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LEAD-ACİD BATTERY

Article · January 2022

DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.19115057

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 LEAD-ACİD BATTERY
Sefu KITARONKA
Institute of Sciences, Electrical and Electronics
Engineering Department,
Siirt University , Kezer Yerleşkesi Veysel Karani
Mah. Üniversite Cad. No:1 56100 Merkez/SİİRT/TURKEY

siu siirt.edu.tr

1.Abstract
The lead-acid battery is the oldest and most widely used rechargeable electrochemical device in
automobile, uninterrupted power supply (UPS), and backup systems for telecom and many other
applications. Such a device operates through chemical reactions involving lead dioxide (cathode
electrode), lead (anode electrode), and sulfuric acid [2]. Lead-acid batteries have a high round-
trip efficiency, and are cheap and easy to install. It is the affordability and availability that make
this type of battery dominant in the renewable energy sector. It is also well known that lead-
acid batteries have low energy density and short cycle life, and are toxic due to the use of sulfuric
acid and are potentially environmentally hazardous. These disadvantages imply some
limitations to this type of battery. Solar Energy Storage Options Indeed, a recent study on
economic and environmental impact suggests that lead-acid batteries are unsuitable for
domestic grid-connected photovoltaic systems [3].

2.Introduction
Lead acid batteries are the world’s most widely used battery type and have been commercially
deployed since about 1890. Lead acid battery systems are used in both mobile and stationary
applications. Their typical applications are emergency power supply systems, stand-alone
systems with PV, battery systems for mitigation of output fluctuations from wind power and as
starter batteries in vehicles. In the past, early in the “electrification age” (1910 to 1945), many
lead acid batteries were used for storage in grids. Stationary lead acid batteries have to meet far
higher product quality standards than starter batteries. Typical service life is 6 to 15 years with
a cycle life of 1 500 cycles at 80 % depth of discharge, and they achieve cycle efficiency levels of
around 80 % to 90 %. Lead acid batteries offer a mature and well-researched technology at low
cost. There are many types of lead acid batteries available, e.g. vented and sealed housing
versions (called valve regulated lead acid batteries, VRLA). Costs for stationary batteries are
currently far higher than for starter batteries. Mass production of lead acid batteries for
stationary systems may lead to a price reduction. One disadvantage of lead acid batteries is
usable capacity decrease when high power is discharged. For example, if a battery is discharged
in one hour, only about 50 % to 70 % of the rated capacity is available. Other drawbacks are
lower energy density and the use of lead, a hazardous material prohibited or restricted in various
jurisdictions. Advantages are a favorable cost/performance ratio, easy recyclability and a simple
charging technology. Current R&D on lead acid batteries is trying to improve their behaviors
for micro-hybrid electric vehicles [1].

3.Operation of Lead Acid Batteries

A lead acid battery consists of a negative electrode made of spongy or porous lead. The lead is
porous to facilitate the formation and dissolution of lead. The positive electrode consists of lead
oxide. Both electrodes are immersed in a electrolytic solution of sulfuric acid and water. In case
the electrodes come into contact with each other through physical movement of the battery or
through changes in thickness of the electrodes, an electrically insulating, but chemically
permeable membrane separates the two electrodes. This membrane also prevents electrical
shorting through the electrolyte. [6]

Image:[4]

Lead acid batteries store energy by the reversible chemical reaction shown below.

The overall chemical reaction is:

At the negative terminal the charge and discharge reactions are:

At the positive terminal the charge and discharge reactions are:

As the above equations show, discharging a battery causes the formation of lead sulfate crystals
at both the negative and positive terminals, as well as the release of electrons due to the change
in valence charge of the lead. The formation of this lead sulfate uses sulfate from the sulfuric
acid electrolyte surrounding the battery. As a result, the electrolyte becomes less concentrated.
Full discharge would result in both electrodes being covered with lead sulfate and water rather
than sulfuric acid surrounding the electrodes. At full discharge the two electrodes are the same
material, and there is no chemical potential or voltage between the two electrodes. In practice,
however, discharging stops at the cutoff voltage, long before this point. The battery should not
therefore be discharged below this voltage.

Tables:[5].
In between the fully discharged and charged states, a lead acid battery will experience a gradual
reduction in the voltage. Voltage level is commonly used to indicate a battery's state of charge.
The dependence of the battery on the battery state of charge is shown in the figure below. If the
battery is left at low states of charge for extended periods of time, large lead sulfate crystals can
grow, which permanently reduces battery capacity. These larger crystals are unlike the typical
porous structure of the lead electrode, and are difficult to convert back into lead.

