anite with £ = 5 x 10° MPa and» = 0.25 the rock started is ife a « Aopth of 10 km with oy ~ oy and wos broueht to the srface by eroson, ‘what should te the value ofthe horizontal sess? fy = 0.027 MN) It there is. dscrpaney,explan why Making use of the elective stress principle (Chapter 3), derive a formula comesponding to Equation 48 expressing the effective pressure (pa P=) for crack iitation fn hydraulic tactring when the rock his pore prev ‘Bearpaw shal was loaded from 00200 psi vertically over broad are 9 hoszontal strain could be ansumed equal to zero, Poissons ratio was 0.40 uring leading. Subsequently, the Vertes! lod wat reduced to 1000 ps Poisson's ato was 0-3 during unloading. (3) Estimate the horizontal pes. sure corresponding tothe maximum and nal vertical loads. (0) What tur Fal evens could brig about a similar stress history? Ina rock with» = 0.3 and £ = 3.0 x 10¢ MPa, “doortopper” measure- mens yield the following sans in the arms of rosette gauge om the bottom of a vertical borehole 10 m deep: ey = —20'% 10 inthe gage pall to OX castvest direction) rg = ~3. x 10" in the gage oriented 160" counterclockwise fom ON; and ac = —S.0 x 10~ in the gage aligned 120" counterclockwise ftom OX. The holes parallel tothe yas Assuming is due to rock weight alone and y = 0.027 MN, compute the greatest nd least normal stresses in the plane ofthe hoe botom (x plane) and their ‘irections. Planes of Weakness in Rocks 5.1 Introduction “Those who excavate into rock know ito be a materi quite part from what ruthematician might choose for tractable analysis, The engineers rock st ‘rogeneous and que often discontinuous, Te ater especialy tue lst. inghas been excessively violent and uncontrolled, but evenif the engineer were ‘carefulass sculptor, he or she would be confonted with naturally occuring Planes of weakness traversing the Tock mass and separating into petecly fied blocks. Furthermore, the process of excavation wil induce new fractures in the surrounding rock 5 vite of stress readjustment (Figure Sa, 2). ‘Smal ercks that we have been referring tas fsures may be sen in many hand specimens. Joints (Figure 8.2) re usally presenti ock optrops. They Spnear a approximately parallel planar crcks separated bY sveral cent Imcters up to as much as 10 m. One st of joints commonly forms parallel to ein panes and thee are usally a lest two other sets othe dections. Igneous and metamorphic rocks may have repua jointing systems with three ‘or more sets. Rooks tat have been deformed by folding often contain roughly all seams of sheared and crashed rock produced y aeajr slip or minor fault development. These sheare are Usaly spaced more wiely than jin and are marked by several millimeters to as much as ameter thickness of ot ‘oc trible rock or si. Shears pall to bedding planes occur i unfokded stat ‘ea valley sides, de to itrlayer sip asthe rock mass elas horizontally Fault that offset all the eossng structures may also occur Inthe rock of 0 ‘engineering site. Ths there ffl range of planar weaknesses in rock masses ‘wha staistieal distribution of spacings and orientation at all scales. Figures 5 and b show histograms of dontinuties observed a two dam sts st Jed by, Schneier (967). The fractures were sid Using a combination of eal photographic interpretation, Held observation, and microscopic study of144 Planes of Westen Roc St Introduction 145 ‘gr 8 Doni ke. (0) Bes eure 2 Dscomtnous rocks, () Sri conoed by pina ig (Gi Fortin fan re by drone af lock Ket bY 8 Per toate), pare im Devons ine and se, Ease Ole, neat aca NO‘rare 82 Dismiss) Ao fac te me ‘Ssconiuity os in Navajo sandstone, on Canyon, Uh igure 8.3 Reinve dstibotons of dco st (@) Ta Chen Dam Sten qurste sd (@ Mapas Dam Sei Scstose pes (Aller B. Schneier sen stuned thin sections frock. At Ta-Chien dam sit, Formosa, planes of weak ress versed the rock with spacings from $0 m down to I0em Atthe Malpas Sec Dam site, the rock showed cracks of various types with spacing from more ‘han 100 m Yo less than 3 mm. The Malpaset Dam failed because of the Aiscontinuous character ofthe rock inthe abutments, Discontinities that are spaced more than about 20 m apart canbe shown ‘nvidually insite sections abd plans apd considered indviualy in anal ‘On the other hand, panes of wenkess that are mor cocly spaced occur large numbers and the nly feasible way to appreciate their impact i often 10 appropiately ody the properties ofthe rock mass fr example, by reducing Aemaduls of easy Figure 5.4 Shows examples of sige features (8) end150, Planes of Weakness Hacks ipl features (M) inthe rock