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Microgrids: Architectures, Controls, Protection, and

Demonstration
a b b b b
Qiang Fu , Adel Nasiri , Ashishkumar Solanki , Abedalsalam Bani-Ahmed , Luke Weber &
a
Vijay Bhavaraju
a
Eaton Corporation, Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin, USA
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, USA
Published online: 12 Jul 2015.

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To cite this article: Qiang Fu, Adel Nasiri, Ashishkumar Solanki, Abedalsalam Bani-Ahmed, Luke Weber & Vijay Bhavaraju
(2015) Microgrids: Architectures, Controls, Protection, and Demonstration, Electric Power Components and Systems, 43:12,
1453-1465, DOI: 10.1080/15325008.2015.1039098

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 Electric Power Components and Systems, 43(12):1453–1465, 2015
Copyright C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1532-5008 print / 1532-5016 online

DOI: 10.1080/15325008.2015.1039098

Microgrids: Architectures, Controls, Protection,

and Demonstration
Qiang Fu,1 Adel Nasiri,2 Ashishkumar Solanki,2 Abedalsalam Bani-Ahmed,2
Luke Weber,2 and Vijay Bhavaraju1
1
Eaton Corporation, Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin, USA
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA

CONTENTS
Abstract—In the recent years, there has been a growing interest in
1. Introduction the concept of microgrids to integrate distributed generation systems
2. Microgrid Architecture and to provide higher reliability for critical loads. Several micro-
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015

grid demonstration projects have been implemented to investigate

3. Microgrid Components further and advance this emerging concept. This article provides a
4. Microgrid Controls and Management detailed review of microgrid systems. It describes different archi-
5. Microgrid Communication tectures, including AC, DC, and hybrid systems. Various microgrid
components, including sources, converters, and loads, are illustrated.
6. Microgrid Protection
Microgrid management and controls are discussed, and a modified
7. Microgrid Experimental Demonstration natural droop control is described in detail. Both physical layers and
8. Conclusions standard protocols are explained for communication in the microgrid
References structure. The unique protection complexities have been raised and
discussed in the presence of distributed generations and bidirectional
power flow. A demonstration of a military microgrid system at Fort
Sill is illustrated, and the experiment of a typical microgrid operation
scenario is provided.

Keywords: architecture, controls, microgrids, protection, voltage source
inverter, microgrid experimental demonstrator, AC microgrids, DC
microgrids, renewable energy sources, electric generator, gas turbine, energy
storage, communication protocols and standards, microgrid islanding
Received 31 March 2015; accepted 31 March 2015
Address correspondence to Dr. Adel Nasiri, Department of Electrical
Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, 115 E. Reindl Way, USR
201Q, Milwaukee, WI 53212. E-mail: nasiri@uwm.edu
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online
at www.tandfonline.com/uemp.
1. INTRODUCTION
A microgrid is a cluster of distributed generations (DGs), en-
ergy storage, and loads within clearly defined electrical bound-
aries, which acts as a single controllable entity with respect to
the grid, as defined by the Microgrid Exchange Group, an ad
hoc group of experts and implementers of microgrid technol-
ogy. A microgrid provides a solution to manage local genera-
tions and loads as a single grid-level entity. It has the potential
to improve overall system efficiency, power quality, and energy
surety for critical loads. A microgrid can connect and discon-
nect from the grid to enable it to operate in both grid-connected
or island mode.
The most compelling feature of a microgrid is the abil-
ity to separate and isolate itself from the utility’s distribution
system during grid events, i.e., faults, voltage collapses, and
black-outs. It may also intentionally disconnect during grid
maintenance and also when the quality of power from the grid
is deteriorated. A microgrid must enable reconnection to the