4.Depth of Discharge and Battery Capacity

the depth of discharge and rated battery capacity, the instantaneous or available battery
capacity is strongly affected by the discharge rate of the battery and the operating temperature
of the battery. Battery capacity falls by about 1% per degree below about 20°C. However, high
temperatures are not ideal for batteries either as these accelerate aging, self-discharge and
electrolyte usage. The graph below shows the impact of battery temperature and discharge rate
on the capacity of the battery.

Figure1: Relationship between battery capacity, temperature and discharge rate.

 5. Peukert’s law on Depth of Discharge and Battery Capacity
When a battery is given an AH (Amp Hour) rating, it is always accompanied by the number of
hours that rate is taken at. The most often listed rate is 20 hours. So, if you were to see a
battery rated at 100AH, it would have been tested at a 20-hour rate, unless otherwise
noted. This means that the manufacturer slapped the 100AH rating on the battery after testing
that battery for 20 hours with an actual amperage drain of 5 amps. What this also means is that
your load of 15 amps will not actually last 6.6 hours, as one may think, but a much smaller
number. Luckily for us, there is a very handy-dandy formula to figure out exactly how long a
lead acid battery will last, under any load. It is called Peukert’s Law. Peukert’s law expresses
mathematically that as the rate of discharge increases, the available capacity of that battery
decreases.[7]

Table:[8]

The formula that states the Law in a usable format is as follows:

H is the rated discharge time, in (hours).

C is the rated capacity at that discharge rate, in (Ampere-hours).
I is the actual discharge current, in (Amps).
k is the Peukert constant, (dimensionless).
t is the actual time to discharge the battery, in (hours).

The formula, as we use it, is then rewritten to:

It is the discharge rate at the time to discharge e.g., the new AH rating.
 6.Classification of EES systems
lead acid is one of Electrochemical storage systems in fig. that is the oldest and most established
way of storing electrical energy is in the form of chemical energy storage systems. One of the
main features of this form of energy storage is that it has very high efficiency due to no moving
parts in the system. However, the biggest challenges that have been experienced by
electrochemical storage technologies are their inability to cycle repeatedly in a deep discharge
fashion, with sufficient reliability, efficiency, and better economics [10].

Image:[1].

7.Types of lead acid batteries

Basically, there are two types of lead acid batteries (along with three sub categories). The two
main types are starting (cranking), and deep cycle (marine/golf cart). The starting battery (SLI
starting lights ignition) is designed to deliver quick bursts of energy (such as starting engines)
and therefore has a greater plate count. The plates are thinner and have somewhat different
material composition.
What is a deep cycle battery? The deep cycle battery has less instant energy, but greater long-
term energy delivery. Deep cycle batteries have thicker plates and can survive a lot of discharge
cycles. Starting batteries should not be used for deep cycle applications because the thinner
plates are more prone to warping and pitting when discharged. The so-called Dual-Purpose
Battery is a compromise between the two types of batteries, though it is better to be more
specific if possible.[11]
Figure 2: Flat plates and tubular plates.[19]

In lead acid Gel batteries, the sulfuric acid is mixed with finely divided silica, which forms a
thick paste or gel. The freshly mixed gel is poured into the cell container before it sets. As the
gel dries microscopic cracks form that allows the passage of gas between the positive and
negative plates required for the recombination process. This formation of cracks may occur
during the early part of a gel battery’s service life, so both hydrogen and oxygen can be given
off from a new battery through the safety valve. Attention should be paid to the manufacturer’s
instructions concerning this, especially regarding ventilation requirements. Unlike AGM
batteries gel batteries can be made with either flat or tubular positive plates. The gel provides
a better means of heat conduction from the plates to the cell walls than in AGM batteries, so
heat produced on overcharge is lost more efficiently. The sustained high-current capability
(both charge and discharge) is not as good for gel batteries as for AGM batteries, but this is not
normally a problem for PV use. At high operating temperatures they will suffer to some extent
from water loss, but since there is more acid than in an equivalent AGM battery, the lifetime
reduction will not be so severe.[19]

Image: Universal 12v 55 AH Deep Cycle Sealed Gel Battery UB22NF-47605UB22NF-47605

