184 Daformabiiyof Rocke obtained fom the data, assuming tha some idealized model describes the rock behavior inthe test configuration. Defermabity properties can also be back Calculated from instrumental data onthe mavements of structure or excavae tion, ifthe inal and nal sates of tee are known, sing methods of Chapter ‘inversely "The most widely used testing procedures for deformability measurements ae laboratory compression and bending tess, wave velocity measurements in {he lab or Fed, ld loadg tests sing at jacks or plate bearing apparatus, and borehole expansion test. {LABORATORY COMPRESSION TESTS ‘An unconfined compression test ona core of rock, with carefully smoothed ‘ends and length to dametr ratio of 2, yes a stress-strain curve like that of Fire 63a, Th axl strain can be measured with strain gages mounted onthe specimen or wth an extensometer tached paral othe length ofthe spect men: the lateral tai canbe measured using strain gages around the eeu ference, or an extensometer across the diameter. The ratio of ater fo skal strain magnitudes determines Poisson's ratio With hard rocks, itis usually tot acceptable to determin ex srain ftom measured shortening ofthe tex ing space (“crosshead motion") because rolavely lag displacement eccurs athe ends where the rock contacts the platens ofthe testing machine Figure 6.35 shows the diffculy of defining exactly what seat by. is not simply the slope ofthe vega lading curve, forth embraces nonrecovers bess well as elasti deformation. The unloading curve, or reloading curve afer sete ofload and unload, are better measures of F. This deftion allows E10 be determined even ate the peak fa when the rock his hecome fractared aire 6. ‘Deere (196) presented a eassiction graph for intact rock specimens based pom therallo of elastic mols to unconfined compressive srength, together with the absolute value othe late. For mos rock, the rato Eg, ies Inthe range from 200 to S00 but extreme values range a wily a 100 about 1200. In general, te "modulus Fao” Ela is high for cystine rocks thas forcast rocks, with sandstones higher han shales. Tabe 61 gives the mea sued rat of "modulus of deformation” o unconined compressive sreath, land coresponding values of Poisson's rato, forthe $et of foeks previously ‘onsiered in Tale 31, The substitution of modulus of deformation place ‘modulus of easly indicates thatthe dformabtypropety embraces both ‘eoveable and nonrecoverabe deformation In general, whenever the mod lus value i calculte direc from the slope ofthe rising potion of niga Toading curve, the determined property should be reported as « modulus of ‘eformation rather than as 2 modulysofelaslty. Unfortunately this snot Univer practice at present {63 Meanurement of DeformabityProperier by State Teta 193 Pur Yainion ofan sty (2) and Ps aa)188 Deformabity of Rocks Table 1 Modulus Natio Rigg anc Poisons nati» fr the Nock Specimens of Tale 2. Desciion Be eres sndone as aa ‘ava snisone in Tense sandstone amon Hickentck sso ma OR ‘overall intone may Oncota slomite ssf Lockport dolomite ss 03 Famine Gore ste Isr 03s (Quart mica seh mt Berboo qtte Be MM ‘Tome mate mow. Gherakee ble 08s Nevadefew Se ponte = $a evades Sie bus Be On Jobn Day Bast be OD Nevada Tent Ste af mae ‘The negative slope ofthe tall ofthe complete sres-stran curve is nota stressstrain curve in the conventional sense but Yield fetion: in partion lar, iis the envelope of yield points fom all eloading curves. Figure 63¢ shows the value of calculated trom lateral deformation of compression Specimen on ts virgin loading curve. The aio of aerate ail stain Bins at value near 0.2 and increases gradually unl ner the peak oud when i bepns foaceelerte, even surpassing the theorticl maximum vale of» or isotopic Imaterals-0'S. (Equation 66 shows that K approaches infinity a» tends foward 0) Th rock caneot be deserbed s clastic ast moves on the Yield ‘Surface ser the peak snc ite cacked and large lateral deformations ooo (63 Measurement of Dsformabity Properties by Ste Tata 187 with movement of rack wedges, However, on unloading and rlouing, lateral Strains occur with» = 0.5, Again, we can coclude that the eae constants Should be defined with respect to the reloading curve “The fll desrition of rock deformabty should include not only the eas- ti coefficients