle must have two sidelights each
with wattage of less than 7W. Most vehicles have
the sidelights incorporated as part of the headlight
assembly.
Rearlights (upto 60 cd)
Again, two must be fitted each with wattage
not less than 5W. Lights used in Europe must be ‘E’
marked and show a diffused light. Their position
must be within 400 mm from the vehicle edge and
over 500 mm apart, and between 350 and 1500mm
above the ground.
Brake lights (40–100 cd):
There two lights are often combined with the
rear lights. They must be between 15 and 36 W
each, with diffused light and must operate when any
form of first line brake is applied. Brake lights must be between 350 and 1500 mm above the ground and
at least 500 mm apart in a symmetrical position. High level brake lights are now allowed and, if fitted,
must operate with the primary brake lights
Reversing lights (300–600 cd):
No more than two lights may be fitted with a maximum wattage each of 24W. The light must not
dazzle and either be switched automatically from the gearbox or with a switch incorporating a warning
light. Safety reversing ‘beepers’ are now often fitted in conjunction with this circuit, particularly on larger
vehicles.
Day running lights (800 cd max):
Volvo use day running lights as these are in fact required in Sweden and Finland. These lights
come on with the ignition and must only work in conjunction with the rear lights. Their function is to
indicate that the vehicle is moving or about to move. They switch off when parking or headlights are
selected.
37
Rear fog lights (150–300 cd):

One or two may be fitted but, if only one, then it must be on the offside or centre line of the vehicle.
They must be between 250 and 1000 mm above the ground and over 100 mm from any brake light. The
wattage is normally 21 W and they must only operate when either the sidelights, headlights or front fog
lights are in use.
Front spot and fog lights:
If front spot lights are fitted (auxiliary driving lights), they must be between 500 and 1200 mm
above the ground and more than 400 mm from the side of the vehicle. If the lights are non-dipping, then
they must only operate when the headlights are on main beam. Front fog lamps are fitted below 500mm
from the ground and may only be used in fog or falling snow. Spot lamps are designed to produce a long
beam of light to illuminate the road in the distance. Fog lights are designed to produce a sharp cut off line
such as to illuminate the road just in front of the vehicle but without reflecting back or causing glare.
Wiring requirements:
The wiring cables used in automobiles are of stranded type rather than single wire type. The
stranded type are more flexible than solid type but difficult to solder. The size of the wiring cable is
designated by the number of strands and diameter of each wire. For a cable having 36 strands of wire each
of 0.75 mm diameter, it is denoted as 36/0.750.
The wiring employed in automobiles are classified depending upon the application and are of three
types:
1. Starting system cable:
The cranking motor requires heavy current for its operation. These type of cables conduct very
high currents. The cables are insulated with vulcanized rubber or PVC. The cables are braided and
compounded.
2. General purpose cables:
There are around twelve sizes of cables used for general purpose applications. Usually the
maximum voltage drop permitted for a particular length of a cable under its full loading current capacity
is 10 %. The insulation used should not be affected by water, oil or fuel. Usually Neoprene rubber is used
for this purpose. SAE recommends thermoplastic insulated braided cables for low tension currents as they
are resistant to engine bonnet temperature and easily manufacturable.
3. High Tension (HT) cable:
These cables connect ignition coil to the distributor and from the distributor to the spark plugs. They are
subjected to voltage levels more than 20000 volts. The overall diameter is around 7 mm to 12 mm. The
cable size is around 35/0.350 to 44/0.350. Initially natural rubber was employed for insulating these wires.
Now-a-days neoprene rubber is used as it has more resistance to engine temperature, ageing, oil, etc.
Cable colors:
To identify and to simplify the wiring system cables are colored.

38
1. Brown cable:
They are used for battery circuit. It is used from cranking motor switch ammeter, radio receiver,
to electric clock and to the battery auxiliary fuse.
2. Yellow cables:
They are used for generator circuit. IT is used from generator terminal to the control box terminal
and to the ignition warning light.
3. Green cable:
They are used for the auxiliary circuits which are fed through the ignition switch but protected by
the fuses. Examples are brake stop lamps, fuel gauge, windscreen wiper, direction indicators.
4. Blue cable:
They are used for headlamp circuits.
5. Red cable:
They are used for side and tail lamp circuits. They are also used for fog lamps, panel lights and
other lamps used during side lamp operation.
Wiring harness:
A cable harness, also known as a wire harness, cable assembly, wiring assembly or wiring loom,
is an assembly of cables or wires which transmit signals or electrical power. The cables are bound together
by straps, cable ties, cable lacing, sleeves, electrical tape, conduit, a weave of extruded string, or a
combination thereof. By binding the many wires and cables into a cable harness, the wires and cables can
be better secured against the adverse effects of vibrations, abrasions, and moisture. By constricting the
wires into a non-flexing bundle, usage of space is optimized, and the risk of a short is decreased. Since
the installer has only one harness to install (as opposed to multiple wires), installation time is decreased
and the process can be easily standardized.
Lighting design:
Usually the lights in vehicles consists of three main elements:
1. Light element – produces illuminating light when current passes through it
2. Parabolic reflector – reflects the light in the front
3. Lens – Refracts and distorts the light beam into an illuminating pattern to focus the light beam into
a particular area.
Light element:
In the conventional bulb the tungsten filament is heated to incandescence by an electric current.
Gas-filled bulbs are more usual, where the glass bulb is filled with an inert gas such as argon under
pressure. This allows the filament to work at a higher temperature without failing and therefore produce a
whiter light. These bulbs will produce about 17 lm/W compared with a vacuum bulb, which will produce

39
about 11 lm/W. All the vehicles now-a-days use tungsten halogen bulbs for their headlights as these are
able to produce about 24 lm/W. The gas in halogen bulbs is mostly iodine. The glass envelope used for
the tungsten halogen bulb is made from fused silicon or quartz. The tungsten filament still evaporates but,
on its way to the bulb wall, the tungsten atom combines with two or more halogen atoms forming a
tungsten halide. This will not be deposited on to the bulb because of its temperature. The convection
currents will cause the halide to move back towards the filament at some point and it then splits up,
returning the tungsten to the filament and releasing the halogen. Because of this the bulb will not become
blackened, the light output will therefore remain constant throughout its life.
Parabolic reflector:
A parabola is a curve similar in shape to the curved path of a stone thrown forward in the air. A
parabolic reflector has the property of reflecting rays parallel to the principal axis when a light source is
placed at its focal point, no matter where the rays fall on the reflector. It therefore produces a bright parallel
reflected beam of constant light intensity. With a parabolic reflector, most of the light rays from the light-
bulb are reflected and only a small amount of direct rays disperses as stray light. The intensity of reflected
light is strongest near the beam axis, except for light cut-off by the bulb itself. The intensity drops off
towards the outer edges of the beam. In a common type of reflector and bulb arrangement the dip filament
is shielded. This gives a nice sharp cut-off line when on dip beam and is used mostly with asymmetric
headlights.
Lenses:
A good headlight should have a powerful far-reaching central
beam, around which the light is distributed both horizontally and vertically
in order to illuminate as great an area of the road surface as possible. The
beam formation can be considerably improved by passing the reflected
light rays through a transparent block of lenses. It is the function of the
lenses partially to redistribute the reflected light beam and any stray light
rays, so that a better overall road illumination is achieved with the
minimum of glare. Lenses work on the principle of refraction – that is, the
change in the direction of light rays when passing into or out of a
transparent medium, such as glass (plastic on some very recent headlights).
The headlight front cover and glass lens, is divided up into a large number
of small rectangular zones, each zone being formed optically in the shape
of a concave flute or a combination of flute and prisms. The shape of these
sections is such that, when the roughly parallel beam passes through the glass, each individual lens element

40
will redirect the light rays to obtain an improved overall light projection or beam pattern. Many headlights
are now made with clear lenses, which means that all the light directionality is performed by the reflector.
Dashboard instruments:
1. Fuel gauge:
There are two units in the arrangement,
the dash unit and the tank unit connected by
a wire to the battery. The tank unit consists
of a float mounted at one end of a hinged
arm and a sliding contact at the other end of
the hinged arm. The sliding contact moves
along a variable resistance. Whenever fuel
level changes, the float moves up or down
thereby moving the sliding contact to the left
or right. When fuel is low, the sliding
contact moves to the left and vice versa.
There are two coils in the dash unit, left side coil driven by current flow from battery and right side
coil driven by current flow from tank unit. When fuel is low, sliding contact is in the left position,
more resistance is inserted in the circuit. Thus the right side coil receives less amount of current than
the left side coil. This makes the left side coil magnetically stronger than the right side coil. Thus, the
pointer in the middle is drawn to the left side coil showing an empty tank. The reverse phenomenon
happens for a full tank.
2. Oil pressure gauge:

This device reads the
pressure of the vehicles engine
lubrication system and serves
as a warning device to the
driver. There are two units in
the arrangement, the dash unit
and the engine unit connected
by a wire to the battery. The
engine unit consists of a diaphragm mounted at one end of a hinged arm and a sliding contact at the
other end of the hinged arm. The sliding contact moves along a variable resistance. Whenever oil
pressure changes, the diaphragm gets pushed upwards or down thereby moving the sliding contact to
the left or right. When oil pressure is low, the sliding contact moves to the left and vice versa. There
are two coils in the dash unit, left side coil driven by current flow from battery and right side coil
driven by current flow from engine unit. When oil pressure is low, sliding contact is in the left position,
more resistance is inserted in the circuit. Thus the right side coil receives less amount of current than
the left side coil. This makes the left side coil magnetically stronger than the right side coil. Thus, the
pointer in the middle is drawn to the left side coil showing low engine oil pressure. The reverse
phenomenon happens for high oil pressure.