AGM (absorbed glass mat) uses special design glass mat designed to wick the battery
electrolyte between the battery plates. AGM batteries contain only enough liquid to keep the
mat wet with the electrolyte and if the battery is broken no free liquid is available to leak out.
Image: MK Battery 12v 45 AH Deep Cycle Sealed AGM Battery ES40-12ES40-12

More often than not AGM Batteries are mistakenly identified as Gel Cell Batteries. Both
batteries have similar traits; such as being non spillable, deep cycle, may be mounted in any
position, low self-discharge, safe for use in limited ventilation areas, and may be transported via
Air or Ground safely without special handling.[20]

8. Battery terms
The main features that determine the performance of the batteries differ according to the
chemical and physical properties of the batteries. Depending on the area of use, these features
should be taken into consideration and battery selection should be made accordingly in order to
get the most performance from the battery. Battery performance characteristics are examined
in the following subsections under the headings of battery capacity, energy, density, power
density, efficiency, self-discharge, and battery cycle life [12]
8.1 Battery capacity
Battery capacity is defined as the total amount of electricity generated due to electrochemical
reactions in the battery and is expressed in ampere hours.[12]
Figure 3: Peukert curve based on discharge graph.[12]

AH: An Amp/Hour is a rating usually found on deep cycle batteries and is a capacity rating.
The standard rating is a based on how many amps you can pull out of the battery over a 20-
hour period. For a 100 AH rated battery this means you can draw from the battery for 20 hours,
and it will provide a total of 100-amp hours. That translates to about 5 amps an hour (5 x 20 =
100). However, it's very important to know that the total time of discharge and load applied is
not a linear relationship. As your load increases, your realized capacity decreases. This means if
you discharged that same 100 AH battery by a 100-amp load, it would not give you one hour of
runtime. On the contrary, the perceived capacity of the battery will be that of 64-amp hours.[11]
3.2 Battery state of charge (SOC)
Charging is a process that reverses the electrochemical reaction. It converts the electrical
energy of the charger into chemical energy. Remember, a battery does not store electricity; it
stores the chemical energy necessary to produce electricity.[13]
It is important for the user and the health of the battery to learn how much energy is left in a
battery. The capacity of the battery is defined by the state of charge (SOC) as a percentage of
reference. The amount of remaining energy in the batteries is usually set as SOC instead of
giving in Coulomb, kWh, or Ah for easier understanding. The preferred SOC reference should
be the SOC reference of the actual battery cell, not the capacity of a new battery cell. The
capacity of a battery cell gradually decreases as the battery ages. For example, when a battery
cell reaches the end of its life, its actual usable capacity is approaching 80 %. In this case, even
if the battery is fully charged, its nominal SOC capacity will be around 80 %. Temperature and
deep discharge currents further reduce the effective capacity of the battery. Reference SOC
points are of great importance for the user to learn the battery SOC correctly. Battery SOC
calculation is given by the following equation:
 SOC must be between 0 ≤ SOC(t) ≤ 100. CB is nominal capacity of the battery, IB is the current
drawn from the battery. The battery should be operated within a certain SOC area in order for
a battery to be charged/discharged properly, and the number of cycle life increases. The critical
SOC operating band range of a battery is given in Fig. 4. When the battery is overcharged, it
becomes disturbing for battery plates and can cause overheating. This causes the battery cell
plates to wear and reduce their cycle life, such as not recharging. Therefore, the battery should
be operated in a safe SOC area in order to work properly and prolong its life. This safe working
area varies according to the

Figure 4: Battery's SOC operating range.

battery type, according to the technical specifications of the battery. Controlled charge and
discharge equipment is required to hold the battery in this safe working area. By measuring the
current and voltage of the battery real time, the battery operates in this specified SOC area. Fig.
5. gives the working band range according to the lithium-ion battery, and cell voltage is given
for the charge and discharge conditions of the SOC safe working area. If the battery leaves the
safe working area while it is charging, it causes the cell voltage to increase, to temperature up,
and to decrease its
Figure 5. Cell voltage band gap for lithium-ion battery charge/discharge.

life. If the battery leaves the safe working area while discharging, it causes the cell voltage to
gradually decrease and damage the plates. In this case the battery cannot hold its first SOC in
the next charge [14].
3.3 Effect of temperature on battery
The value of the ambient temperature during discharge is a factor affecting the battery
performance. As the ambient temperature decreases, losses in the output voltage increase and
capacity decreases. The chemical reaction inside the battery occurs by the battery voltage or
temperature. The chemical reaction will be faster in a high-temperature battery. The high
temperature can accelerate the chemical reaction and the providing high performance in the
battery. But at the same time, undesirable chemical reactions can occur and reduce battery life.
The battery's shelf life and charge-keeping feature depend on the self-discharge of the battery.
The self-discharge of the battery is an undesirable chemical reaction. Likewise, electrodes reduce
the cycle life of battery as a result of negative chemical reactions such as corrosion and
gasification. Therefore, the temperature affects the battery's shelf life, cycle life, and the battery's
charge-keeping ability. Fig. 6. gives SOC change in different discharge situations depending on
the ambient temperature of a lead–acid battery [15].