End », but the permanent deformation associate with any spplied stress level: Figure 64 shows how fo determine the modus of perme tent deformation M, defined as he rato oa tess othe permanent deforma tion observed on releasing that stesso zero, M is determined by running ‘eves of oad cycles during a sompresson test. We may compute Sinary the Poison’ ratio», corresponding to permanent lateral deformation nerements. gure 64 Determination ofthe ms of permanent forma ‘te toma eying at i omen158 Deformabitiy af Hooks PLATE-EARING TEST ‘The deformability of rock may be measured in the feld by loading a rock surface and monitoring the resulting deformation. This is eas arranged in an Underground paley a8 shown in Figute 6 a. The site must be selected care filly excide loose, highly fractured rock that might be unrepresentaive of the average rock condilon. A relatively fat rock surface is sculptured and leveled with mortar to receive circular bering plates 50cm to min diameter, AAA Pigare Peering et etapa galery. (Ete sce, 63 Meaeurement of Dformabity Properties y Site Testa 189 “The depth of the rock volume affected is proportional othe diameter ofthe Iaded area so ifs desirable to choose lage Bearing plate: bu proves ‘ica to apply loads greater than about 210 fons soi may be necessary 10 reduce the plate size to achieve desired contact pressure levels The load Can ‘be apled by hydraulc cylinders or stew jacks reacting ait the opposite Wall f the alley. Flt jacks, in series to allow sufficient “ave” have also been adapted for this function, Displacement must be measured at several points onthe bearing plate to correct for rotations and plate bending. Diplac tent re uually monitored by mounting dial gges ona inertial reference bar passing over the plate, Iti alo posible io ute a benchmark peta depth in ‘horehole centered on the plat (igure 65) late earns tests can bern the srface by jacking against a cable anchored at depth in borehole dled through the center of the bearing plate enkiewicx and Stag, 1968), "The data obained fom the pate-bearing est ae the rao of he plate the plate pressrep (contact force per unit late ara) and the mean displace ‘ment @ corrected for rotation. The following eqiation can be derived from Timoshenko and Goodier (1981 ifwe assume thatthe rock is & homogeneous Inte hal space of elastic isotropic mater = laa 6.10) Assuming a value for » permits eaeulaton of E. ‘Cia constant depending onthe boundary conditions. If the pate is pe. {ealy rigid, C~ 2/2, wheteas ifthe plat is Beuble, C= 170; we se hat there ise difference inthe calculated € cocespondng to extremes in boundary oadtion a long as mean displacement of the plate is measured. However, ‘etermining the mean displacement ofa Rexible, beading bearing pate core ‘sponding toa constant pressure boundary condition would require more dial ‘tes than there generally rom fo accommodate, Unless the rock very hart wl be simple to attempt to achieve constant plat displacement condl- tions by using thick seal pltes anda sti arrangement. "The pat-bearing fest is conducted ina gallery moe often than on 2 sm ‘nite men, but Equation 610 sil used to compute E.A more important fnfuence onthe results depart rom nonideal rock conditions. This can be Sppreciated by using deop bench marks for displacement measurement ‘Should be noted that simost any departure from condition assumed wil tendo Increase the measured dhplacements, so the plate Dearing test tends 0 under- timate the modulus of elastic. Tests conducted vertically in galleries wil ‘sual give even lower valves of because joints inthe rot rock tend to open ‘under rat. Permanent and clastie deformation in plate bearing resus canbe sepa ‘ated ithe lad ected during the et. The esis modulus should be clear lated ftom the slope of the teloading portion of load epee100, Defrmabtyof Rocke B= cat - vy E wn where dni the mean plate displacement on reapelying plate pressure fom realy zef op. The modulus of permanent deformation M can be calculated from M= cal) 0) Using plates of 14-10 S0-om radius, with plat pressure up 19290 bars, Sctineidr (1967) tested foundations of # numberof dam sites in various rock Iypes, He observed that permanent deformation geer than 0.01 mbar chor sctrized sts that ha been considered tobe unacceptable