41
3. Water temperature gauge:

This device reads the
temperature of the engine
coolant, thereby cautions the
driver about engine
overheating. It has a head unit
containing a semi-conducting
material in the form of a pellet.
The resistance of the semi-conductor material increases at low temperatures and decreases at high
temperatures. For instance, the resistance is 140 ohms at 15°C, 90 ohms at 50°C, 70 ohms at 100°C
and 60 ohms at 150°C. This property is made use to indicate the temperature of the engine coolant.
There are two units in the arrangement, the dash unit and the engine unit connected by a wire to the
battery. The engine unit consists of semi-conductor pellet whose resistance changes with coolant
temperature. There are two coils in the dash unit, left side coil driven by current flow from battery
and right side coil driven by current flow from semi-conductor pellet unit. When engine temperature
is low, semi-conductor pellet resistance is more in the circuit. Thus the right side coil receives less
amount of current than the left side coil. This makes the left side coil magnetically stronger than the
right side coil. Thus, the pointer in the middle is drawn to the left side coil showing cold level. When
engine temperature is high, semi-conductor pellet resistance is less in the circuit. Thus the right side
coil receives more amount of current than the left side coil. This makes the right side coil magnetically
stronger than the left side coil. Thus, the pointer in the middle is drawn to the right side coil showing
hot level.
4. Speedometer:
The principle of magnetic induction is
employed in the operation of a speedometer.
It consists of a flexible shaft connecting the
output shaft of the gear box to the
speedometer in the dash unit through a worm
gear arrangement. It consists of a speed cup
made of aluminium or iron. The flexible
shaft drives the permanent magnet which in
turn induces current in the cup situated
above it. The cup is made to rotate against
the tension of the spring due to the interaction of the magnet with the magnetism caused by induced
currents in the cup. This in turn drives the pointer. The speedometer unit also has a total kilometer
recorder operated by the drive shaft through the gearing arrangement.
5. Odometer:
The speedometer worm/spiral gears discussed in the previous
speedometer topic is employed in an odometer. The gears in an odometer
are driven by a worm gear mounted on the same shaft as the permanent
magnet of the speedometer. The gears reduce the speed of the odometer
cable driven by the transmission. Thus the rotation of the final output shaft

42
is transmitted to the odometer arrangement as shown in the figure. The gears in the odometer are
calibrated with an appropriate display mechanism.
Horn and trafficators:
Electric horn:
The casing of the horn consists of an
electromagnet. An armature is provided within this
magnet. One end of armature rod is attached with a
wavy diaphragm which vibrates at 300 Hertz (300
vibrations/sec) and the other end is attached with a
guide spring. The armature on the diaphragm end is
extended and contains a metal tone disc which
vibrates at 2000 hertz (2000 vibrations/second). The
diaphragm is clamped to the casing. When horn
button is pressed, the current flows through the
armature and it is set into vibration. When the
armature is attracted by the magnet, the contact
points get separated, thus disconnecting the supply.
As the current supply is cut, the electromagnet switches OFF and the guide spring tension moves back the
armature back to the original position, thereby closing the contact points. This cycle is repeated till the
horn button is pressed ON. As the armature strikes the magnet, the tone disc produces overtone notes
thereby creating the audible horn signal.
Trafficators:
Trafficators are apparatus for visual signaling with
lights or mechanically moving arms. When operated, they
protrude from the bodywork of a motor vehicle to indicate
its intention to turn in the direction indicated by the pointing
signal. Trafficators are often located at the door pillar. They
are operated by turn signal levers. Turn signal lever is the
control lever which operates trafficators on the front, sides
and rear of the vehicle. It is usually operated by lifting or
lowering the lever, the direction being commensurate with
the clockwise or anticlockwise direction in which the
steering wheel is about to be turned. In left hand drive
vehicles, the turn indicator stalks are located on the left of
the steering column. In right-hand-drive (RHD) motor
vehicles, the indicator stalk is located on either the left or
right of the steering column, depending on the manufacturer.
They were common on vehicles until the introduction of the
flashing amber, red or white indicators at or near the corners
of the vehicle. They were used till 1950s after which the indicator lights were introduced. Now-a-days
they have become obsolete.

43
UNIT 3:
Spark plugs:
Construction of spark plugs:
1. Body:
The metal shell / body is made of low carbon free machining
steel. It should have high mechanical strength and rolling strength to
make sound joints at the bottom and top end of the insulator. It is
subjected to a rust proofing process of nickel coating.
2. Electrodes:
The electrodes are subjected to corrosion due to combustion
and erosion due to spark. As the plugs are subjected to high
temperatures, the electrodes are made of metals with high melting
point. Generally Nickel – Chromium alloys are employed. The alloy of
Nickel – Chromium in addition with small amount of barium for
uniform spark voltage is referred to as Isovolt alloy. In high end
applications, Platinum with Iridium or Tungsten is is employed.
Platinum electrode has a pre ignition temperature of 1200 ° C whereas
for nickel it is 700 °C. Tungsten has the disadvantage of brittleness, so it is not preferred for all the cases.
In general, an alloy of Nickel, Manganese, Chromium and silicon is used for center electrode and
an alloy of Nickel, Manganese and silicon is used for earth electrode.
3. Insulators:
Initially, porcelain, steatite or mica had been employed. Porcelain had some disadvantages and
mica overcame these disadvantages of low voltage breakdown, brittle fracture and resistance to
intermittent cooling and heating. But after the introduction of leaded fuels mica was also discontinued due
to excessive fouling. Now-a-days ceramic materials have replaced mica material. Ceramic insulators have
high mechanical strength and better thermal, electrical properties. The size can be reduced resulting in
lighter plugs. At present, Aluminium oxide has been used as insulator material. It is sintered at high
temperature to form a uniform and hard material. As alumina is difficult to handle in its purest form, 5 –
10 % of other materials are added. They have three times tensile and compressive strength, five to ten
times the heat conductivity, four to five times the dielectric strength and high resistance to thermal shocks
as that of porcelain materials. Aluminium oxide mixed with glassy additives
known as Pyranit insulators are used by MICO. They can withstand a voltage
of 20000 volts and 900 °C.
Classification of spark plugs based on heat range:
Spark plugs are classified as 1. Hot spark plug and 2. Cold spark plug
The heat range of a spark plug is the range in which the plug works well
thermally. A hot type spark plug has a longer insulator nose. The insulator nose
of a hotter spark plug has a longer distance between the firing tip of the

44
insulator, and the point where insulator meets the metal shell. Therefore, the path for the dissipation of
heat from the insulator nose to the cylinder head is longer and the firing end stays hotter. The insulator
nose of a hotter spark plug also has a greater surface area that is exposed to more of the ignited gases and
is easily heated to higher temperatures. A colder spark plug functions in an opposite manner. Generally,
low power engines such as lawn mowers don’t produce a large amount of heat, hence use a low heat range
(or hot) spark plug. This means the spark plug will heat up easily and reach its optimal operating
temperature. High performance engines on the other hand produce a large amount of heat, hence a high
heat range (or cold) spark plug needs to be used to resist the heat developed by the engine.
Advance mechanisms:
Centrifugal advance:
The centrifugal advance mechanism
controls the ignition timing for full- load operation.
The adjustment mechanism is designed so that its
operation results in the desired advance of the spark.
The cam is mounted, movably, on the distributor shaft
so that as the speed increases, the flyweights which are
swung farther and farther outward, shaft the cam in the
direction of shaft rotation. As a result, the cam lobes
make contact with the breaker lever rubbing block
somewhat earlier, thus shifting the ignition point in the
early or advance direction. Depending on the speed of
the engine, and therefore of the shaft, the weights are swung outward a greater or a lesser distance from
the center. When the engine is idling, spring pressure keeps the two weights drawn together and the shaft
remains at the position for low speed timing. As the engine speeds up, the weights are drawn out by
centrifugal force. As the weights move apart, they force the upper part of the shaft to move in an advance
direction in relation to the lower part of the shaft. The upper part of the shaft is advanced, it causes the
triggering device to fire the coil sooner, causing the plugs to fire more degrees before TDC. The faster the
engine turns, the farther apart the weights move, until they finally reach the limit of their travel. As engine
speed is decreased, the centrifugal pull on the weights is lessened and the springs pull the weights together,
retarding the timing. By calculating the pull of the springs and the size of the weights, it is possible to
properly advance the timing over a long RPM range. The next figure illustrates how the weights control
advance by changing the weights and springs. This should be done very carefully to reduce the chance of
engine damage.
Vaccum advance:
It has been found that at the partial throttle open position, additional advance over and
above that provided by a centrifugal mechanism is desirable. This is due to the fact that there is high
vacuum in the intake manifold when the throttle valve is partially open. This high vacuum draws in less
air and fuel. The smaller air-fuel mixture will be compressed less and will burn slower. To maximize
economy from this part of the fuel charge, it is necessary to advance the timing beyond that provided by
centrifugal weights. This is provided by the vacuum advance mechanism, vacuum advance is used to