1453
 1454 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 43 (2015), No. 12
FIGURE 1. Envisioned microgrid concept for a small town.
utility grid without any interruption once grid power quality
and stability are recovered.
Figure 1 shows the concept of a future microgrid for a
small town. There are several types of generations, including
renewables and non-renewables. Renewable sources, e.g., so-
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015
lar photovoltaic (PV), can be more distributed. Energy storage
systems can also be distributed, but their controls have to be
coordinated to support system frequency and voltage. Proper
integration of energy sources and management thus becomes
an important requirement for the future high-reliability indus-
trial parks or campuses and townships utilizing a microgrid
concept with energy surety mandates.
There are several technical drives behind the idea of a mi-
crogrid, including [1] (i) utility transmission constraints requir-
ing supplies closer to loads; (ii) demands for improved power
reliability, efficiency, and quality; (iii) a demand for energy
security; (iv) integration of renewable energy and distributed
energy resources (DERs); (v) military demand for enhanced
energy security—surety, survivability, supply, sufficiency, and
sustainability; and (vi) higher system efficiency (e.g., use of
generation waste heat in a combined heat and power instal-
lation). In addition, the lower costs of solar PV installations,
natural gas, and energy storage devices have been supporting
further expansion of DGs and microgrids.
The concept of microgrids provides opportunities for eco-
nomic development in electric power and clean energy indus-
tries. According to Navigant Research, the microgrid market
was at $10 billion in 2013, expected to increase to more than
$40 billion annually by 2020. In addition to economical de-
velopment opportunities, microgrids are envisioned to be en-
vironmentally friendly and to be a promising way of building
net zero energy communities, which have the ability to oper-
ate separately from the bulk grid and sustain themselves in the
event of a grid outage. This is crucial for some critical infras-
tructures, such as hospitals, public facilities, military bases,
and emergency-response facilities.
Microgrids are an effective tool to aggregate and integrate
smaller renewable energy generations and connect to the util-
ity grid at a single point of interconnection (PoI). This ap-
proach can help in facilitating demand response, managing
intermittency of renewables, and deferring distribution losses.
Load prioritization and segmentation can be applied to sup-
port resiliency and security for essential loads in the case of
generation shortage.
Some of the key technical challenges for microgrid ex-
pansion are system monitoring, controls, and protection. A
high-speed and reliable supervisory and monitoring system
is required to accommodate a wide range of load and gener-
ation variations. The communication and information layers
play critical roles in supervisory management of microgrids.
Lack of standardized communication and controls has limited
microgrid development to custom designs and case studies.
Other technical challenges include microgrid sizing and plan-
ning, steady-state and dynamic performance, utility system
and equipment upgrades, and interconnection requirements.
Coupling microgrids together can provide additional ben-
efits to the distribution system in terms of improved voltage
dynamics, frequency support, fault responses, reliability, dis-
tributed dispatch of dynamic power, and benefits for the loads
within each microgrid [2]. Networked microgrids can also
trade active and reactive power in a network and improve en-
ergy security and economics. One example of potential bene-
fits of networked microgrids can be described in the wake of
super storm Sandy, which hit the most populous region in the
country and forced the evacuation and closure of several hos-
pitals. Critical loads can be sustainably supported by coupled
microgrids using renewable sources during a shortage of fossil
fuels.
2. MICROGRID ARCHITECTURE
The electrical architecture of microgrids is predominantly
determined by the application, existing infrastructure, and
customer-oriented requirements. In general, microgrid archi-
tectures fall into three categories: AC, DC, and hybrid micro-
grids.
2.1. AC Microgrids
AC distribution is the most popular and commonly used struc-
ture for microgrid studies and implementations. In this archi-
tecture, generation, distribution, and loads are in AC form. Dis-
tributed sources and energy storage devices are interfaced with
the AC distribution through inverters. By utilizing the existing
AC network infrastructure (distribution, transformers, protec-
tion, etc.), AC microgrids are easier to design and implement.
They are also built on proven and reliable technology. Various
 Fu et al.: Microgrids: Architectures, Controls, Protection, and Demonstration 1455

FIGURE 3. Configuration of a typical DC microgrid concept.

FIGURE 2. Block diagram of UWM AC microgrid system.

2.3. Hybrid Microgrid

microgrid projects have been developed worldwide based on Hybrid microgrids attempt to utilize the benefit of both AC
this concept. The Consortium for Electric Reliability Technol- and DC concepts to improve efficiency. They include both AC
ogy Solutions (CERTS) based microgrid was first formulated and DC sections with specific generations and loads. Energy
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015

in 1998 as a cluster of micro-generators and storage with the transfer between AC and DC sections are minimized to avoid
ability to separate and isolate itself from the utility seamlessly conversion loss. The interfacing converters are used to provide
with little or no disruption to the loads [3]. An example for active power support to both sections and reactive power sup-
AC microgrids is the testbed under development at the Uni- port to the AC system. Figure 4 shows the block diagram of a
versity of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (UWM) to address voltage hybrid microgrid.
and frequency stability issues, assess the performance of dif-
ferent technologies of energy storage systems, and explore
3. MICROGRID COMPONENTS
new technologies for coupling a large number of microgrids
in distribution system (Figure 2). This microgrid consists of 3.1. Sources
a 100-kW solar PV system, a 12-kW wind generator, two 45- 3.1.1. Synchronous Generator.
kW natural gas generators, a 100-kW natural gas generator, a
Most synchronous generators are driven by a natural gas or
50-kWh/25-kW zinc-bromide battery, a 90-kWh/125-kW Li-
diesel engine in microgrid configurations. Many of these gen-
ion battery, an electric vehicle charging system, and active and
erators have been designed for back-up or stand-alone applica-
passive loads. The system has two main AC buses to create
tions. Their controls and synchronization algorithms must be
redundancy.
modified to use them in a microgrid structure along with other
sources.[5] There are two control algorithms for a generator.
2.2. DC Microgrids The exciter regulates the generator voltage and reactive power,
DC distribution provides efficiency improvement by reducing and the governor adjusts the voltage angle and active power.
energy conversion stages for DC-based generations and energy To accurately study the behavior of a natural gas generator, it
storage elements. In addition, there are fewer stability issues is required to model a synchronous generator, excitation, an
in a DC distribution system, and voltage control is less com- automatic voltage regulator (AVR) system, a gas engine, and a
plicated. In addition, the architecture allows for wider voltage
variations since converters are used for generations and loads.
There is no need for synchronization and reactive power con-
trol. Figure 3 presents the concept of a low-voltage bipolar DC
microgrid [4] proposed by Kakigano and coworkers. One big
disadvantage of this system is the need for AC/DC conversion
for AC sources and at the connection point to the grid. Other
issues include over-current and short-circuit protection and the
need for new DC distribution lines. The DC concept is more
beneficial where predominant loads in the system are in DC
form, e.g., in a data center. FIGURE 4. Block diagram of a hybrid microgrid.
 1456 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 43 (2015), No. 12