for foundation of concrete dams. This wanslates to a Value of M = 7700 MPa (1% I ps) for Dem, » = 03. BOREHOLE AND GALLERY TESTS Rock deformability may also be measured statically in boreholes. The dilatom= cer let gute 66) is 4 borchole expansion experiment conducted ih 3 ibe sleve, The expansion of the boreholes measured by the ol oF ea Nw int the sleeve asthe eessresrased, or by potentiometers of linea variable dierent transformers bull inside the sleeve. The galery tes is similar experiment conducted inside a bulkeaded sect of tunel. The cost of baller tess has tended to mize thei application ia recent years. The borehole ack is similar tothe dilatometer except thatthe loads are appli unidirectional across a diameter Iterpetatio i simiiar ut the formula requies attention tothe mote dificult boundary conditions (Goodman et 1972; Heuze and Salem, 1979). For the dilatometer or eallery tet, in which he pressure pis applied uniformly over the borehole or galery surface of adits 2, the modus of elasticity can be calulate from the measured adil Seform tion iby endear oy ‘One probem with borehole deformability tess is that they affect reli tively sal volume of rock and therefore contain an incomplete sample of the fracture system. Some would argue thal the spstem indeterminate a there fore thatthe tests usless. However, the borehole tests have the Unie dvantae of giving an incon ofthe range of properties ofthe rock remate fromthe sie at a ety sags of neta. Bane on theres of uch a program of tests, it ls porible to appreciate poten site ficulties ‘nd shoul be posible to subdivide the volume of Fock na Foundation ato Figure 8 Schemes fo resting he inrie x yinicaspce() Biometer ary tes, th ui ressre ide the text repo.) Rada in, or TAVAG test, with pesuesuplied by ck eating seit ier 8 sporoximately homogeneous subregions. Further testing canbe eared out 10 ‘characterize each of these subregions. Feld tests of large scale require tallies and are more expensive The to presen ficulties i interpretation ‘Since usualy Bld test wil eas large as the rock volume affected By an sca sruture. RADIAL JACKING TESTS “Among the largest in sit test sod to measure deformability of rock ate radial Jacking tests Figure 6.6), an adaption af the “TIWAG™ test used in Europe ‘Loads are apledto the circumference ofa tunnel by a series of jocks reacting ‘gsns ice steering members. The test allows the drection of load tobe ‘varied according tothe plan fr pressuring the jacks. Such tests were Con ‘ueted by the Bureau of Restmation atthe ste of the Auburn Dam-—e ste ‘where seams of tale schist raised questions abou deformability and stabi of ‘he abutments. The tests were expensive but were defensible i ers of the ‘otal cost ofthis enormous project. However, lab tests, borehole tess, and ‘latebearing tests were also run a the Aubura Dam sit and through these 00d understanding of the variation and dsbution of formabity Wales froughout the dam site was ined,192 Dejormabiy of Race ‘The at jack test, previously discussed in connection with sess measure: mens, yields deformability properties as by-product. A urge volume of ock ‘an be loaded to pressure up 1070 Mor higher sing tails steel iat jacks With special welding detail “he area of tpicl at jacks is ofthe order of 600 en? and enh larger Jacks have been sed; thus ver large loads are applied tothe rock. Reval hat, the pressuring stage of the fat jack est provides data on the variation of pin separation 28y with applied jack pressure p Figure 6.9. If fad eyeles are programmed, the reloading relationships will permit calculation of E sing & Felaonship derived by Jager and Cook (976 20/4 -9( (2 e-@afeo (yd ow _ t | | ew Pigare 67 Th Rt nck et, witht bined by dilg oveapring wer 64 Dynamic Meaurements 193 whore is the distance from the ack center to each of pair of measuring pis, {nd 2c the length ofthe ack. (The moss of permanent deformation Mean tno be oblained ns discussed forthe pate bearing test) 64 Dynamic Measurements “The velocity of stress waves may be measured in laboratory rock specimens tnd inthe eld. The laboratory pulse velocity tet is run using sections of ‘linia core with smooth, pall ends to which pezotecrs crystal ne ‘cemented (Figure 6.80). A high fequeney electrical pulse transmitted to one {cyst ereates