45
advance the timing in relation to engine load. Any

benefit from additional advance applies only to the
partial open throttle position. During hard
acceleration or wide open throttle operation, there is
no manifold vacuum to operate the vacuum advance
mechanism. When the throttle valve is partially
open, as shown is figure A, there is high vacuum in
the intake manifold. The vacuum pulls the
diaphragm back toward the vacuum side. This in
turn pulls the plate around and advances the timing.
When the throttle is opened, the vacuum drops and
the spring draws the diaphragm back toward the
distributor. This rotates the movable plate in the
retard direction, figure B. When the engine is idling,
the throttle valve closes below the vacuum advance
opening. This removes vacuum pull and the spark
will be retarded for idling. The vacuum advance
mechanism is constantly moving as vacuum varies
with th movement of the throttle valve. The vacuum is adjustable on some vehicles. If the vacuum advance
is not operating, it can affect engine performance and fuel mileage. On some older vehicles, the vacuum
may be ported, or not activated until the throttle is partially opened. The vacuum advance mechanism
operates independent of the centrifugal advance mechanism. The mechanical interplay between the two
advance mechanisms, however, permits the total adjustment angle at any given time to be the result of the
addition of the shifts provided by the two individual mechanisms operates in conjunction with the engine
is operating under partial load.
Different types of ignition systems:

1. Battery coil ignition system:
Battery:
It is the primary
power source for the ignition
system. It supplies 12 V
power supply to the ignition
system.
Ignition coils:
There are two types
of coils: primary coil and
secondary coil. The primary
coil consists of 200 -300 turns
transferring low voltage.
They have thin insulation and
are of fine gauge. The

46
secondary coil is of around 21000 turns of thick insulation and heavy gauge wire as they transmit
high voltage. At present the primary coil is wound over the secondary coil for a stronger magnetic
field and good electromagnetic induction. There are two types of ignition coil construction namely,
open core with a long air gap and closed core with a short air gap. The core with both the secondary
and primary winding attached is placed inside a laminated iron shell. The job of the shell is to help
concentrate the magnetic lines of force that will be developed by the windings. This entire unit is
then placed inside a steel, aluminum, or Bakelite case. In some coil designs, the case is filled with oil
or paraffin-like material. In other designs, the coil windings are encased in heavy plastic. The coil is
sealed to prevent the entrance of dirt or moisture. The primary and secondary terminals are carefully
sealed to withstand vibration, heat, moisture, and the stresses of high induced voltage.
Working:
When the ignition switch is closed and engine in cranked, as soon as the contact breaker closes, a
low voltage current will flow through the primary winding. It is also to be noted that the contact
beaker cam opens and closes the circuit 4-times (for 4 cylinders) in one revolution. When the contact
breaker opens the contact, the magnetic field begins to collapse. Because of this collapsing magnetic
field, current will be induced in the secondary winding. And because of more turns (@ 21000 turns)
of secondary, voltage goes unto 28000-30000 volts.
2. Magneto ignition system:
A magneto is an electrical generator that uses permanent magnets to produce periodic pulses of
alternating current. Unlike a dynamo, a magneto does not contain a commutator to produce direct
current. A magneto ignition, or high tension magneto, is a magneto that provides current for the
ignition system of a spark-ignition engine, such as a petrol engine. It produces pulses of high voltage
for the spark plugs.
Applications of magneto ignition:
The use of ignition magnetos is now
confined mainly to engines where there is no
other available electrical supply, for example
in lawnmowers and chainsaws. It is also
widely used in aviation piston engines even
though an electrical supply is usually
available.
The main components are:
1. Permanent magnets
2. Armature
3. Contact breaker points
4. High tension distributor
5. Condenser
6. Ignition timing control unit
Principle and working:

47
The basic principle is the same as that of battery coil ignition except that magneto system has its
own current generating unit instead of a battery as in battery coil type. A magneto creates its voltage
by passing a magnet driven by the crankshaft of the engine past a coil. Every time the magnet passes
the coil it induces a sharp current in the coil.
Working:
The armature is driven at half the speed of engine for a four stroke engine and the same
speed of engine in a two stroke engine. The armature rotates in between the poles of a permanent
magnet. A primary and secondary coil combination is wound on a laminated core which functions
similar to ignition coil of a battery coil ignition system. The following figure shows the change in
flux and the corresponding increase / decrease of voltage when the armature rotates. It is found that
the flux passing through the core is zero (minimum) at position IV and maximum at position II and
hence induced voltage is maximum at position IV, and zero at position II. There are two positions
separated by 180 degrees for which magnetic flux is at maximum value (one positive maximum and
one negative maximum) and there are two other positions separated by 180 degrees for which flux is
minimum (zero). When the contact breakers are closed, induced voltage in primary circuit increases
resulting in buildup of current in primary circuit. At maximum voltage position, the primary circuit
is broken termed as dead center position. A condenser shunted with the secondary winding aids in
production of voltage in the secondary winding when contact breakers open. Usually, a voltage of
10000 volts is induced for a magneto speed of 100 rpm for a discharge current of 0.08 ampere. During
the closure of contact breaker points the primary current increases to a value of 3 – 5 amperes.
Note: The above types are shown for a 4 cylinder engine. If the question is asked for 6 cylinder engine,
the drawing should have 6 spark plugs and 6 contact points in the distributor.
Electronic fuel injection:

An electronic fuel-injection system consists of the following:
Components:
Layout – electronic fuel injection

48
Engine speed sensor:

Most injection systems, which are not combined directly with the ignition, take a signal from the
coil negative terminal. This provides speed data but also engine position to some extent. A resistor in
series is often used to prevent high voltage surges reaching the ECU.
Engine coolant temperature sensor:
A simple thermistor provides engine coolant temperature information. The value of this sensor
determines the temperature of the engine coolant, helps determine the base pulse width, and can account
for up to 60% of the determining factors.
Throttle position sensor:
They provide information whether the throttle is at idle, full load or anywhere else in between; and
potentiometer types, which give more detailed information. If the accelerator pedal is depressed rapidly
to the floor, the base pulse width is increased up to 500% (five times). If the throttle is rapidly closed the
pulse width is reduced by about 70%.
EGO / Lambda sensor:
This device provides information to the ECU on exhaust gas oxygen content. From this
information, corrections can be applied to ensure the engine is kept at or very near to stoichiometry. This
is one of the main modifiers to the base pulse width and can add or subtract up to about 20% to 25% or
more, depending on the oxygen sensor activity.
IAT sensor:
The intake air temperature is used to modify the base pulse width based on the temperature of the
air entering the engine. It is usually capable of adding as much as 20% if very cold air is entering the
engine or reducing the pulse width by up to 20% if very hot air is entering the engine.
Fuel pump:
The pump ensures a constant supply of fuel to the fuel rail. The volume in the rail acts as a swamp
to prevent pressure fluctuations as the injectors operate. The pump must be able to maintain a pressure of
about 3 bar.
Fuel pressure regulator:
This device ensures a constant differential pressure across the injectors. It is a mechanical device
and has a connection to the inlet manifold.
Fuel injector:
It is simply a specialized solenoid. It has an armature winding to create a magnetic field, and a
needle (pintle), a disc, or a ball valve. A spring holds the needle, disc, or ball closed against the valve seat,
and when energized, the armature winding pulls open the valve when it receives a current pulse from the
powertrain control module (PCM). When the solenoid is energized, it unseats the valve to inject fuel.
Electronic fuel-injection systems use a solenoid operated injector to spray atomized fuel in timed pulses
into the manifold or near the intake valve.

49
Working:
The process of determining the necessary amount of fuel, and its delivery into the engine, are
known as fuel metering. When signaled by the engine control unit the fuel injector opens and sprays the
pressurized fuel into the engine. The duration that the injector is open is called the pulse width. The longer
the injectors are held open, the greater the amount of fuel injected into the cylinder. The formula used by
fuel-injection systems that use a mass airflow (MAF) sensor to calculate the injection base pulse width is
the following:
Injector pulse width = mass airflow/rpm
Mono point fuel injection:

It consists of a single injector that sprays fuel into the induction manifold in the region of the throttle
butterfly valve. Finely atomized fuel is sprayed into the throttle body, in accordance with controlling
actions from the engine computer (EEC, ECM), and this ensures that the correct air–fuel ratio is supplied
to the combustion chambers to suit all conditions. Injector working pressure is injector pressures of about
10 to 20 PSI (69 to 138 kPa).
Advantages:
1. It is less expensive than using other types of fuel
injection systems.
2. It is easier to clean, maintain and service because
there are fewer parts.
3. It is cheaper to manufacture than a port injection
system and simpler to diagnose.
4. It also does not have the same level of injector
balance problems that a port injection system might
have when the injectors are clogged
Disadvantages:
1. It is almost the same as a TBI carburetor wherein the fuel is not equally distributed to all the
cylinders. This means that the air/fuel mixture injected differs for each cylinder.
2. It can cool the manifold much faster causing the fuel to puddle and condense in the manifold. The
possibility of condensation is much higher since the fuel travels longer from the throttle body to
the combustion chamber.
3. Since the system needs to be mounted on top of the combustion chamber, you're prevented from
modifying the manifold design to improve your car's performance.
4. It is a wet system and the mixture of fuel is still based per cylinder