around a tunel and a surface excavation, Notice how the loations of ints have lected the shape ofthe tunnel in Figure Sa. Normally the precise locations ofthe mulpe features wil not be shown onthe drawings, «pllernlke that of Figure 5.4 being dagrammati ‘only. Single features, however, can and shouldbe plated, for deta of their ‘ectrrence can radically fest the quality and cos of the work. ‘The importance of planar weaknesses stems from the special properties that such features superimpose on rock. Bascal), the rook mass Becomes weaker, more deformable, and highly anisotropic because there is reduced Shear sfenath ad higher permeability parallel to discontinuities and increased ‘compressible well a reduced tee strength (esentaly 20) perpenie- tar them. These factors combine Io create a varety of potential problem Foundations on jointed rocks (Fire 5) may ste significantly a he ints ‘lone under lad even i he rock sf very sill. Dams underlain by econ. Yindous rock (Figure $.55) may inate slip of rock Boek along one or more ‘weak surfces; mor than one dam fire hasbeen attributed fo this mecha- nism Gincluding Malpaset mentioned above—see Figure 8.18), Rock slopes ‘may fall as rock blocks move on single oF mile weakness planes, For example, the rock slope in Figure 3.5 wll most probably fll when the excava- tion i deepened tothe poston ofthe dashed lines. Figure Sa showed how bocks might fal rom the roof of a inne de ointrsceting joint planes. AU larger sal, whole chambers can collapse owing fo unfortunate intersection of plana weaknesses. Another behavior pattem of jotted rock, in adion to Fai translation of bocks on planar surfaces, s bending of blocks under ste. Flexural cracking and rock falls may follow such bending in a rot in thialy ‘bedded rock. Sima, the rock cut of Figure 5.4b i subject to Bexure and cracking of the inlined “cantlever beams” created by the stcply dipping Jt and contacts ‘Since jin planes introduce sch strongly directional weaknesses, the most important ois atte can be considered tobe orientation. Fortunately, ns an be determined reativly rely 5.2 Joint Orientations Ie is rare to encounter a rock mass with truly random facturing. In every instance where altades were measured for naturally Occuring weakness ‘lanes, the author's experiance hasbeen that plana weaknesses ctr arund ‘ne of more "preferred erenations." This s apreciated realy if the dirce- tions normal othe meased planes are pled on 2 sereoraphic or equal area projection. (The principles of stereogrphic prcetiOn are presented in ‘Appendix 5.) Either the upper hemisphere or the lower hemisphere normals 52 Jot Ontations 151 say be plated The upper hemisphere normal wl peered hee heat it Toth same detonate ip veto tha th sires rh sad tho he ure al wie tote ae Sse ‘eis of nomaisthat cluster abou thes pfered onc ou et Goal to each ote. In Figure 56h there ae Wo cies Put he Seater af "alesis very great in one case (et) whl a second ctr (se 2 bas Been oad ad spread aling otha spt are buted about sept ‘ta great cite of he sptere I the normals to panes ae dnued evenly Sound a center, ti pone ticks sod representation forthe peered Grematon othe dubuton by petng he etn othe pit eet oncerraton of somal Thee re aso methods for senting the yn (Se, for example, Hook and Bray (197), sed in Chapcr 8. Another ap. pronto describing the peered orientation sto sum the normal vector Eich ot normal canbe considered aunt Vector and he orton the resultant fl the indivi of lst present the prefered orictaons {Ge""aean)of thes The sation canbe scompshed by acumatng tte diction cosines (ce Appende Tl Lets be deed ovzoaly and tor, boron apd west and ereally upward I arma oan ane vies at ange 3 above hvzotal in econ p mesure coutrlok- Wise from north the deeton cones the rma oh Jat ae 1 = co8 cos m= cos 8 sin ny sod n= sin’ many joints are mapped in one set, the prefered, or mean oventaton of the Joint sets paral withthe ine defined by direction cosines equal to he sums fl indviual s,s and w'; aiding bythe magnitide of hie resultant ‘ecor gives the ction cosine, sa) ofthe mean joint orientation neem =™ Xn y= 3 62) ia where im ‘The angle of rise by andthe direction of rise of the normal tothe mes ienation are obtained with Equation 8.1 together with rules forthe corel ‘en ofthe are cosine Be = sora) 02 5, = 90" Ba so (a UF + my + Cony itm =0152 Panes of Weakness Rocke Pigore Dist of norma to ‘Siti aed on ernie he Ine npr stb) Ove sry eset ids ston wet dna a2 et cle ie an 63) Ba > cos"! In (tg) tm <0 {nthe above, the number represented by the cos“ term i