stress wave thats recived by the second eral and recon ‘erode an elecrcl signal. A dela ine allows the received wave form tobe ‘eo Same yim mass ert, 0 Pe ae194 Deformatity of Rocks sligned othe sending wave form on an oxiloscope an the required delay to Schieve this mesnurs the travel me forthe pulse theaugh the specimen. The Uke of longitudinal and shear ct erytls permits bath longitudinal waves and transverse waves tobe observed 3 that both longitudinal wave Velocity Vand transverse wave velocity V, can be determined. Ifthe rock were an ideal last stropic sli of small diameter compared tothe length, then E and G ‘ould be ealeulted from £-Vip (15) snd G-Vip 16) where pis the mass densiy of the rock. Recalling that G = BI + »] (Equation 6.3) vet a Inthe fel, wave velocity can be measured by swinging a sledgehammer ‘gains an outcrop and observing the tal time (illsecon, typically) to 4 zephone standing on the rock at distance of up o about $0 m, Portable Scismopraps avaiable trom several commercial sources ar sited t0 such ‘measurements. Another method is to record the time for @ shock to travel etween pins in del holes spaced 500 100m apr. Both dowafole hammers snd explosive sources are wed for sich measorements. I the signature” of the wave ariving at the geophone is displayed, both compressional wave ve- loeties¥, and shear wave velocities V, can Be determined. Then, assuming the rock tobe homogeneous, isotope, and elastic, 618) snd v,-vom co} ‘Recalling Equations 63 and 64 60 sand B20 + vt om deaey See (622) E-. ‘The sres loadings sent through the rock by these methods ae smal and transient. Mos rock masses ad even rock specimens depart signficanty fom the eal materials hypothesized with respect o Equations 6.15106.32, Conse. ‘quently, elastic properties eaeulted fom these equations are often considers ‘by lager than elastic properties calculated Tom atc lading ests ike late ‘bearing. This is paricularly tre in the ease of fractured rocks. To distinguish clastic properties measured By static methods from those obitned dynam ally, the sbsenps sand d wil be intoduced YE, ¥, and, vfor sate and ‘Synamic constants, respectively) 65 Fractured Rocks Plate-bearing tess in fractured rocks reported by Schneider (1967) typically yielded load deformation curve ofthe form show i Figure 6.9, witha ek Ww ve ‘gare 6 Typical dar fom pine Searing ton in card ck epee by ‘Sehnider sp the serge pena he pe the aveaee slspncement ofthe ple196 Defrmabty of tacks point eet. The slope of he envelope of load eyles, the “yield faction,” i Tormed I Schneider found that in highly fractured rock with open crack the Talo T'was as high a8 4. He proposed the following clasifation of resals (Table 6.2): Table 62 Cass er Compact rock <2 Moverseyopea 2-10 ery oper Si 1 the rook is regularly crossed by a single set of joins, i is possible to calculate elastic constants for an “equivalent continuous material fepesena. tive ofthe rock mars. We asume the rock itself soropi and liner ease With constants and » (Figute 6.10). The joints re assumed 1 be regularly Spaced distance. Let &—the shear sffess—be the slope ofthe heat ‘tresesheur displacement curve unl lip (Figure 5.12) We adopt axes m oem nd paral! othe joins and therefore in the principal symmetry ie tions of the rock mass, When shear tess i applied each rock block un- ergs a displacement equal to (4/G)8 and each joint slips a distance (rll) (Fpire 610). The sear deformation of continuous material wl be equiv Feat to that ofthe jointed rock massif thas shear modulus Gy such that (GulGn)S i he sum of rock and jin displacements given above. Therefore, 62) Silat, we assign the joint a “normal stifiaes" ke equal tothe slope of the jeiatcompresion curve g versus (Figure 5.17. Since the compression fare is highly nonlinear. 