50
Multi point fuel injection:

In these systems, there is an injector for each cylinder. The injectors are normally placed so that they spray
fuel into the induction tract, near the inlet valve. Multi-point petrol injection systems normally use a fuel
gallery to which the fuel pipes of all the injectors are connected. The pressure in this gallery is controlled
by the fuel pressure regulator. This means that the quantity of fuel that each injector supplies is regulated
by the period of time for which the control computer holds the injector open. This time varies from
approximately 1.5 ms at low engine load, up to approximately 10 ms for full engine load. Port fuel-
injection systems generally operate with pressures at the injector of about 30 to 55 PSI (207 to 379 kPa).
There are three types of MPFI configurations:
1. GROUPED injection:
This system divides the injectors into two
equalized groups. The groups fire alternately; each
group fires once each crankshaft revolution, or twice
per four stroke cycle. The fuel injected remains near
the intake valve and enters the engine when the valve
opens. This method of pulsing injectors in groups is
sometimes called gang fired.
2. SIMULTANEOUS injection:
This design fires all of the injectors at the
same time once every engine revolution: two pulses per four-stroke cycle. Many port fuel-injection
systems on 4-cylinder engines use this pattern of injector firing. It is easier for engineers to program this
system and it can make relatively quick adjustments in the air-fuel ratio, but it still requires the intake
charge to wait in the manifold for varying lengths of time.
3. SEQUENTIAL injection:
Sequential firing of the injectors according to engine firing order is the most accurate and desirable
method of regulating port fuel injection. However, it is also the most complex and expensive to design
and manufacture. In this system, the injectors are timed and pulsed individually, much like the spark plugs
are sequentially operated in firing order of the engine. This system is often called sequential fuel injection,
or SFI. The sensors used are:
Engine speed sensor:
Most injection systems, which are not combined directly with the ignition, take a signal from the
coil negative terminal. This provides speed data but also engine position to some extent. A resistor in
series is often used to prevent high voltage surges reaching the ECU.
Engine coolant temperature sensor:
A simple thermistor provides engine coolant temperature information. The value of this sensor
determines the temperature of the engine coolant, helps determine the base pulse width, and can account
for up to 60% of the determining factors.
51
Throttle position sensor:

They provide information whether the throttle is at idle, full load or anywhere else in between; and
potentiometer types, which give more detailed information. if the accelerator pedal is depressed rapidly
to the floor, the base pulse width is increased up to 500% (five times). If the throttle is rapidly closed the
pulse width is reduced by about 70%.
EGO / Lambda sensor:
This device provides information to the ECU on exhaust gas oxygen content. From this
information, corrections can be applied to ensure the engine is kept at or very near to stoichiometry. This
is one of the main modifiers to the base pulse width and can add or subtract up to about 20% to 25% or
more, depending on the oxygen sensor activity.
IAT sensor:
The intake air temperature is used to modify the base pulse width based on the temperature of the
air entering the engine. It is usually capable of adding as much as 20% if very cold air is entering the
engine or reducing the pulse width by up to 20% if very hot air is entering the engine.
Fuel injector:
It is simply a
specialized solenoid. It has an
armature winding to create a
magnetic field, and a needle
(pintle), a disc, or a ball valve.
A spring holds the needle, disc,
or ball closed against the valve
seat, and when energized, the
armature winding pulls open
the valve when it receives a
current pulse from the
powertrain control module (PCM). When the solenoid is energized, it unseats the valve to inject fuel.
Advantages of MPFI:
1. Fuel distribution is equal to all cylinders because each cylinder has its own injector.
2. The fuel is injected almost directly into the combustion chamber, so there is no chance for it to
condense on the walls of a cold intake manifold.
3. Because the manifold does not have to carry fuel to properly position a TBI unit, it can be shaped
and sized to tune the intake airflow to achieve specific engine performance characteristics.
The intake manifolds on port fuel-injected engines only contain air, not a mixture of air and fuel. This
allows the engine design engineer the opportunity to design long, “tuned” intake-manifold runners that
help the engine produce increased torque at low engine speeds

52
UNIT 4 – SENSORS AND MICROPROCESSORS IN AUTOMOBILES

Sensors – Types, arrangements:
A sensor is an object whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment, and then
provide a corresponding output. A sensor is a type of transducer; sensors may provide various types of
output, but typically use electrical or optical signals.
There are many types:
Pressure sensor, Ultrasonic sensor, Humidity sensor, Gas sensor, Acceleration sensor,
Displacement sensor, Force measurement sensor, color sensor, gyro sensor, ultrasonic sensor
Exhaust Gas Oxygen(EGO) sensor:
Purpose and function:
Automotive computer systems use a sensor in the exhaust system to measure the oxygen content
of the exhaust. These sensors are called oxygen sensors (O2S). The oxygen sensor is installed in the
exhaust manifold or located downstream from the manifold in the exhaust pipe. The oxygen sensor is
directly in the path of the exhaust gas stream where it monitors oxygen levels in both the exhaust stream
and the ambient air. A zirconia oxygen sensor is made of zirconium dioxide (ZrO2), an electrically
conductive material capable of generating a small voltage in the presence of oxygen.
Construction:
A typical zirconia oxygen sensor has the sensing element in the shape of a thimble. It generates a
voltage signal based on the amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas. They compare the oxygen content in the
exhaust gas with the oxygen content of the outside air. As the difference between the exhaust and
atmosphere increases, the voltage signal also increases. Lean mixtures release large amounts of oxygen
and the voltage signal from the O2S is low. Rich mixtures release lower amounts of oxygen and the
resulting O2 voltage signal is high. Sensor output ranges from 0.1 volt (lean) to 0.9 volt (rich). A perfectly
balanced, stoichiometric, air-fuel mixture of 14.7:1 produces an output of around 0.5 volt. When the sensor
reading is lean, the computer enriches the air-fuel mixture to the engine. When the sensor reading is rich,
the computer leans the air-fuel mixture.
To generate an accurate signal, an O2S must operate at a minimum temperature of 750ºF (400ºC). Current
O2S have a built-in heating element to quickly heat them and keep them hot at idle and light load
conditions. The heater is controlled by the PCM. Early O2S did not have a heater and required some time
for the exhaust to warm them. This resulted in extended periods
of open-loop operation.
Construction of EGO sensor Working of EGO sensor

53
Heated oxygen sensors (HO2S) have three or four wires connected to them. The additional wires provide
voltage for the internal heater in the sensors. HO2S are sometimes referred to as heated exhaust gas sensors
(HEGOs). The heater is not on all of the time. The PCM opens and closes, duty cycles, the ground for the
heater circuit as needed. The cycling of current to the heater protects the ceramic material of the heater
from being overheated, which would cause it to break.
Zirconium Dioxide Oxygen (ZrO2) Sensors:
Zirconium dioxide oxygen (ZrO2) sensors are the most commonly used O2S, although they are
being replaced with air-fuel ratio sensors on current vehicles. These have a zirconia (zirconium dioxide)
element, platinum electrodes, and a heater. The zirconia element has one side exposed to the exhaust
stream, and the other side open to the atmosphere through the sensor’s wires. Each side has a platinum
electrode attached to the zirconium dioxide element. The platinum electrodes conduct the voltage
generated. Contamination or corrosion of the platinum electrodes or zirconia elements will reduce the
voltage signal output. This type of O2S is sometimes referred to as a narrow range sensor because it cannot
detect the small changes in oxygen content produced by minor changes of the air-fuel mixture.
Titanium dioxide sensors:
Titanium dioxide oxygen (TiO2) sensors are found on a few vehicles. These sensors do not
generate a voltage signal. Instead they act like a variable resistor, altering a 5-volt reference signal supplied
by the control module. Titanium sensors send a low-voltage signal (below 2.5 volts) with low oxygen
content and a high-voltage signal (above 2.5 volts) with high oxygen content. Variable resistance O2S do
not need an outside air reference. This eliminates the need for internal venting to the outside.
Hot wire anemometer:

A hot wire mass airflow sensor determines the mass of air flowing into the engine’s air intake system.
The theory of operation of the hot wire mass airflow sensor is similar to that of the hot wire anemometer
(which determines air velocity). The General Motors division (GM) was the first car company to use the
hot wire sensor. This is achieved by heating a wire with an electric current that is suspended in the engine’s
air stream, like a toaster wire. The wire's electrical resistance increases as the wire’s temperature increases,
which limits electrical current flowing through the circuit. When air flows past the wire, the wire cools,
decreasing its resistance, which in turn allows more current to flow through the circuit. As more current
flows, the wire’s temperature increases until the resistance reaches equilibrium again. The amount of
current required to maintain the wire’s temperature is directly proportional to the mass of air flowing past
the wire. The integrated electronic circuit converts the measurement of current into a voltage signal which
is sent to the ECU.
If air density increases due to pressure increase or temperature drop, but the air volume remains
constant, the denser air will remove more heat from the wire indicating a higher mass airflow. Unlike
the vane meter's paddle sensing element, the hot wire responds directly to air density. This sensor's
capabilities are well suited to support the gasoline combustion process which fundamentally responds to
air mass, not air volume. This sensor sometimes employs a mixture screw, but this screw is fully
electronic and uses a variable resistor (potentiometer) instead of an air bypass screw. The screw needs
more turns to achieve the desired results. A hot wire burn-off cleaning circuit is employed on some of