FIGURE 5. Block diagram of AC8B: alternator–rectifier ex-

FIGURE 7. Frequency response of a 100-kW generator to a
citation system with digital control.
50% step-change load test.

governor system with sufficient details. Due to the fairly small

To verify the developed model, several load tests have been
sizes of the machines used in most microgrids, an alternator
performed. In stand-alone mode, the step load has been applied
supplied rectifier exciter (IEEE AC8B) model can be used for
to verify the dynamic behavior of the natural gas generator.
system modeling. This model includes details for the AVR,
Figure 7 shows the experimental frequency response. A step
amplifier, and exciter, as shown in Figure 5. The AVR is rep-
load change of 50% of rated generator capacity is applied, and
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015

resented by a proportional integral derivative (PID) controller,

reference frequency is set to 59.7 Hz. The test result is for a
the amplifier stage is represented by a gain and time constant,
100-kW natural gas generator.
and the exciter is represented by a time constant and saturation
Figure 8 shows the active and reactive power dynamics
curve.
when the active–reactive power control for the generator is
applied. At the 13th second, a 100% power command with a
3.1.2. Natural Gas Turbine Modeling.
power factor of 0.8 is applied. At the 30th second, the power
There are two gas turbine driving methods known as “single- command is changed from 100% to 10%.
shaft” and “two shaft” drives. In a single-shaft gas turbine, all
of the rotating elements share a common shaft. The common 3.1.3. Renewable Energy Sources.
elements between the two types of gas turbines are the air com-
Renewable energy sources are the main components of any
pressor, the compressor turbine, and the power turbine. In the
microgrid to ensure sustainability and survivability. Wind and
studied microgrid systems, single-shaft light industrial gas tur-
solar PV are the most common types of renewable sources
bines are used as distributed resources. The basic arrangement
in a microgrid. They are typically connected to the microgrid
of a single-shaft gas turbine is shown in Figure 6. A governor
system via current mode inverters to operate them at a maxi-
controls the speed of the generator or power output. To improve
mum power point [7]. Figure 9 shows a sample power profile
the speed response, an electronic control system is employed
delivered by a 10-kW wind turbine for 24 hr. Figure 10 shows
in the governor control system. The governor senses the speed
the field power measurement of a 90-kW solar PV system on
of a prime mover and sends an electrical signal to the actuator
a sunny day, a cloudy day, and a partially cloudy day with high
to control the fuel to the engine to maintain its speed/load at
power fluctuations.
the desired level. The gain and time constant used in the gover-
nor model were adjusted and compared with the experimental
setup until a reasonable response was obtained [6].

FIGURE 8. Active and reactive power dynamics for a 240-

FIGURE 6. Detailed control system of a gas engine system. kVA natural gas generator.
 Fu et al.: Microgrids: Architectures, Controls, Protection, and Demonstration
FIGURE 9. Sample wind power profile for a 24-hr period.
3.2. Current Mode Voltage Source Inverter
The control objective of the current mode inverters is to regu-
late the output active and reactive power. This class of inverters
is used for renewable energy systems, mainly solar PV and full
conversion topology of wind energy systems. The active and
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015
reactive power references are generally obtained from a max-
imum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm.
The line current is tightly regulated by a dedicated current
control scheme through the AC-side terminal voltage. The in-
verter has inherent over-current protection due to the existence
of current saturation limits. Other advantages of current mode
control include robustness against variations in parameters of
the converter and the AC system and good dynamic perfor-
mance. A d-q rotating synchronous reference frame is used
for a control system. The schematic of current mode control
for a voltage source inverter is depicted in Figure 11.
3.3. Voltage Mode Voltage Source Inverter
The controlled objective of a voltage mode inverter is to reg-
ulate the amplitude and angle of the AC system. Unlike the
current mode, the operating frequency and voltage are not im-
posed by the AC system, but are controlled by the inverter
itself. Hence, this type of inverter is referred to as the voltage
mode. It is assumed that the net DC-side voltage is supported
FIGURE 10. Power profile of a 90-kW solar PV system on a
sunny day, cloudy day, and a partially cloudy day.
1457
FIGURE 11. Schematic diagram of a current mode control
for a voltage source inverter.
by a DC voltage source. In the studied microgrid systems, the
energy storage system is used as a DC voltage source.
The main control objective is to regulate the amplitude, fre-
quency, and phasor angle of the load voltage in the presence of
disturbances in the load current. The control scheme typically
involves tracking of sinusoidal commands. Since a sinusoidal
signal is characterized by its amplitude and phase, the objec-
tive of the voltage mode can be conveniently achieved through
the space phasor concept. A schematic of voltage mode control
for a voltage source inverter is depicted in Figure 12.
3.4. Loads
There are several types of loads in a microgrid system includ-
ing constant active/reactive power loads, e.g., chillers and mo-
tor loads, and constant distributed impedance loads, e.g., light-
ing and heating loads. The loads are also prioritized into three
categories: critical, essential, and hotel loads. Examples for
critical loads include command and control facilities, commu-
nications, and emergency systems. Lighting and water equip-
ment can considered as essential loads, and HVAC systems
are generally categorized as hotel loads. Load segmentation
FIGURE 12. Schematic diagram of a voltage mode voltage
source inverter.
 1458 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 43 (2015), No. 12

allows for higher reliability for critical and essential loads in a

microgrid environment.