4, depends on the normal stress. The equvaent continuous material has modulus of elasticity, sch that (,/,]9 the sum ‘of rock deformation (Sand joint deformation ok) (Figure 6,10), There fore (20) 1 BERS ‘The Poisson's rato giving strain in the m dection caused by a norma stress inthe ection i simply (625) ‘The modulus of elasticity in the erection is simply Bok 625) 7 j | { iG | i see |f |" yn Me 610 Resto ty ted ck by “a (eee aasversey tape mater Finally, symmetry ofthe stressstrain relationship requires /E, = ra/E sing -& neo Be Equations 623 to 6.27 permit calculation ofl five constants of the eguivalent transverny isotropic medhit eprescutogs repel oted rock mass (620198 Deformabiy of Rock If the rock i highly fractured in sever! directions, uation 624 can be used to find a “reduced modulus” representing the rock mass, The procedure {ss follows. For each test specimen or test ste, determine character sverage spacing between the joins of each set From the measured value ofthe ‘modulus of elasticity and asigning a value Eto intact rock, calculate vale {ory using Equation 6.24. Then, input this valu off in calculations with any speciiedtractre spacing. The rock mas modlus can inthis Way be related 0 degree of fracturing (Rapheel and Goodman, 1979) orto ROD (discussed in (Chapter 2) (Kulhawy 1973). Bieniawski (1978) showed that s rock mass modulus could be asiened _pproximately ifthe rock were rate by the eeomechans classfcation sytem, Adgcussed tn Chapter 2. Figure 6.11 shows his values of in stu modulus of ‘keformaton, determined by various large-scale eld tests aa numberof ste, ted puns the rock mass rating (RM). Fr rocks ating higher tha 8, th Akata points ae 8 approxinately by B= 2 RMR ~ 100 For softer rocks (10 < RMR < $0), Serafin and Pereira (1983) gave the fotlowing correlation between rock mass modulo elastic and RMR: B= 1en-i re 14 Reloetp betwen snk mar ating 2 me teers: tanereaea ‘The term modulus of deformation sigs that the vale of Eis calulted from the data ofthe loading portion ofthe lsd/deormution curve using both ‘lasts sod permanent deformation. The ys of Fi the above are GPA (= 10) ‘MPa. The dat points embrace mudstone, sandstone, dabase, slate, phi, nd quate ‘Bynamie modal i fractured rocks end tobe consierably higher than rock mase moduli messured by static load tests F, or computed as above Schneider 1967) determined values ofthe ratio EE, upto 13 in facture had rocks. He observed hit high reqvenies re selectively stented factored Fock. This was also shown by King etal. (1975) (Figure 612). One would es wr ra erat br og sige ceed 0 Mere S5cicea vas ati ane ies 35)200 Daformabitiy of ck Toei ‘igure 613 Relationship berween transits vibration FRegney and dere of facturing observe by Sc oder (9 a Type wave ro furl ouch the rck ar oslo Rammer Sow.) Measiremeat ‘tpn wings st tun sesmapragh by separion ‘ttn dance pep and by chang th poy ‘Eine orament lovers remap between oon a gree of acing expect then that measurements of frequency gr wave length recived at a Standard distance from constant typeof siomicsource would tend to corre late with By, Figure 6.13 confirms sucha relationship for dam sts staded by Schneier using « hammer blow source with an engiesring seismograph (MDI). The instrument yielded ony the time Tor the aval ofthe frst ware faving a signal above an adjustable threshold. Switching the polarity on the seismograph and repeating the expetiment wll cause a change in rival ime of pproximately half the period, a shown in Figure 6.130, b. Thus the fe- (gone), velocity, and wavelength can he determined using a hammer source “Ind simpleseismograph. The dynamic saci constants cn then be related to the state elastic constant throuph st calitraton ste, ‘Alternatively, site studies can establish direct relationship between in it staie modulus of elasticity and shear wave frequency. For example, Figure (Gutt shoms the relationship between in static modulus of deformation and Shear wave frequency using a hammer seismograph with standardized techy 2 r Berne mn ‘igure 8.44 Reaionsip between anaes whan ‘tcny an sock mas deforma. (Aer Bisa202 Deformnbyof Rocke sigue (Biensws, 1979) Both Sehneider's results and Bienes results are Sey the same stught ine: B= 00s 92 where is measured in igapascals (GPa), fs the shear wave frequency from the hammer blow received at distances po 30 mon rock surface, and Fis the ftequoncy in ert (eles per Second). 