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these sensors. A burn-off relay applies a high current through the platinum hot wire after the vehicle is
turned off for a second or so, thereby burning or vaporizing any contaminants that have stuck to the
platinum hot wire element.
The hot film MAF sensor works somewhat similar to the hot wire MAF sensor, but instead it usually
outputs a frequency signal. This sensor uses a hot film-grid instead of a hot wire. It is commonly found in
late 80’s early 90’s fuel injected vehicles. The output frequency is directly proportional to the amount of
air entering the engine. So as air flow increases so does frequency. These sensors tend to cause intermittent
problems due to internal electrical failures. The use of an oscilloscope is strongly recommended to check
the output frequency of these sensors. Frequency distortion is also common when the sensor starts to fail.
Many technicians in the field use a tap test with very conclusive results. Not all HFM systems output a
frequency. In some cases, this sensor works by outputting a regular varying voltage signal.
Some of the benefits of a hot-wire MAF compared to the older style vane meter are:
• responds very quickly to changes in air flow
• low airflow restriction
• smaller overall package
• less sensitive to mounting location and orientation
• no moving parts improve its durability
• less expensive
• separate temperature and pressure sensors are not required
(to determine air mass)
There are some drawbacks:
• dirt and oil can contaminate the hot-wire deteriorating its
accuracy
• installation requires a laminar flow across the hot-wire
Wheel speed sensor:

Vehicle speed (wheel speed) sensor:

55
This sensor is based on

magnetic reluctance effect
discussed in the first topic. Each
speed sensor usually has a
toothed wheel, like a gear, that
rotates at the same speed as the
vehicle wheel or axle. Mounted
close to, but not touching this
toothed wheel, is a permanent
magnet wrapped with a coil of
wire, called the pick-up coil (see
illustration). As each tooth
rotates past the permanent
magnet, it causes the magnetic
field to concentrate and increase
slightly. This, in turn, induces a
small pulse of current in the coil
of wire. The numbers of pulses
per second are directly proportional to the speed of the wheel. The faster the wheel turns, the faster the
teeth pass the magnet and the higher the pulse rate. The toothed wheel or gear in the speed sensor is made
of soft iron, usually cast. Iron is chosen because of its high magnetic permeability and low magnetic
reluctance. Magnetic reluctance is roughly equivalent to electrical resistance, and sometimes the toothed
wheel is called the reluctor. The function of the toothed wheel is to allow the permanent magnet's field to
easily pass through each tooth to cause a momentary concentration of field strength which induces a
current in the pick-up coil. The pick-up coil has a permanent magnet in the core, wrapped with a coil of
copper wire.
Detonation sensor:
Engine Knock sensor is based on Piezo electric effect. Piezoelectricity is the charge which
accumulates in certain solid materials (notably crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as
bone, DNA and various proteins) in response to applied mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity
means electricity resulting from pressure.
A knock sensor that is commonly used in
engine control systems utilizes the piezoelectric
generator effect, i.e. the sensing element produces
a small electric charge when it is compressed and
then relaxed. Materials such as quartz and some
ceramics like PZT (a mixture of platinum,
zirconium and titanium) are effective in
piezoelectric applications. In the application
shown, the knock sensor is located on the engine
block. This is the best position to detect vibrations arising from combustion knock in any of the four
cylinders. Because combustion knock is most likely to occur close to TDC in any cylinder, the control

56
program held in the ECM memory enables the processor to use any knock signal generated to alter the
ignition timing by an amount that is sufficient to eliminate the knock. When knock has ceased the ECM
will advance the ignition, in steps, back to its normal setting. The mechanism by which vibrations arising
from knock are converted to electricity is illustrated in Figure below. The sensor is accurately designed
and the center bolt that pre-tensions the piezo electric crystal is accurately torqued. The steel washer that
makes up the seismic mass has very precise dimensions. When combustion knock occurs, the resulting
mechanical vibrations are transmitted by the seismic mass, to the piezo electric crystal. The ‘squeezing
up’ and relaxing of the crystal in response to this action, produces a small electrical signal that oscillates
at the same frequency as the knock sensor element. The electrical signal is conducted away from the
crystal by wires that are secured to suitable points on the crystal. The tuning of the sensor is critical
because it must be able to distinguish between knock from combustion and other knocks that may arise
from the engine mechanism. This is achieved because combustion knock produces vibrations that fall
within a known range of frequencies.
Cranskshaft position sensor:

This sensor is of the magnetic reluctance type and is based on the concept of a magnetic circuit. A magnetic
circuit is a closed path through a magnetic material (e.g., iron, cobalt, nickel, or synthetic magnetic
material called ferrite). In the case of the sensor in the following figure, the magnetic circuit is the closed
path through the magnet material and across the gap between the pole pieces. The magnetic field in a
magnetic circuit is described by a pair of field quantities that can be compared to the voltage and current
of an ordinary electric circuit. One of these quantities is called the magnetic field intensity. It exerts a
force similar to the voltage of a battery. The response of the magnetic circuit to the magnetic field intensity
is described by the second quantity, which is called magnetic flux. A line of constant magnetic flux is a
closed path through the magnetic material. The magnetic flux is similar to the current that flows when a
resistor is connected across a battery to form a closed electrical circuit. As we shall see, the voltage
generated by the reluctance sensor is deter-mined by the strength of this magnetic flux. The strength of
the magnetic flux is, in turn, determined by the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Reluctance is to a
magnetic circuit what resistance is to an electrical circuit. The path for the magnetic flux of the reluctance
sensor is illustrated in the figure below. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is inversely proportional to
the magnetic permeability of the material along the path. The magnetic permeability of steel is a few
thousand times larger than air; therefore, the reluctance of steel is much lower than air. Note that when
one of the tabs of the steel disk is located between the pole pieces of the magnet, a large part of the gap
between the pole pieces is filled by the steel. Since the steel has a lower reluctance than air, the “flow” of
magnetic flux increases to a relatively large value. On the other hand, when a tab is not between the magnet
pole pieces, the gap is filled by air only. This creates a high-reluctance circuit for which the magnetic flux
is relatively small. Thus, the magnitude of the magnetic flux that “flows” through the magnetic circuit
depends on the position of the tab, which, in turn, depends on the crankshaft angular position. The
magnetic flux is least when none of the tabs is near the magnet pole pieces. As a tab begins to pass through
the gap, the magnetic flux increases. It reaches a maximum when the tab is exactly between the pole
pieces, and then decreases as the tab passes out of the pole piece region. In most control systems, the
position of maximum magnetic flux has a fixed relationship to TDC for one of the cylinders.

57
The change in magnetic flux induces a voltage, Vo, in the sensing coil that is proportional to the
rate of change of the magnetic flux. Since the magnetic flux must be changing to induce a voltage in the
sensing coil, its output voltage is zero whenever the engine is not running, regardless of the position of
the crankshaft. This is a serious disadvantage for this type of sensor because the engine timing cannot be
set statically. As shown in Figure 6.8, the coil voltage, Vo, begins to increase from zero as a tab begins to
pass between the pole pieces, reaches a maximum, and then falls to zero when the tab is exactly between
the pole pieces). (Note that although the value of magnetic flux is maximum at this point, the rate of
change of magnetic flux is zero; therefore, the induced voltage in the sensing coil is zero.) Then it increases
with the opposite polarity, reaches a maximum, and falls to zero as the tab passes out of the gap between
the pole pieces. The coil voltage waveform shown in Figure occurs each time one of the cylinders reaches
TDC on its power stroke.
Keyless entry system:

A keyless entry system allows the driver to unlock the doors or trunk lid from outside of
the vehicle without using a key. It has two main components: an electronic control module and a coded-
button keypad on the driver’s door or a key fob. Some keyless systems also have an illuminated entry
system. The electronic control module typically can unlock all doors, unlock the trunk, lock all doors, lock
the trunk, turn on courtesy lamps, and illuminate the keypad or keyhole after any button on the keypad is
pushed or either front door handle is pulled. Remote keyless entry systems rely on a handheld transmitter,
frequently part of the key fob. With a press of the unlock button on the transmitter from 25 to 50 feet away
(depending on the type of transmitter) in any direction range, the interior lights turn on, the driver’s door
unlocks, and the theft security system is disarmed. The trunk can also be unlocked. Pressing the lock
button locks all doors and arms the security system. For maximum security, some remote units and their
receiver change access codes each time the remote is used. Some remote units can also open and close all
of the vehicle’s windows, including the sunroof. They may also be capable of setting off the alarm system
in the case of panic

58
Keyless entry – key

Keyless entry – components
Electronic steering system:
The steering effort required of the driver to overcome restoring torque generally decreases with vehicle
speed and increases with steering angle. Traditionally, the steering effort required by the driver has been
reduced by incorporating a hydraulic power steering system in the vehicle. Whenever there is a steering
input from the driver, hydraulic pressure from an engine-driven pump is applied to a hydraulic cylinder
that boosts the steering effort of the driver. Typically, the effort available from the pump increases with
engine speed (i.e., with vehicle speed), whereas the required effort decreases. It would be desirable to
reduce steering boost as vehicle speed increases. Such a feature is incorporated into a power steering
system featuring electronic controls.
An electronically controlled
power steering system adjusts steering
boost adaptively to driving conditions.
Using electronic control of power
steering, the available boost is reduced
by controlling a pressure relief valve
on the power steering pump. An
alternative power steering scheme
utilizes a special electric motor to
provide the boost required instead of
the hydraulic boost. Electric boost power steering has several advantages over traditional hydraulic power
steering. Electronic control of electric boost systems is straightforward and can be accomplished without
any energy conversion from electrical power to mechanical actuation. Moreover, electronic control offers
very sophisticated adaptive control in which the system can adapt to the driving environment. An example
of an electronically controlled steering system that has had commercial production is for four-wheel
steering systems (4WS). In the 4WSequipped vehicles, the front wheels are directly linked mechanically
to the steering wheel, as in traditional vehicles. There is a power steering boost for the front wheels as in