FIGURE 6. Change of lead–acid battery capacity by temperature

3.4 Depth of discharge (DoD)

The amount of current that a battery can deliver during discharge is expressed by the depth of
discharge (DoD). Fig.7. gives the graph of the relationship between the number of cycles and
DoD logarithmically. In other words, the battery cycle number is the exponential function of
DoD. Fig. 7. gives the
Figure 7. Cycle number and depth of discharge for lead–acid battery.

relationship between the number of cycles and the DoD for the lead–acid battery type. But it is
a typical model for all battery cell chemicals, including lithium-ion batteries with different
scaling. This is because the battery life depends on the total energy efficiency that active
chemicals can provide. The total energy flow is constant, when the 100 % DoD cycle is
calculated as 1 cycle, 50 % DoD as 2 cycles, 10 % DoD as 10 cycles, and 1 % DoD as 100 cycles
equivalent. In addition, because the cycle life and the performance of active chemicals decrease
due to battery aging, the performance of the battery cells decreases [16].
3.5 Energy density
Energy intensity of a battery is determined as the amount of energy per unit weight or unit
volume of the battery. Energy intensity unit is shown in Wh/kg or Wh/L. The energy density
of a battery can be calculated in two different ways: theoretical and practical energy density. In
theoretical energy density, the calculation is made taking into account the weight or volume of
the anode, cathode and electrolyte, which are included only in the electrochemical reaction of
the battery. In calculating the practical energy density, the total weight or volume of the battery
is taken into account. In this case, depending on the battery type and manufacturing process,
there can be up to five times the difference between theoretical and practical energy densities
[16].
Figure 8 . Comparison of rated power, energy content and discharge time of different EES technologies [21]

3.6 Power density

Another feature that characterizes battery performance is battery power density. Power density
is determined as the amount of power per unit weight or volume of the battery. Its unit is W/kg
or W/L. The power output of a battery depends not only on its chemical properties but also on
its design and physical structure.
Therefore, there is usually a trade-off between the power density and the energy density during
the battery manufacturing phase. For a battery with a high-power density, low internal
resistance and low electrode polarization are required. In order to achieve this, the amount of
materials that do not react electrochemically should increase. This, in turn, increases the volume
and weight of the battery, resulting in a reduction in energy density [16].
3.7 Efficiency
The efficiency of a rechargeable battery is calculated as the ratio of the total energy given by
the battery to discharge to the total energy received by the battery. This rate may decrease up
to 0.6 due to energy losses in the battery. Energy losses in the battery are caused by corrosion
in the battery material, gas leakage in the electrolyte, battery internal resistance, and
polarization losses in the electrodes. Battery charge numbers and battery life also affect battery
efficiency [16].
3.8 Self-discharge
Another feature that characterizes battery performance is the amount of battery discharge when
the battery is not used. Depending on the battery type and the ambient temperature, there are
differences in the rate of unloaded discharge of the batteries. The battery can be fully discharged
due to long-term use, and rechargeable batteries can be completely out of use. Therefore,
rechargeable batteries should be recharged at certain time intervals [17].

3.9 Cycle life

Another feature that characterizes battery performance is the amount of battery discharge when
the battery is not used. Depending on the battery type and the ambient temperature, there are
differences in the rate of unloaded discharge of the batteries. The battery can be fully discharged
due to long-term use, and rechargeable batteries can be completely out of use. Therefore,
rechargeable batteries should be recharged at certain time intervals [17].