66 The Influence of Time ‘on Rock Deformation “Thus far we have omitted al reference to time a a parameter of rock deforma tion, Since no eer can be tu instantaneous, ime must be implica the taquations connecting sts and strain. In many cases, ock deformations can be caleulted satisfactory ignoring the influence of ine, but sometimes they ‘tess or displacements can change with time when the lads or pressures ‘on the rock change, a, for example, duc to flow of water; the peometry ofthe Touded or excavated repon changes, as, for example, by further excavator the deformability properties ofthe rock change, a, for example, by weathering ‘orhydration or the rock responds slowly to changes in stesso stain. Al but the lis factor can be agsommodated by sppropriat superposition of siress increments ina series of elastic analyses. However, the last reason Tor tie ‘dependency which we might form scour behavior, reqes further discus VISCOUS BEHAVIOR AND CREEP ‘We ean view solids as bodies that retin thei shape indefinitely, while gids sssume the shape of thet comaiers. An apparent solid materi that istots lowy and conimaosly in response to shearing stresses i the at least partly a ‘iscous liquid. Dynamic tsconity, depicted by 4 "dashot" (Figure 6.156), expresses the proportionality between shear sess rand shear sin rate ¥ rom 2») Sine strain is dimensiones, the dimensions of» are FLT. for example, Palin or MPals? Most rocks exit both "istamaneous” and delayed Formation sien loaded and are therefore spoken of as viscoelastic. A with Figure 618 ements of nea veo ‘ni modes a Liner spring) ear esp Shock ssa tatty, real deformation data can display various nonlinearities whe the Imaionty of theory concer linear lcoelastty Teboratory data are mostly inthe form of staintime curves from creep teats in sich tests, an increment of ses i applied quickly and then held constant while the gradually nereasng stain isrecored. An alierativeexper- iment, termod a vlavaon test, monitors the desine in stess when stan is held constant. Figure 6.16 shows the general form ofthe ceep curve for rock. Immediate strani followed by primary creep in which strain octre at decreasing ate with Gime. In some rocks, the primar creep curve approaches a Steady rate of rep, termed secondary creep. In specimens stressed near peak strength secondary ereep may turn upward inveriarycrep, in which stain Fate increases with tn, resling ia failure (crep rupture) ‘We can call on two types of mechanisns to explain crecp in rocks —mass flow and cracking. Some rocks (eg. rock sl, tar sands, and compaction shale) wil creep at relatively low devitor tess, even with unissued, intact Specimens In the case of salt and potash the process of eeep involves move ‘ent of dislocations and intacrystaline ghding, wile creep im uncemented lay rocks involves migration of water and movements of lay places ("2m Solidation”), Bituminous rocks like tar sand ae inherently viscous, especially St higher temperatures. Hard rocks like granite and limestone can also exhibit ‘rep at deviatoric tresses sient to case new cack growth (eens "excceds about one hl in an unconfined compression specimen). An incre iment of applied stress wil provoke a change inthe network of cracks though Jengihening of ol eracks ud ltiston of new ones. Such a proces is nonin ‘ar beense the rook is changed by each now load increment: to calculate SStessce and deormation i soalnesrvscocatte mate, the proper ‘Wilhave to be determined and used st functions af tess Tere are probably204 Deformabiy of Rocke Pigure 616 Regios of betas in ep no ideally lina vscoeastic rocks, not even salt. However theory of linear viscoelasticity can still be used incrementally 10 approach time-dependent problems in much the spe way thatthe theory of linear elastic is wed 10 ‘acute stress and stain fr time independent problems Its poset ft creep curves emily sing exponent power fne- tos’ ere data are fred ftmode compan of spring snd dasha, however, theres are more ready asbleherefore, th wil be oor po cre The theory of linea lsc of an orp body i sed on 0 con stant st we have sen previous. One othe x) maybe associated wih purely soumesi deformation unde hyroat fdr, Then atcoed Com an sone () must account forall dstorin. The question we aow face tow many soa constants wil te rues To represent tine depen Setrmaoat re 617 shows ve posible models wih one, 4, oF thee atonal constants The sein rangement in age Is termed Masel body or a so . 7 . < tt jaa] fe ee ‘igure 617 Sia lite visoetate model and hi spose tthe (Geet a) Two-cotan hd (axnl Bo) (5) Tworconst si ‘Ravin bod (Tee const gi penerazed Mawel) Cd) ‘Trcecomfan sole) Foweconstn a Bares