presumed to ie between O and 189") “One can alo estate the sate of normals about the mean orientation by ‘comparing the length ofthe resultant with the number N fonts considered, If ‘he joints were al parallel, the resultant would equal N, Whereas fhe Joints ‘were widely varying in orientation, the resultant would be considerably Tess than N. This is Yepresented by a parameter Ky -—¥ xm ky 64) ‘Ky becomes very lage asthe dispersion of joint orientations becomes sll ‘According (0 the hemispheres! normal disibtion (Fisher, 1953), the probability that» normal will make an angle of degrees or less wih the nein orientation is dexeribed implicit hy 6s ‘Thus one cam expres the spread of values about the mean—the “disper. sion""—corresponding to any degree of certainty. The standard deviation of the hemispherical normal distbuton () can also be used 10 express the dsp son of normals abou he mean ve 6, ___ When calculating or estimating the ovientation parameters Bx By, Kr, and for each join st, one must insure unbiased selection of individuals for analysis. Unfortunately, as pointed out by Terzaghi (1963), outcrops and dil holes introuce bss. Figure 57a sows hat the ont ha aralle an euterop surface (ie, whose normals ae parallel to he normal toa Outerop cannot be een. Im nthe ange Between a normal joint and the normal tothe ‘uterop, bias can be overcome by weighting the calculations such that the singe join is replaced bya numberof joints equal to 1s a. Silat, dil holes al not reveal joints whose normals are perpendicular othe aus of the hole Figure 7). Thus each ont indvidaloriemed in a dill core should be ‘eishted by tating in the analysis oforentatons ait were eos a ons ‘where nyi the angle between the mort the jit a he sx ofthe ole.154 Plumes of Weakness Rocks Generally, orientations of joins cannot be determined from dil hole data ‘because the core rotates an unknown amount sit ferme to the sre ethos for orienting core were reviewed by Goodman 1970) “The joint rintation parameters discussed here ae fundamental propertis ‘ofthe rock mass. In general, each joint set wil also have a characteristic physical description and a coresponding st of physical properties including, most importantly, the parameters necessary t0 represent jit stength, Figure 7 Blas in ocarece of lt in) Onero, 52 doin Oneations ove oninten igure 5.7 Dias in ocarence ofits in (il oles.156 Panes of Weaknees in Rocks 53 Joint Testing ‘whena eck massis excavated some)oins willow up while thers i open Ti tome Blocks wl sie api ter along jam sacs. The properties ovring nat dtomabityand sen ensle the magnus and die: fons ase movements ob ected in praia potlems. To obtain he ied desrpve proper, the ensner ha two choses () 10 se expt ‘elvan adumen to set sonable vals forth on ropes bse on Sxrsut descripions of join charcterisics ax ahserved by geologists or Stotchcalenpnces i outcrop ad In cre samples, ox) fo atempl 10 eee the popeics decyl rior ess heaters preter. tie tur it snot ten posible 0 obtn good samples for thi purpose ec igure 5 Mtb for asin jot samples. (0) rete i Ine") Noting ed eave. Figure 5.8 Methods fr eining jolt samples (0) Mal of int ob {aed a ia the el ectage 2 mol of pemre Doin ‘rac applied by Hs Scheer the male rectangle aes fhe ‘Sime sorfce in plaster prepare for det shear fering he eh ges tee the top and botom of porto ofthe same sara rsa esting Sse res ses mahi th nan te ope Samples for laboratory testing canbe scquied by dling large-diameter ‘ore paral 0a joitplane that outcrops, as depicted in Figure 5a. Alterna lively, section af the Joint surace could be molded with gud rubber na eld nd fsimiles ofthe upper and lower Mocks later cst in plaster, cement, oF sulfur inthe laboratory (Figures 3.8). The mode joins wil ereetly repre Seat the roughness ofthe surface and clay or mineral filing material collected in thee canbe spread onthe mode! surfaces to smulate the atl eld co tion. Good reals canbe obtained this Wa the ets ate Scaled by the ratio of normal sires 1 compressive srength. For example, 1 stay the shear ofa {it under 500 psi normal peste i inestone having a compressive strength ‘of 16,00 psi, 2 model joint of sillur(coerete cylinder capping compound "Cylap") having a compressive strength of 800 ps should be tested at & normal pressure f 250 ps Both tanal and ect shear test methods my be adapted for testing specimens with joins nthe dec! shear text Figure 39a) the joint surface is ‘feated parle othe direction of applied sear loa and the two halves ofthe ‘Simple are faed inside n shea bot ing Cyan, concrete aster F ¢POXY