59
a standard two-wheel steering system. The rear wheels are steered under the control of a microcontroller
via an actuator.
The front wheels are steered to a steering angle δf by the driver’s steering wheel input. A sensor (S)
measures the steering angle and another sensor (U) gives the vehicle speed. The microcontroller (C)
determines the desired rear steering angle δr under program control as a function of speed and front
steering angle. For speeds below 10 mph, the rear steering angle is in the opposite direction to the front
steering angle. This control strategy has the effect of decreasing the car’s turning radius by as much as
30% from the value it has for front wheel steering only. Consequently, the maneuvering ability of the car
at low speeds is enhanced (e.g., for parking). At intermediate speeds (e.g., 11mph < U < 30 mph), the
steering might be front wheel only. At higher speeds (including highway cruise), the front and rear wheels
are steered in the same direction. At least one automaker has an interesting strategy for higher speeds (e.g.,
at highway cruise speed). In this strategy, the rear wheels turn in the opposite direction to the front wheels
for a very short period (on the order of one second) and then turn in the same direction as the front wheels
Automatic transmission system:
An automatic gearbox provides a number of gear ratios to allow the effective use of engine
power. The power from the engine is transmitted to the automatic gearbox by the use of fluid coupling,
which in the case of most modern vehicles is a torque converter. However, other than selecting the
direction of travel, the driver does not need to manually select gears. The gear options shown for the driver
is given below:
P – Park
A parking pawl, mounted to the gearbox casing, is
engaged with a gear connected to the gearbox output shaft. This
provides a powerful lock that positively prevents the movement
of the gearbox output shaft and transmission. Many modern
vehicles are fitted with an electronically-controlled transmission
system, which may prevent the disengagement of park selection
without initially switching the ignition on and depressing the
brake pedal. Neither may it be possible to remove the key from
the ignition without first selecting P. The action required is
normally a safety feature of the vehicle. Note that the vehicle must
be stationary before selecting P.
R – Reverse
Rearward movement of the vehicle is achieved in this
position. Only one gear ratio is provided in reverse.
N – Neutral
As the name suggests, no drive is applied so the engine can run without applying power to the
transmission. Neutral is also used to allow the vehicle to move without the power of the engine. Although
it is possible to tow the vehicle in neutral, the distance travelled should be kept to a minimum. Damage

60
can occur owing to the lack of lubrication within the gearbox if the vehicle is towed more than the specified
distance or at a high speed.
D – Drive
Drive is the ‘normal automatic mode’ which permits the automatic transmission to select the full
range of forward gears automatically. The automatic selection is based on the operating conditions and
driving style.
The gear ratios are dynamically varied by employing a torque converter.
Torque converter:
It has driving and driven members with vanes. Oil is passed from the driving to the driven member
when the coupling Is In operation, thereby transmitting driving force to the driven member. However, in
the torque converter, the vanes are curved and additional rotatable members provide the means of
increasing torque through the unit. These additional members can reverse the direction of the moving oil
before it reenters the driving member; this nullifies any negative effect produced by vane curvature. Thus,
the torque converter not only acts as a fluid coupling, it also provides a speed producing, torque-
multiplying connection between the driving and the driven shafts. It actually can take the place of the
conventional transmission because, with it, there is no need for gear shifting; the vehicle can be accelerated
from a standing stop to high speed with the torque converter providing, in effect, the varying gear ratios.
In actual practice, the torque converter is used with a gear system (including planetary gears) to provide a
high range (for normal operation), a low range (for steep hills, or pulling out of mud), reverse, and neutral.
There also may be a parking position at which the gear system is locked.
Operation of Torque converter:
All torque converters have a driven member (called
the turbine) and a driving member (called the pump). In
addition, they have one or more other rotatable members (or
elements) placed between the pump and the turbine known as
stator that have the purpose of changing the direction of oil
flow under high-torque-multiplication operation. The
primary action of the torque converter results from the action
of the pump in passing oil at an angle into the blades of the
turbine. The oil pushes against the faces of the turbine vanes,
thereby tending to cause the turbine to rotate in the same
direction as the pump. If the pump is rotating much more
rapidly than the turbine, the oil enters the turbine and pushes
against the turbine vanes with great force. As the oil passes
around through the turbine, it imparts force against the turbine vanes, all along the vanes. But it does not
give up all of its force of motion to the turbine vanes. It still has considerable energy, even though passing
through the turbine has reversed its direction of motion. If this reversed direction of motion were not
changed, the oil would reenter the pump in a direction opposing pump rotation. It would act as a brake on
the pump, tending to slow it down. Considerable engine power would be consumed in overcoming this
action.

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UNIT 5 - SAFETY SYSTEMS
Anti lock braking systems (ABS)

Need:
It is difficult for most drivers in emergency stop situations to quickly assess the maximum force
that can be exerted on the brake pedal to make a controlled stop. Bringing the vehicle to rest in the shortest
possible distance and with directional control being maintained is therefore difficult. ABS therefore
ensures that the wheels do not lock during extreme braking thus allowing improved levels of grip to be
achieved by the tyres. This enables the driver to have considerably increased control of the direction of
the vehicle in these critical moments.
Components:
Wheel speed sensors:
The wheel speed sensors provide an electrical signal to the computer or ECU. The sensors are
located at each of the wheels, although on a three-sensor system, a single rear sensor would be usually
located in the final-drive housing. Adjacent to the wheel speed sensor is usually a toothed ring or disc
(often referred to as a ‘toothed rotor’). When the wheel is rotating, the sensor produces a small electrical
pulse or signal as each tooth passes. The number of teeth on a rotor depends on the design, however it
may typically have around 40 to 50 teeth. This would result in 40 to 50 individual pulses being produced
by the sensor for each rotation of the wheel.
Electronic control unit (ECU):
Pulsed signals from the wheel speed sensors are passed to the ECU, which is then able to assess
the speed of the wheels and also predict when one or more wheels is likely to lock up. The ECU controls
the operation of hydraulic valves by providing electrical control signals to solenoids. The solenoids cause
valves in the hydraulic brake circuits to open and close, and so control the brake line pressure. In this way
the ECU is able to assess wheel speed, allowing it to control the valves as necessary to implement the
three phases of ABS operation. Other signals pass to the ECU, such as brake pedal operation (using a
signal from the brake light switch). These additional signals enable accurate brake system control as well
as allowing for fail-safe operation.
Modulator assembly:
The solenoid and valve assemblies are located in the main modulator assembly. The modulator
can be located remote from the master cylinder and servo assembly or it can form part of an integrated
assembly. Within the modulator, the solenoids and valves control the hydraulic line pressure to the brakes.
The brake lines therefore pass from the master cylinder through to the valves in the modulator. If the ABS
system has four channels (one channel for each wheel) there will be four solenoids and valves. In this
case, the hydraulic circuits passing from the master cylinder would be split within the modulator, so that
each of the valves receives pressure from the master cylinder. When the ECU intervenes the valves may
be moved to different operating positions thus affecting the hydraulic pressure passing through each brake
cylinder. When the ECU detects that a particular wheel is about to lock up, it passes a control signal to the

62
applicable solenoid, which in turn causes its valve to move to the appropriate operating position, thus
reducing the pressure at the wheel cylinder.
Working: The three phases of control:
Phase 1 Normal brake operation: Brake fluid pressure remains unaffected by ABS. ABS has no influence
on the brake system operation because no wheel locking is detected or ABS has not detected any potential
for wheel lock.
Phase 2 Pressure hold: ABS detects that the rotational speed of one or more wheels is slowing down at a
rate that is greater than the other wheels. In effect, the grip from one or more tyres is lower than the others
therefore the wheel speed is becoming slower than the other wheels, i.e. the wheel is about to lock up. The
ABS operation prevents the pressure of the brake fluid on the affected wheel(s) from increasing. Even if
the driver applies greater pressure to the brake pedal, the pressure on the affected wheel brakes will not
increase, although pressure on the other brakes will increase. The result should then be that all tyres end
up with the same levels of grip.
Phase 3 Pressure reduction: If the affected wheel(s) is still slowing down at a greater rate than the other
wheels, or is actually locking up, ABS reduces the pressure to the applicable brake(s). The affected wheels
will now be able to speed up because there is less braking force being applied. The result will be that the
slower wheel should increase speed to match the faster wheels.
When the speed of the affected wheel starts to increase, ABS allows pressure to be re-applied to the brake.
In this way, ABS can maintain relatively consistent rates of deceleration for all four wheels.

