Cement Manufacturer's Handbook-Chemical Pub Co (1979) PDF

Cement Manufacturer’s Handbook by Kurt E. Peray Chemical Publishing Co., Inc. New York, N.Y. 1979©1979 ISBN 0-8206-0245-0 Chemical Publishing Co., Inc. Printed in the United States of AmericaPREFACE With this book, the author has intended to fill the need for a handy reference guide for cement plant engineers, supervisors, and managers. This work contains the necessary engineering formulas which represent the basic tools for gaining a better understanding of cement manufacturing technology. Mathematical formulas have been purposely kept simple with a minimum of written text to conserve an engineers time and to make this book available for use to the widest possible readership. Little or no mention is made about the result one can expect from any of the multitude of formulas presented. To do so would not serve a useful purpose and would defeat the objectives set forth for this book. None of the results obtained are universally applicable as is true for ail manufacturing facilities. The process of manufacturing cement is one of the most difficult and dynamic processes known. Therefore, it would be a fallacy to assume that because a certain equipment, design, or method has proven it- self in some plants that it would be equally successful in another. Nowhere is this situation more pronounced than in the rotary kiln operation. ‘There is no substitute for experience. But, experience combined with a sound mathematical understanding and knowledge of the process is a goal every cement plant engineer should strive for. If this book generates interest and gives the reader more satisfaction on his or her job, its writing will have been justified. But it is hoped, that it will do more than that. * * * Special appreciation is extended to my family for their sacrifices with- out which this book would not have become a reality. For their understanding and patience I’m dedicating this book to SONJA, DANIELA, AND MARCEL * * * iINTRODUCTION The process of manufacturing cement requires a knowledge of many sciences such as chemistry, physics, thermodynamics, and physical chemistry. It takes years to acquire a fundamental knowledge of the cement manufacturing process and this leaming process tends to be never ending. There is always something new in this industry: new types of equipment, new operating techniques, and conditions that require great effort to bring about change. Failure to accept this as a requirement of the job could lead to stagnancy instead of progress. Unfortunately, for anyone that has chosen a career in the cement in- .dustry, this knowledge cannot be acquired in a classroom or behind a desk. Instead, to become familiar with the process, one must acquire experience out in the field. For a manager or engineer this means he periodically has to don his overalls and spend time on the firing floor, the grinding depart- ment, the packhouse, and the quality control laboratory. By doing this, he must not shy away from the possibility that he might return to the office in a state more fitting for a chimney cleaner than a member of the plants management staff. In the course of 23 years, the author has been working in almost all de- partments of a cement plant and has been fortunate to gather experience as an hourly employee as well as a member of the plants management staff. During these times, a sore back from loading cement sacks on trucks, clinker dust in nostrils and ears from operating a kiln, inflamed eyes from cement and kiln dust, a few minor bums from hot clinker, a lot of sleep- jess nights, call-outs, and 16-hour work days were common occurrences. itiIt is all part of the learning process. It is hoped that these remarks do not give the newcomer to the industry the false impression that all cement plants are terribly dirty places to work in, They really aren’t, they are just slightly different from other industrial processes and some time is required to get used to them. There is however a much more positive aspect to embarking on a career in the cement industry. Making a living in the cement industry, as a manager, engineer, super- visor, or hourly worker, is a job that seldom becomes monotonous or bor- ing. This is an interesting technical field to work in and is always full of the unexpected. [t takes a special kind of individual who can tackle new problems head-on. It is a credit to the cement industry that it has so many individuals that can salvage an apparently hopeless situation and keep, figur- atively speaking, the train on the track. The author himself has observed specialists in their own right making a production facility continue to produce cement when others had given up years ago saying that the particular equipment was long overdue for the scrap pile. And at other times, work- ers and supervisors, almost beyond their call of duty, have proven they can repair a piece of equipment and get it back on line within a time frame other industries would consider impossible. These are the unsung heroes in the cement industry, those who are just doing their job and whose names usually never appear in the trade literature. In part, the author dedicates this book to these individuals, There really is no way for a book to teach the uninitiated this kind of a work experience. There are just too many unknowns and variables that enter into the decision making process about how to handle a given situation. It is therefore a fallacy to assume that this book provides an individual with