3.5. Energy Storage

It is well known that within an envisioned microgrid, various
types of DGs and customers create and demand varying active
and reactive power profiles that may challenge the stability of
the system. The energy storage systems, therefore, play a criti-
cal role to stabilize voltage and frequency of the microgrid for
both short-term and long-term applications [8]. Energy stor-
age units can either be distributed for small-scale applications,
e.g., renewable energy ramp-rate management, or centralized
as utility-scale applications, e.g., utility frequency regulation.
The distributed energy storage system not only actively man-
ages and controls the functions of the storage devices to provide
power support to local loads but also tries to maximize its life,
efficiency, and safety. It also communicates to the upper layer
FIGURE 13. Picture of a 250-kW, 56-kWh Altairnano battery
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015

control unit, such as the supervisory control unit, to perform

storage system in the lab.
other advanced operations.
A centralized energy storage system is typically observed
in a microgrid where critical facilities are involved. It usually 4. MICROGRID CONTROLS AND MANAGEMENT
performs similarly to the main back-up power supply in the
event of bulk grid black-out. A higher energy and power level Several control strategies have been developed for microgrid
is needed to support the whole system from a couple minutes controls, including natural droop control [9], modified natu-
to hours. ral droop control [10], hierarchical control [11], and virtual
Currently, energy storage is a tradeoff between power and droop control [12]. Modified natural droop control has gained
energy density. Although ultracapacitors and hybrid batteries widespread recognition, and a resilient version of this concept
offer higher power density, their capacity (in Ah) and energy is discussed in detail in this article, as shown in Figure 14.
density are nowhere close to those of batteries. They can re- This control concept consists of three layers. The lower level
lease a large amount of power but only for a few seconds. On (first layer) is an autonomous layer developed based on the mi-
the other hand, fuel cells are capable of storing a vast amount crogrid concept of CERTS. In this layer, reference values are
of energy but are limited in the peak output power. Based defined for the DGs, and they are assigned three modes of oper-
on the available technologies, batteries are the best choice to ation: grid following, grid supporting, and grid forming. Grid-
provide both power and energy densities. There are several feeding devices have reference values for active and reactive
types of batteries currently in use for industrial applications. power and ride on the grid or microgrid voltage and operate.
Among all of the different types of energy storage currently Grid-supporting devices are typically renewable devices with
available commercially, Li-ion batteries offer the best solution
for high-power and high-energy applications.
Units in parallel 2
Recent technologies also provide a combination of high
power and energy density with a considerably high cycle and Cells in series each unit 200
floating lifetime (>5000 cycle life). Li-ion batteries come in Maximum voltage for system (V) 580
various types based on the chemistries for the active positive Maximum current for system (A) 1200
Maximum power for system (kW) 417
and negative materials. Different materials for the electrodes
Maximum energy for system (kWh) 56
lead to various battery specifications in terms of power and en- Cell charge capacity (Ah) 60
ergy density, voltage characteristics, life, and safety. Choosing Cells in series for a module 10
the appropriate battery chemistry to meet the required specifi- Modules in series per string 20
cations of the application is vital. Figure 13 shows a picture of Strings of modules in parallel 2
a 250-kW, 56-kWh Altairnano battery storage system (Power-
Rack 320, Altairnano, Anderson, IN, USA). Key features of TABLE 1. Key parameters of a 250-kW 56-kW Li-ion battery
this battery are provided in Table 1. system.
 Fu et al.: Microgrids: Architectures, Controls, Protection, and Demonstration
FIGURE 14. Architecture of the control layers for the resilient
microgrid controller.
MPPT function for active power and voltage droop control for
reactive power support. Grid-forming devices (mainly inverter-
based) are controlled to adjust the voltage magnitude and angle
at their terminal. They react instantaneously to change in ac-
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015
tive/reactive load power by adjusting the angle and magnitude.
No communication is required to run this level of control (peer
to peer), and it is capable of seamless transfer (islanding) and
plug and play (load and generation can be added or removed
without system disruption).
The second layer is the dispatch layer, where references
for active and reactive power to DGs are changed to shift ac-
tive/reactive power from one source to another, configure sys-
tem architecture through switchgear, and adjust storage power
according to the state of charge (SOC). The third layer is the
optimization layer to perform unit commitment and optimiza-
tion according to generation and load forecasting, electricity
pricing, weather forecasting, etc. Both the second and third
layers utilize communications to send commands to DGs and
switchgear and monitor them.
Controller structure design includes redundant and inde-
pendent main control devices with redundant and independent
power supplies. The main (redundant) controller accepts mar-
ket signals for local marginal prices (LMPs) and ancillary
services deployment or uses tariff rate constructs to perform
unit commitment and economic dispatch of microgrid assets.
The central control also receives data from intelligent elec-
tronic devices (IEDs) and issues real and reactive power, start,
stop, breaker open, and breaker close commands to the intel-