63
Air bag restraint system:

Airbags are normally fitted to the driver and passenger side to protect the occupant from head and
chest injuries that could be sustained in a collision with a solid object.
Components:
1. An inflator and airbag assembly – mounted in the steering wheel
2. Front impact sensors – placed at the front of the vehicle
3. Airbag ECU – mounted centrally in the vehicle consisting of all the evaluation electronics
and triggering circuits
Inflator and air bag assembly:
This self-contained module houses the nylon
fabric airbag, gas generator and igniter element. When
a small electric current is applied to the igniter the heat
produced causes the gas capsules in the gas generator
to give off nitrogen gas to inflate the airbag. The figure
shows a cut-away view of a typical inflator assembly.
The electrical connection between the igniter element
(also known as a squib) and the steering column is via a flattened cable wound in a similar manner to a
clock spring. This maintains a reliable at all steering-wheel positions. In the fig. A –Screens, B – Squib,
C – igniter charge, D – gas generant.
Acceleration sensors:
The mechanical sensor system, as shown in the
figure, works by a spring holding a roller in a set position
until an impact above a predetermined limit, provides
enough force to overcome the spring and the roller
moves, triggering a micro switch. The switch is normally
open with a resistor in parallel to allow the system to be
monitored. Two switches similar to this may be used to
ensure the bag is deployed only in the case of sufficient
frontal impact. Note that the airbag is not deployed in the event of a roll over.
Airbag ECU:
This is located at a central point in the vehicle and can have combined functionality by triggering
the seatbelt tensioners and the side airbags as well. The main functions of the airbag ECU are: housing of
sensors, back-up power supply, airbag ignition driver circuit, self-diagnosis circuit.
Working:
When a vehicle collision is detected by the system sensors, the required response is calculated by
the ECU processor according to pre-programmed information. The system works in conjunction with
seatbelt tensioners (often using the same ECU) in order to coordinate and maximize the effect of both
devices. In order to detect offset or oblique impacts, the ECU can take into account information from

64
additional sensors like lateral acceleration sensors (where fitted). From the sensor data, the impact is
analyzed in sophisticated algorithms and the seatbelt tensioners and airbag are triggered with appropriate
time thresholds according to the severity and type of impact. The electronic trigger circuit fires the gas
generator and the airbag is inflated to full volume with nitrogen gas in approximately 30 ms. The airbag
volume will be 30 litres for the driver and 60 litres for the passenger. Figure 9.28 shows the inflation
process. Driver airbags are generally inflated in 30 to 40 ms and passenger airbags in 80 to 100 ms. This
is due to the fact that the passenger is further away from the glove compartment than the driver is from
the steering wheel and the passenger airbag is bigger. The airbag response to the occupant hitting it is
controlled deflation. This reduces the impact forces and absorbs the energy to reduce or prevent injuries.
As soon as the airbag is fully inflated it begins to deflate. The whole process completes in less than 150
ms.
Fig. - Sequence of operations
Seat belt systems (pretensoner):

Most vehicles are fitted with three-point inertia-reel seatbelts and these restrain the seat occupant when
the vehicle is involved in a collision. An improvement to the basic function of the seatbelt can be gained
via the inclusion of seatbelt tensioners. In the event of an impact, the belt tensioners pull the seatbelts
tightly across the upper body and hold the occupant in a position as close as possible to the seat back-rest.
This prevents excessive forward displacement of the occupant due to inertia effects of the body mass.
Mechanical inertia-reel seatbelts lock when a certain retardation (or deceleration) threshold is reached.
The belt must absorb a considerable amount of energy even at modest speeds, but due to seatbelt slack,
stretch and the inherent delay in the belt retractor, the seatbelt can only provide very limited protection at
higher speeds and cannot guarantee that the occupant will not contact the steering wheel/dashboard.
Seatbelt tensioners consist of a pyrotechnic gas generator similar to an airbag gas generator. When ignited,
normally by the airbag/restraint system ECU, the rapid increase in pressure is applied to a plunger which,
via a steel cable, rotates the belt-tightener reel and this then provides the force at the belt to restrain the
occupant.

65
Fig. Construction Fig. Sequence of operation

When the explosive charge is fired, the cable pulls a lever on the seat-belt reel, which in turn tightens the
belt. The unit must be replaced once deployed. Inside the chamber, there is a smaller chamber with
explosive igniter material. This smaller chamber is outfitted with two electrodes, which are wired to the
central processor. When the processor detects a collision, it immediately applies an electrical current
across the electrodes. The spark from the electrodes ignites the igniter material, which combusts to ignite
the gas in the chamber. The burning gas generates a great deal of outward pressure. The pressure pushes
on a piston resting in the chamber, driving it upward at high speed. A rack gear is fastened to one side of
the piston. When the piston shoots up, the rack gear engages a gear connected to the retractor spool
mechanism. The speeding rack rotates the spool forcefully, winding up any slack belt webbing.
Road navigation system:
Navigation in the vehicle is a process that the driver uses
to get to their intended destination by means of directions
or guidance. This system uses electronic maps and
optimized route-calculation algorithms executed via a
microprocessor for planning the best route according to
the driver’s requirements. This route can be offered to the
driver online via a user interface providing audible and
visual instructions as they travel. It is essential that the
actual position of the vehicle is known at all times so that
this can be referenced to a map position. This can be
achieved using satellite navigation technology. This
provides a dynamic route-calculation ability and thus the
system can respond to actual traffic conditions by
correcting the directions to avoid jams.

66
Principle:
The GPS satellites transmit signals allowing positioning information to be established with
accuracies of ±10 metres and this is more than sufficient for vehicle navigation use. There are 24 satellites
which circumnavigate the earth every 12 hours in six different orbits. Each one transmits a unique signal
at approximately 50 Hz with their position information and a time signal. Due to the different transit times
of this signal from each satellite, the signal received from each one has a time offset. The GPS receiver in
the navigation system calculates the data transmission time by comparison with its own internal clock.
Assuming that signals from at least three satellites can be received, two-dimensional position information
can be derived from the time offset between the signals from each satellite. With four satellite signals,
three-dimensional positions can be established.
Components:
Navigation control unit:
This is often integrated with the vehicle entertainment system to form a complete infotainment
system. The advantage of this technique is that space which already exists in the dashboard in a convenient
position for the driver is utilized for dual functionality. The unit integrates the user control inputs via
buttons and function keys, multifunction colour display, radio/CD entertainment system, GPS receiver,
connected via GPS external aerial, map data via CD/DVD-ROM drive
Turn angle sensor:
This sensor is a vehicle yaw rate sensor (remember that the yaw angle is the angle between a
vehicle’s actual heading and a desired or reference heading) and it is used to establish the vehicle change
of direction during composite navigation. If a yaw sensor is already fitted to the vehicle then that sensor
can be used. The sensor employs the principle of the Coriolis force to detect rotation of the vehicle about
its axis.
Wheel speed sensor:
The signal from wheel-speed sensors (for ABS) are used to determine the distance travelled by the
vehicle. In addition, in conjunction with the turn angle sensor, the curve radius can also be established.
This information is essential during the composite navigation process.
Reversing signal:
This is generally available from the reversing-light switch via the CAN bus. This allows the system
to establish movement direction in order to accurately determine vehicle position.
GPS antenna:
Good communication with the GPS satellites is essential for GPS navigation. Generally external
GPS aerials are fitted and these can be combined with the entertainment system aerial or they can be
mounted separately. The entertainment system speakers are used to play back the audible direction from
the navigation system. Note that manufacturer standard-fit navigation equipment generally includes a
diagnostic interface via the vehicle’s own diagnostic gateway. Using the appropriate equipment, error
codes can be accessed and diagnostic procedures executed.

67
Working:
Position finding:
This involves the combination of composite and GPS techniques in order the establish the vehicle’s
current position and direction. A process known as ‘map matching’ allows the system to determine the
vehicle’s position with a high level of accuracy. The signals from the wheel-speed sensors and yaw sensor
are compared to the stored map and the route profile. From this information, specific points (for example
a right turn) are identified and the actual and estimated positions can be compared and the error
compensated. This allows an accuracy of ±5 m to be established in urban areas.
Route calculation
The driver inputs their destination into the system at the beginning of the journey. Using the digital
map information, the navigation system microprocessor calculates the best route. This route calculation
can be adjusted by the driver to avoid specific points or to optimize the route with respect to distance or
time. The route calculation timing is derived from the expected average driving time of each road section
or element of the map.
Navigation
During the journey, an electronic voice gives verbal driver instructions in advance of turns or lane
changes. In addition, the display screen gives simple visual signals (arrows etc.) which are directly in the
line of sight to aid the driver in following the navigation system’s recommended route. The route can be
dynamically recalculated by the system if required by the driver (for example due to an obstruction) or if
the driver misses an instruction.
Working sequence:
1. Driver enters the destination via the user interface.
2. Vehicle position is identified from the stored map data using satellite data to an accuracy of
±100 m
3. Once the vehicle is moving, the system uses map matching to increase the accuracy of the
position data to approximately ±5 m.
4. The system calculates the optimum route to the destination.
5. The route information is given to the driver via audible and visual messaging during driving.
6. During the trip, the distance and direction is continuously monitored via wheel-speed and yaw
sensors.
7. The system monitors whether the driver is following the prescribed route and alerts the driver
if he deviates. If the driver stays on the deviated route the system dynamically recalculates a
new route based on the current position.
8. Once the vehicle reaches the intended destination, the driver is informed via an audible
message