Table 1. Overview technical data for EES [1]

 Battery Technology Lead acid
Nominal Voltage [V] 2.0
Capacity per cell [Ah] 1 – 4 000
Response Time < sec
Energy Density [Wh/kg] 30 – 45
Energy Density [Wh/l] 50 – 80
Power Density W/ 90 – 700
Typical Discharge time hours
EnergyEfficiency ηWh [%] 75 – 90
Lifetime [a] 3 – 15
Typ. Cycle Lifetime [cycles] 250 – 1 500
Typical applications Off-Grid, Emergency supply, Time
shifting, Power quality

9.Summary and Comparison of Battery Characteristics

There are a large number of battery parameters. Depending on which application the battery is
used for, some parameters are more important than others. The following is a list of parameters
that may be specified by a manufacturer for a given type of battery. For example, in a typical
battery for a general car, the energy density is not relevant - a battery is a small fraction of the
total battery weight and consequently this parameter would typically not be listed for a
conventional car battery. However, in electric vehicle applications, the battery weight is a
significant fraction of the overall weight of the vehicle and so the energy densities will be
given.[6]
Tables:[6]

10.Result.
Lead acid batteries are the most commonly used type of battery in photovoltaic systems.
Although lead acid batteries have a low energy density, only moderate efficiency and high
maintenance requirements, they also have a long lifetime and low costs compared to other
battery types. One of the singular advantages of lead acid batteries is that they are the most
commonly used form of battery for most rechargeable battery applications (for example, in
starting car engines), and therefore have a well-established established, mature technology
base.[6]
11.Conclusion
LA batteries have high reliability. One of the major problems with LA batteries is that they
produce hydrogen and oxygen during charging (by electrolysis of water), once the charging
voltage exceeds a certain value. Because a rise in voltage is inevitable as the cell charges, the
generation of gas cannot be avoided. Some cell designs simply allow the gas to escape. Such cells
are normally called flooded cells because the electrodes are “flooded” with sulfuric acid
electrolyte, and the water level is topped up regularly to take account of the loss through
electrolysis. The alternative is the valve-regulated LA cell, sometimes also called the sealed LA
cell. These use special design features to encourage the hydrogen and oxygen generated by the
cell to recombine into water, while releasing any excess gas that does not recombine through a
control valve. LA batteries also have a poor low-temperature performance, and therefore require
a thermal management system.[18].
12.References
1.Electrical Energy Storage,2011. https://www.iec.ch/basecamp/electrical-energy-storage
2. C.D.Parker,J.Garche,2004. Battery Energy-Storage Systems for Power-Supply Networks,in D.A.J. Rand, J.
Garche, ... C.D. Parker Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries .Elsevier,Amsterdam,Pages 295-326(chapter 10)
3.Eoghan McKenna, Marcelle McManus, Sam Cooper, Murray Thomson, Economic and environmental
impact of lead-acid batteries in grid-connected domestic PV systems, Applied Energy, Volume 104,2013,Pages
239-249,
4.Alexander H. Tullo, February 5, 2018, Battery recyclers get the lead out.
https://cen.acs.org/articles/96/i6/Battery-recyclers-lead.html
5. Venkat,April 21st, 2020, 50% Depth of Discharge for Lead Acid Battery, https://www.ecosoch.com/lead-
acid-battery/
6. Christiana Honsberg and Stuart Bowden, https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/batteries/lead-acid-
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7. https://www.batterystuff.com/kb/tools/peukert-s-law-a-nerds-attempt-to-explain-battery-capacity.html
8. REDSTICK, 03/11/2009, The Peukert Effect Present in all batteries. Worst in lead acid
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basics.html
12. Ahmet Aktas, Yagmur Kirçiçek, April 23, 2021, Solar Hybrid Systems, 1st Edition.
13.Stu Oltman - Technical Editor, Wing World Magazine,
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Energy Storage 14 (2017) 364–371, doi: 10.1016/J.EST.2017.03.018.
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means of Lewis number, Electrochim. Acta 275 (2018) 192–199, doi: 10.1016/J. ELECTACTA.2018.04.092.
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17.P. Wu, G. Shao, C. Guo, Y. Lu, X. Dong, Y. Zhong, et al. Long cycle life, low self-discharge carbon anode
for Li-ion batteries with pores and dual-doping, J. Alloys Compd. 802 (2019) 620–627, doi:
10.1016/J.JALLCOM.2019.06.233.
18. Bent Sorensen - Solar Energy Storage-Academic Press (2015)
19. David Spiers, Batteries in PV Systems, 2nd edition.
20. Gel vs AGM: Not Quite the Battle of the Ages, But Nice to Know, October 31, 2019, BatteryStuff Articles
| Compare and Contrast Between AGM and Gel Batteries
21. Simon Schwunk: Battery systems for storing renewable energy, Report, Fraunhofer-Institut für Solare
Energie, April 2011

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