ligent devices. The main (redundant) controller also provides
supplementary protection functions to microgrid assets in the
event primary protection devices fail.
IEDs are placed at each source, load, energy storage de-
vice, and electric power system connection. The devices are
programmed to accept commands from the main (redundant)
controller and relay those commands to device(s) under their
purview. Upon the loss of communication to central control
devices, the intelligent devices will control to the last good
1459
FIGURE 15. Block diagram of data and command flow in a
microgrid controller.
value received. Local control in the autonomous layer will
be exercised using frequency droop settings and local volt-
age regulation targets. Exceptionally, renewable resources will
target maximum power points unless high frequency or volt-
age dictates otherwise. Upon disconnection from the electric
power system, the energy storage device will be placed in
grid-forming mode and remain so until reconnection occurs.
Figure 15 shows the block diagram for data and command flow
in a microgrid controller.
The heart of the microgrid controller hardware is a micro-
controller that executes various microgrid management algo-
rithms. Additionally, the controller contains various interface
circuitries to enable the controller to monitor both the utility
grid and the microgrid and to communicate with the various
microgrid resources. The controller also incorporates analog
interfacing circuitry to allow the utility grid voltage and the
current flowing into the microgrid to be monitored. This con-
nection is on the line side of the utility disconnect switch. An
additional set of voltage sensing circuits monitor the line side
of the disconnect switch. Appropriate voltage and current sens-
ing transducers must be utilized for the system. The transduc-
ers isolate and couple the high voltage of each grid to the low
voltages required by the energy controller. The analog interface
circuits condition and couple the utility and microgrid voltages
and currents to the microcontrollers analog to digital converter
(ADC) inputs with sufficient bandwidth and accuracy to allow
the energy controller to perform the disconnect and reconnect
functions in compliance with the limits defined in IEEE 1547.
The bandwidth and accuracy needed in the grid sensing circuit
for detection of fault conditions is relatively low; however,
a much higher accuracy is needed for the phase, frequency,
and amplitude detection to properly meet the grid reconnect
 1460 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 43 (2015), No. 12
requirements of IEEE 1547 and the other resynchronization
and reconnection requirements [13].
The reaction time of the controller and utility disconnect
switch needs to be less than 160 msec from the onset of a
voltage drooping fault to the clearing of the circuit by the
disconnect switch. The analog interface circuit will only add a
small delay to the system response. The algorithms executed
within the microcontroller will occupy the majority of the
available reaction time, while the physical action of the utility
disconnect switch opening will consume a modest amount of
the available time. A typical contactor reaction time is on the
order of 50 msec or less.
5. MICROGRID COMMUNICATION
A communication system is critical to operate a microgrid ef-
ficiently and reliably. The communication between controllers
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015
integrates microgrid components as a controllable and func-
tional entity and enables advanced control algorithms that im-
prove microgrid economically and optimally. Modern meters
and protective devices also rely on communication links to per-
form data logging, prognostics, and diagnostics. A microgrid
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system col-
lects the real-time status and settings via communication and
interacts with microgrid management software and the sys-
tem operator to perform advanced microgrid operation, such
as intelligent load shedding, demand response, grid firming,
islanding/reconnection, etc.
5.1. Physical Communication Links
Wired communication links are the most commonly deployed
for control applications. RS-232 and RS-485 are widely used
in short-distant point-to-point communication with low com-
munication rate, while Ethernet (TCP/IP) is more applicable
when communication network is constructed to achieve multi-
ple devices communication with a medium to high communi-
cation rate. Researchers and engineers also implement and test
fiber-optic communication for highly reliable and high-speed
communication to meet some unique microgrid requirements
[14]. In addition, a power line carrier (PLC) is also established
as back-up communication link in some microgrid projects.
Because of attenuation and the small signal-to-noise ratio of a
power cable, a PLC is typically slower and less reliable than
Ethernet. But as a backup, a PLC strengthens the communica-
tion by providing second physical communication path. New
technologies have improved PLC communication speed and
reliability. For instance, D-Link has launched the industry’s
first gigabit power line kits, which provides up to 2000 Mpbs
of communication speed.
The other type of communication link that is presently
widely used for various applications is wireless. It has not yet
been implemented in microgrid applications, primarily due to
reliability, latency, and security concerns. But the advantages
of wireless communication are obvious, such as less power
consumption, reducing wiring complexity, ease of scale up
in terms of physical distance, and number of access points.
The available wireless communication technologies for mi-
crogrid applications are IEEE 802.11n, Global System for
Mobile (GSM), 4G/3G/High Speed Packet Access (HSPA),
Long-Term Evolution (LTE), LTE-A, and Evolution–Data Op-
timized [15]. In the future, the mixed communication links will
most likely be employed for microgrids.
5.2. Protocols and Standards