68
Anti theft system:

There are three basic types of antitheft devices available: Locking devices, Disabling devices and alarm
systems.
Locks and keys:
Locks are designed to deny entry to the car as well as to prevent a thief from driving it away. Most
locks move a mechanical block between the vehicle’s body and the door. Keys simply move those blocks.
Manufacturers use specially cut keys that cannot be easily duplicated and lock mechanisms that are
difficult to pick. The master key is often built into a remote control key handle. The master key can lock
and unlock the doors, trunk, fuel filler door, and glove compartment all at the same time. The battery for
the remote is charged each time the key is inserted into the ignition. A special key, often called a valet
key, only works in the doors and ignition, thereby preventing the valet from entering the trunk and glove
compartment. Many cars are equipped with special fuel filler doors that help to prevent the theft of gas
from the fuel tank. Voltage is present at the fuel filler door release switch at all times. When the switch is
closed, the door release solenoid is energized and the fuel door opens.
Fig. Resistance key Fig. Transponder key

Passkey systems:
The passkey is a specially designed key, or transponder, that is programmed just for one vehicle.
Although another key may fit into the ignition switch or door lock, the system will not allow the engine
to start without the correct electrical signal from the key. A resistance key is a normal key with a small
resistor bonded to it. When the key is inserted into the ignition switch, the circuit must recognize that
resistance as being the correct amount for the vehicle before the engine will start. Transponder key systems
are based on a communication scheme between the vehicle’s PCM and the transponder in the key. Each
time the key is inserted into the ignition switch, the PCM sends out a different radio signal. If the key’s
transponder is not capable of returning the same signal, the engine will not start.
Passwords
On some passkey systems, a new password must be learned by the PCM or BCM when either has
been replaced. The calibration is flashed into the new control module. After flashing, attempt to start the
vehicle. It will not, but it will leave the ignition on until the theft system warning lamp turns off. Then
turn the ignition off and attempt to start the engine. The engine should start this time.
Keyless Entry Systems

69
A keyless entry system allows the driver to unlock the doors or trunk lid from outside of the vehicle
without using a key. It has two main components: an electronic control module and a coded- button keypad
on the driver’s door or a key fob. Some keyless systems also have an illuminated entry system. The
electronic control module typically can unlock all doors, unlock the trunk, lock all doors, lock the trunk,
turn on courtesy lamps, and illuminate the keypad or keyhole after any button on the keypad is pushed or
either front door handle is pulled. Remote keyless entry systems rely on a handheld transmitter, frequently
part of the key fob. With a press of the unlock button on the transmitter from 25 to 50 feet away (depending
on the type of transmitter) in any direction range, the interior lights turn on, the driver’s door unlocks, and
the theft security system is disarmed. The trunk can also be unlocked. Pressing the lock button locks all
doors and arms the security system. For maximum security, some remote units and their receiver change
access codes each time the remote is used. Some remote units can also open and close all of the vehicle’s
windows, including the sunroof. They may also be capable of setting off the alarm system in the case of
panic.
Smart Keys
Many new vehicles do not come with a key; rather a transponder is used to perform all of the
functions of a key. On some systems the transponder is inserted into a slot in the instrument panel. To
start the engine, the transponder is pressed. On others, after the transponder is inserted into its slot, a start
button is pressed. The system is based on a communication link between the transponder and the vehicle.
If the codes of the transponder and the vehicle do not match, the engine will not start. A few vehicles have
smarter smart keys. The transponder does not need to be inserted. It merely needs to be close to the vehicle.
This system is normally called a smart access system. The system can perform many functions without
inserting a key or pressing a button. It can lock and unlock the doors, allow the engine to start by pressing
the engine switch while depressing the brake pedal, and open the trunk. When the electronic key enters
into zones around the vehicle, a certification control module certifies the ID code from the key. Once the
signal is certified, the control module transmits an engine immobilizer deactivation signal to the ID code
box and a steering unlock signal to the steering lock ECU. The BCM also receives a certification signal
and actuates the door lock motor to unlock or lock the door.
Alarm systems:
The two methods for activating alarm systems are passive and active. Passive systems switch on
automatically when the ignition key is removed or the doors are locked. Active systems are activated with
a key fob transmitter, keypad, key, or toggle switch. Switches similar to those used to turn on the courtesy
lights as the doors are opened are often used. When a door, hood, or trunk is opened, the switch closes
and the alarm sounds. It turns itself off automatically (provided the intruder has stopped trying to enter
the car) to prevent the battery from being drained. It then automatically rearms itself. Ultrasonic sensors
are used to detect motion and will trigger the alarm if there is movement inside the vehicle. Current-
sensitive sensors activate the alarm if there is a change in current within the electrical system, such as

70
when a courtesy light goes on or the ignition starts. Motion detectors monitor changes in the vehicle’s tilt,
such as when someone is attempting to steal the tires. Many alarm systems are designed to sound an alarm,
turn on the hazard lights, and cause the high beams to flash along with the hazard lamps. Indicator lamps
on the inside of the vehicle alert others that the alarm is set and also remind the driver to turn the alarm
off before entering. To avoid false alarms, some systems allow for the disabling of particular sensors, such
as the motion detector inside the vehicle that could be set off by a pet inside the vehicle.

71
Content beyond syllabus:

Twin spark ignition system:
The Twin Spark technology was first designed in the year 1914 for the Alfa Romeo Grand Prix
Car. Over the years, the technology has been upgraded, and in 1960 was incorporated on all Alfa Romeo
road cars. This would greatly enhance the overall performance, and also conform to the emission levels
compliance guidelines.
Technically the spark plug has a very minute time to react and meet perfect ignition; approximately
1 by 200th of a second in an engine running at 6000 rpm. In that time the spark plug must fire and burn
the engine mixture as quickly as possible. Once that cycle is complete, the cylinder must ideally be ready
for expulsion of all the exhaust gases ensuring as little unburned fuel or hydrocarbons as possible. Now
the main problem lies in that time the spark plug has to perform its role. It might work well enough in case
of a smaller engine where the gas mixture can be evenly spread out in no time for the spark plug to burn
for good results. However as the engine size goes up especially as in the case of race cars and performance
vehicles, a single spark plug will not have the time to burn through all corners of the chamber. The matter
is further complicated by the fact that engines aren’t static and the burn must start off at the top dead centre
and process down to the bottom dead centre with the piston descending rapidly.
The two spark plugs are placed separately but symmetrical to the axis at 90 degrees to the valve axis within
the cylinder thereby giving the two spark plugs the ability to control the ignition in two halves of the
chamber. In this case, if the positioning is accurate, the maximum flame front path is more reduced than
the one produced by the single spark plug at the dead centre of the four valve cylinder.

72
Brushless DC motor:
Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as electronically commutated
motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous motors that are powered by a DC electric source via an
integrated inverter/switching power supply, which produces an AC electric signal to drive the motor. In
this context, AC, alternating current, does not imply a sinusoidal waveform, but rather a bi-directional
current with no restriction on waveform. Additional sensors and electronics control the inverter output
amplitude and waveform (and therefore percent of DC bus usage/efficiency) and frequency (i.e. rotor
speed). The rotor part of a brushless motor is often a permanent magnet synchronous motor, but can also
be a switched reluctance motor, or induction motor.
Brushless motors can be constructed in several different physical configurations: In the
'conventional' (also known as in runner) configuration, the permanent magnets are part of the rotor. Three
stator windings surround the rotor. In the out runner (or external-rotor) configuration, the radial-
relationship between the coils and magnets is reversed; the stator coils form the center (core) of the motor,
while the permanent magnets spin within an overhanging rotor which surrounds the core. The flat or axial
flux type, used where there are space or shape limitations, uses stator and rotor plates, mounted face to
face. Out runners typically have more poles, set up in triplets to maintain the three groups of windings,
and have a higher torque at low RPMs. In all brushless motors, the coils are stationary. There are two
common electrical winding configurations; the delta configuration connects three windings to each other
(series circuits) in a triangle-like circuit, and power is applied at each of the connections. The Wye (Y-
shaped) configuration, sometimes called a star winding, connects all of the windings to a central point
(parallel circuits) and power is applied to the remaining end of each winding. A motor with windings in
delta configuration gives low torque at low speed, but can give higher top speed. Wye configuration gives
high torque at low speed, but not as high top speed.


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1

UNIT I BATTERIES AND STARTING SYSTEM 10

Lead acid batteries:

Fig: Grid structure in a battery

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Discharing condition Charging condition

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Nickel Cadmium batteries:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Fig. Nickel Cadmium battery construction

Disadvantages of Ni-Cd batteries:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Nickel Metal Hydride batteries (Ni-MH):

Fig. Ni-MH battery construction Fig. chemical reaction in Ni-MH battery

Aluminium air batteries:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

The anode oxidation half-reaction is

The cathode reduction half-reaction is

The total reaction is

Sodium sulphur batteries:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Characteristics of battery: (Battery performance)

Charging / discharging characteristics: Voltage curve

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Specific gravity testing of battery electrolyte:

State of Charge Specific Gravity Voltage

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

State of Charge Specific Gravity Voltage

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

2. High discharge test:

3. Cranking motor test:

4. Open circuit voltage test:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

2. Constant voltage charging:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

3. Booster or high rate charging:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

2. Pole and Pole core:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Simple connection diagram:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Loop connection with commutator and battery

Characteristic curves: Performance curves for diesel and petrol

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Starter motor drive mechanisms:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

2. Folo thru drive mechanism:

Fig. : Sectional view of over running clutch

Disengaged position Engaged position

Manually operated shift lever Usage of sprag instead of rollers

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Starter switches and solenoids:

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

The overall circuit is shown below (for reference):

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics

UNIT II CHARGING SYSTEM LIGHTING AND ACCESSORIES 9

Overall layout of charging system

Subject : AT 6502 Automotive Electrical and Electronics