A microgrid communication system may consist of differ-
ent communication protocols to serve different control and
management purposes. Modbus/ModbusTCP is a legacy com-
munication employed in power system for processing control
and data exchange. Modbus can be transmitted over different
communication links, such as RS232/RS485 and Ethernet. It
is widely used for commercial inverter and generator control
systems and human machine interface (HMI). It is easy and
cost effective to develop and implement but is not scalable for
large and complex systems.
The Distributed Network Protocol (DNP3) is a set of com-
munications protocols used between components in process
automation systems [16]. It is mainly used in utilities, such as
electric and water companies. Since microgrid needs to inter-
act with utility as well as perform some of utility functions,
especially during island operation, DNP3 naturally can play an
important role in microgrid communication. Response to util-
ity is one of the major functions and duties of a grid-connected
microgrid. For example, PJM shares the frequency regulation
signal via DNP3 to its customers.
IEC 61850 is a standard for the design of electrical substa-
tion automation [17]. The new edition has added more features
for DERs to fit modern power systems. It defines the electrical
devices and communication structure to standardize compo-
nents and to visualize a subsystem. There are many desired
features that are important to microgrids. For instance, the
structured data allow SCADA access not only data points but
also device models. The standard can be mapped to a num-
ber of legacy protocols, especially to Generic Object Oriented
Substation Events (GOOSE), which enables a fast peer-to-
peer communication. IEC 61850 is envisioned as one of the
key solutions to microgrid control and communication.
An example microgrid with communication links and pro-
tocols is shown in Figure 16. It is not surprising to see micro-
 Fu et al.: Microgrids: Architectures, Controls, Protection, and Demonstration
FIGURE 16. Configuration of an example microgrid
communication.
grid communicated over multiple communication protocols,
because different protocols have different features serving
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015
different purposes. Moreover, historically electrical devices
have their legacy communication, which can hardly be uni-
fied. Therefore, the data concentrator should be compatible
with a number of protocols and be able to convert or map one
protocol with another. The IEEE standard association started
a project (P1815.1) to work on exchanging information and
mapping between IEC61850 and DNP3.
6. MICROGRID PROTECTION
With increasing penetration of DGs and various operating
modes, traditional protection schemes fall short to protect mi-
crogrids in island and grid-tied modes. At the PoI to the bulk
grid, microgrid protection has not yet been well defined and
served by the existing standards and solutions, because micro-
grids can be regarded both as generators and loads according
to the demand and operation. The IEEE standard association
has initiated several working groups in recent years trying to
understand and define the role of a microgrid and its protec-
tion in a power distribution network, differentiating it from a
traditional cluster of DERs.
6.1. DG Anti-island Versus Microgrid Islanding
IEEE 1547 clearly states that distributed generators must detect
islanding and immediately stop producing power to prevent the
utility workers from electrical hazards; this is referred to as
anti-islanding. It typically requires DGs to trip within 2 sec af-
ter detecting islanding. It is worth noting that “islanding” here
refers to a DG unintentionally disconnected from the upstream
power grid. It is an important regulation, however, during mi-
crogrid islanding, when the commonly used method for DG
to detect islanding, such as under-/over-voltage, under-/over-
1461
FIGURE 17. Typical low voltage (LV) branches within a mi-
crogrid consisting of DGs and loads.
frequency, and voltage phase jump, may lead to a nuisance trip,
which results in microgrid islanding failure. Therefore, anti-
islanding for DGs within a microgrid should be configured
along with microgrid islanding detection and reaction. On the
other hand, a microgrid controller should coordinate DGs and
loads to ride through microgrid islanding and minimize tran-
sients. There is some literature addressing this important topic.
Bahrani et al. [18] investigated an active islanding detection
method in the context of a microgrid consisting of two DGs.
This work analytically determined the non-detection zones and
proposed a solution to avoid them. Sule and Kwasinski [19]
proposed a new active anti-islanding method by periodically
operating inverters in the over-modulation regime. Islanding
is detected by measuring the harmonics generated by the over-
modulating inverter. In [20], the authors presented a current
injection based active islanding detection and introduced the
potential applications in a microgrid scenario.
6.2. Issues and Challenges in Microgrid Protection
6.2.1. Complexity of Fault Current Path.
Significant amount of DG enables microgrids to export power
to the main grid and results in bidirectional power flow in
the microgrid network. This influences the amplitude and di-
rection of the fault current. To isolate the fault, an intelligent
coordinated protection scheme is needed by integration of fault
localization and detection. Figure 17 shows a fault event at one
of a notional microgrid DG branches. Breakers on branch 1
(CB 1) and DG1 (CB DG1) are supposed to trip faster than the
main breaker (CB Main) and the breakers on other branches.
However, without appropriate coordination and knowledge of
fault current direction (typically there is no voltage sensor in
a circuit breaker), the nuisance trip at main breaker and sym-
pathetic trip at other branches may occur, leading to a bigger
 1462 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 43 (2015), No. 12

outage in the system. This makes the microgrid vulnerable to

faults.

6.2.2. Insufficient Fault Current with Current-limited

Sources.
Protection devices are typically selected and configured by trip
time curve (TTC) in distribution systems. The short-circuit
analysis provides guidance for selecting protective devices
with proper trip curve settings so that the long delay trip, short
delay trip, and instantaneous trip can be designed to distinguish
different fault/overcurrent events. However, in the context of a
microgrid, the fault current contributed by various generations
and the main grid could increase or reduce the fault current
amplitude in different scenarios, which challenges the con-
ventional short-circuit analysis. A more comprehensive fault
study considering dynamics of microgrid key components is
FIGURE 18. Schematic of the Fort Sill microgrid.
seen as a need.
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015

On the other hand, inverter-based generations are typically

allowed to produce less than 1.2–1.5 times of their rated current
restricted by the material thermal limit and heat dissipation.
Their control systems manage and limit the output current to
ride through low-voltage situations, e.g., during a fault. There-
fore, the traditional trip curve cannot meet the requirements, as
the threshold of protection scheme is less sensitive to differen-
tiate the faulty condition. In addition, the protection settings for
the grid-tie mode are expected differently from island mode,
where there is no significant fault current from the main grid.
6.2.3. Different Voltage/Frequency Dynamics During
Faults.
With the lack of stiff generators in an island microgrid, the
voltage and frequency transients during faults vary according
to the fault type and location, microgrid configuration, and
short-circuit current capacity of the system. In a microgrid
with more power electronics-based devices, (e.g., a converter
interconnected microgrid [21]), the voltage and frequency dy-
namics during faults become completely different, even in a
grid-tie mode, as the short-circuit ratio (SCR) is changed from
an equivalent of physical wiring network to a controllable
power electronics device.
Various studies have made efforts to define the problems
and propose solutions. Sortomme et al. proposed a protec-
tion scheme using digital relays with a communication overlay
in [22]. The bidirectional flow, looped feeders, and reduced
fault levels in an island microgrid has been taken into account.
Various scenarios including high-impedance faults have been
discussed and demonstrated through simulations. Laaksonen
[23] envisioned a novel protection concept for future smart
low-voltage grids/microgrids with utilizing high-speed and re-
liable communication and IEC 61850 protocol. An example of
setting operation curves for protection devices is discussed and
simulated in a ring-connected microgrid. In [24], a practice of
fault analysis for an 18-bus microgrid network is conducted.
The simulation compared the fault currents with and with-
out DGs in four major types of faults and gave the suggested
settings for digital relays. An information-sharing based mi-
crogrid protection method was proposed in [25], where the
fault analysis of a practical university campus microgrid was
presented, and three-layer protection functions under grid-tie
and island modes were proposed. An Ethernet ring was created
to link the microgrid control center and protection devices to
reduce the communication traffic and processing burden of the
microgrid control center.

6.3. The State of the Art in Microgrid Protection

In general, the point of common coupling (PCC) or PoI, low-
voltage feeders, DERs, and non-generation apparatuses (trans-
formers, loads, etc.) are identified as four protection areas in
a microgrid protection scheme. A comprehensive protection
system networking with protection devices and controllers is
typically structured in one of the three forms: centralized, de-
centralized, and hierarchical architectures.
7. MICROGRID EXPERIMENTAL
DEMONSTRATION
The configuration of the first U.S. Army microgrid with seam-
less transfer capability is shown in Figure 18. It is the Fort Sill
microgrid with ratings of 480 V, 60 Hz, and 715 kW [26]. It is
connected to the utility grid through a 480-V/13.20-kV trans-
former and a static switch. The generations in this microgrid
 Fu et al.: Microgrids: Architectures, Controls, Protection, and Demonstration
FIGURE 19. Active power at the PCC, natural gas generators,
energy storage, and solar PV during unintentional islanding
and reconnection at the Fort Sill microgrid testbed.
include two natural gas generators each rated at 240 kVA, one
85-kW solar PV system, a 2.5-kW wind turbine, and a 250-
kW energy storage device. The solar PV and wind turbine
generators are connected to the system through inverters
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015
operating in a current mode, and the energy storage inverter is
operated in a voltage mode. The system also includes various
motor loads and variable loads. Motor loads mainly include
chillers, water pumps, and air compressors. This microgrid
can operate in a grid-tie or island mode. The energy storage
inverter is always connected to the system. During grid-tie
operation, the natural gas generators are turned off. In an is-
land mode of operation, natural gas generators are brought
into the system according to the developed unit commitment
algorithm.
Figure 19 shows the behavior of the system during an un-
intentional islanding and grid reconnection event. Initially the
microgrid operates in a grid-tie mode when an unintentional
islanding occurs at the 45th second. The energy storage device
picks up the majority of the load before natural gas generators
1 and 2 are synchronized and can provide power. Active power
of the generators are initially limited at 90 kW and then raised
to 100 kW.
After the 250th second, a reconnection command is sent to
the system when the grid is restored. The reconnection process
is relatively fast with minimal transients since the microgrid
has been operating near nominal voltage and frequency during
island mode.
8. CONCLUSIONS
This article presents a detailed overview of microgrid sys-
tems. The operating nature of microgrids is much different
from conventional distribution systems for several reasons, in-
cluding high penetration of DGs, renewable sources, power
electronics-based components, and energy storage. The sys-
tem also has two distinct operating modes, e.g., grid-tie and
1463
island as well as additional transitional modes. In this article,
the microgrid architecture and components are discussed in de-
tail. Most existing systems are AC, but technological advances
will enable hybrid microgrid structures. Various control tech-
niques for microgrid systems have been reviewed, and details
of a modified natural droop control with reliable performance
are discussed. Microgrid protection design in an environment
with bidirectional power flow, current limited sources, and
power electronics components is a complicated task. Various
complexities are discussed in the article. The performance of
a microgrid demonstration site during unintentional islanding
and grid reconnection is also presented.
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BIOGRAPHIES
Qiang Fu was born in Anhui Province, China, in 1984. He
received his B.S. and M.S. in electrical engineering from
Chongqing University, Chongqing, China, in 2006 and 2009,
respectively, and his Ph.D. from UWM in 2013. Currently,
he is an electrical engineer with the Corporate Research &
Technology Group of Eaton Corporation. He is a co-author of
the book Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing for the
Freescale DSP 56F8346, has published more than ten con-
ference and journal papers, and was awarded one Chinese
patent. His research mainly focuses on modeling and assess-
ing of microgrids as well as probabilistic analysis of power
systems.
Adel Nasiri was born in Sari, Iran, in 1974. He received his
B.S. and M.S. from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran,
Iran, in 1996 and 1998, respectively, and his Ph.D. from Illinois
Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, in 2004, all in electri-
cal engineering. He is presently an Excellence in Engineering
Faculty Fellow in Power Electronics and Director, Center for
Sustainable Electrical Energy Systems, Department of Elec-
trical Engineering and Computer Science at the UWM. He is
currently an editor of IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, as-
sociate editor of IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
editor of Power Components and Systems, and associate editor
of International Journal of Power Electronics. He was the gen-
eral chair of the 2012 IEEE Sensorless Electric Drives (SLED)
Symposium, International Conference on Renewable Energy
Research and Applications (ICRERA) 2014, and IEEE Power
Electronics and Machines for Wind and Water Applications
(PEMWA) 2014. His research interests are renewable energy
interface, energy storage, and microgrids.
Ashishkumar Solanki was born in Anand, Gujarat, India in
1985. He received his B.S. from S.P. University, Gujarat, India,
in July 2007; his M.S. from Gannon University, Erie, PA, in
December 2008; and his Ph.D. from UWM, Milwaukee, WI,
in January 2015, all in electrical engineering. He worked as
a research assistant at UWM from 2011–2015 and for Tapco,
Milwaukee, WI, as a research and development intern in sum-
mer 2010. He also worked for Eaton Corporation, Menomonee
Falls, in a corporate research group in 2013–14. His areas of
research are microgrids, wind energy, solar PV, energy stor-
age systems, and power quality and power management in
microgrids.
Abedalsalam Bani-Ahmed was born in Jerash, Jordan, in
1984. He received his B.S. in engineering technology, major-
ing in computer engineering, from Yarmouk University, Irbid,
Jordan, in 2007 and received his M.S. in computer engineer-
 Fu et al.: Microgrids: Architectures, Controls, Protection, and Demonstration
ing from Jordan University of Science and Technology, Ir-
bid, Jordan, in 2011. He is presently a doctoral student in
the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sci-
ence at UWM. He is currently a graduate research assistant
at the Center for Sustainable Electrical Energy Systems in the
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
at the UWM. His research interests are microgrid commu-
nications and cyber-security, renewable energy controls, dis-
tributed systems, and industrial communication protocols and
standards.
Luke Weber was born in Sheboygan Falls, WI, in 1961, earn-
ing a BSEE from Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, in
1985 and an MSEE from UWM in 2009. He is a Ph.D. candi-
date at UWM under the advisement of Dr. Adel Nasiri. From
1986 through 2013, he worked two stints at We Energies, net-
ting more than 20 years utility experience. He is an adjunct
Downloaded by [. A. Abedini] at 09:51 13 July 2015
professor at the Milwaukee School of Engineering, and be-
longs to the Power Engineering and Control Systems Societies.
His research interests are control and stability of synchronous
machines in weak grids and economic dispatch of micro-grid
assets.
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1465
Vijay Bhavaraju has been with Eaton since 2005. He has over
35 years of industrial and academic experience. He received
the B.S. degree in electrical engineering from IIT-Madras in
1976, the M.S. degree in power system operation and controls
degree from S. V. University Tirupathi, India, in 1988, and the
Ph.D. degree in power electronics from Texas A&M Univer-
sity, College Station, in 1994. Vijay worked with Ford/Ecostar
and Ballard Power System in the late 1990s to 2004 devel-
oping alternative inverters. He played an active role in the
development of IEEE 1547-2003. During the early 1990s, he
worked in the oil-field, designing and commissioning drives,
generator controls, and system controls for off-shore and land-
based oil rigs. He has wide experience in designing robust
control systems and hardware for 24/7–365-day heavy-duty
equipment. He worked on islanded power systems managing
up to 4 MW of diesel power and loads up to 1200 hp. He cur-
rently leads the Energy Networks Program, which addresses
different futuristic energy and energy management systems at
Eaton. He has been engaged in microgrids as part of differ-
ent DoD and DoE projects as principal investigator and a key
technical contributor. His research interests are microgrids and
energy conversion systems.