everything he has to know about the cement manufacturing process. The aim of this book, however, is to provide the foundation upon which an individual can build his experience and technical know-how. The author has attempted to compile the technical information that is con- sidered necessary to give the reader a good background of the process. It is not uncommon to observe an engineer spending four hours in preparation of a test, one hour for the actual test in the field, two hours for calculations, and two days in compiling the results and writing the report. In many chapters of this book, work sheets are provided which an engineer can copy thus saving him valuable time in this overall endeavor. Since the majority of the formulas in this book are presented both in the English and metric systems, the engineer has a tool available that makes the transition to the new system easier for him. The only caution the ivauthor must give is that the reader should make a habit of ascertaining the appropriate formula in the correct system of units for his work or project. Included at the end of this book are extensive conversion tables that allow the reader to become familiar with all three systems: the English, the metric, and the International System of Units. The author would like to see a college or university that would establish aschool of “Cement Manufacturing Technology” here in the United States. Such an institution would enable our industry to develop the required pool of new engineers needed to maintain a progressive technological growth in the North American industry. It is the authors opinion that such a school could contribute a great deal toward making the U.S. cement industry less dependent upon foreign technology. There are many unique processes that were invented and developed by the U.S. cement industry. Perhaps in the future we can again take a leading role in improving and ad- vancing the technology of making cement. But to do so requires a financial commitment and a great deal of effort from all of us. Kurt E. Peray Dallas, TexasCONTENTS Part Cement Chemistry Chapter 1 QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS 1.01 1.02 1.03 1,04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 111 1.12 1.13 1,14 1.15 Ignition Loss Silica Ratio Alumina-Iron Ratio Lime Saturation Factor Hydraulic Ratio Percent Liquid Burnability Index Burnability Factor Bogue Formulas for Clinker and Cement Constituents Total Carbonates Total Alkalies as NazO Conversion of Raw Analysis to Loss Free Basis Conversion of Kiln Dust Weight to Kiln Feed Weight Calculation of Total Carbonates from Acid-Alkali Titration Percent Calcination Chapter 2 KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 CaCO; Required to Obtain a Given CS in the Clinker Two-Component Mix Calculations Three-Component Mix Calculations Four-Component Mix Calculations Determination of Chemical Composition vil WOW OS HDIAMUAUNAR RA WW DWChapter 3. KILN FEED SLURRY 3.01 Specific Gravity and Pulp Density of Slurries 3.02 Properties of Water 3.03 Mass of Slurry Required per Mass of Clinker 3.04 Slurry Feed Rate Required 3.05 Clinker Production for a Given Slurry Rate 3.06 Clinker Production per Slurry Tank Unit 3.07 Specific Gravity of Slurry 3.08 Dry Solids per Unit Volume of Slurry Chapter 4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS USED IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING 4.01 Chemical Compounds 4.02 Bulk Densities of Common Materials 4.03 Typical Coal Analysis 4.04 Typical Fuel Oil Properties 4.05 Typical Gaseous Fuel Properties 4.06 Barometric Pressure at Different Altitudes 4.07 Sieve Sizes 4.08 Coefficients of Linear Expansion 4.09 Properties of Air 4.10 Particulate Concentration in Gases 4.11 Selected Intemational Atomic Weights 4.12 Selected Minerals and Ores 4.13 Classification of Minerals 4.14 Chemical Formula and Moiecular Weight of Common Minerals Chapter 5 FORMULA AND DATA USED IN COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS 5.01 Thermochemical Reactions 5.02 Combustion Constants 5.03 Heat Value of Fuel 5.04 Conversion from “Gross” to “Net” Heating Value 5.05 Analysis of Coal 5.06 Methods of Expressing Solid Fuel Analysis 5.07 Conversion of Coal Analysis to Different Basis 3.08 Typical Coal Ash Analysis5.09 Fuel Ignition Temperatures 5.10 Percent Coal Ash Absorbed in Clinker §.11 Effect of Coal Ash on Clinker Composition 5.12 Determination of Theoretical Fuel Consumption Chapter 6 pH: HYDROGEN-ION-CONCENTRATIONS 6.01 Definition of pH 6.02 Calculation of pH - '6,03 Indicators Part I Burning Chapter 7 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF KILN PERFORMANCE 7.01 Technical Information on Kiln Equipment Chapter 8 KILN PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY (ENGLISH SYSTEM OF UNITS) 8.01 Amount of Feed Required to Produce One Ton of Clinker 8.02 Dust Loss 8.03 Potential Clinker Compounds and Clinker Factors 8.04 Theoretical Heat Required to Produce One Ton of Clinker 8.05 Percent of Infiltrated Air at Kiln Feed End 8.06. Excess Air Present in the Kiln 8.07 Combustion Air Required to Burn One Pound of Fuel 8.08 Weight of Combustion Air per Minute Entering Kiln 8.09 Air Infiltration at Hood 8.10 Cooler Air Balance 8.11 Products of Combustion (Ib/ton) 8.12 Weight of Gases from Slurry (Ib/ton) 8.13 Total Weight of Kiln Exit Gases 8.14 Percent Moisture in Kiln Exit Gases 8.15 Density of Kiln Exit Gas 8.16 Volume of Moist Kiln Exit Gases 8.17 Kiln Performance Factors 8.18 Results of Kiln Performance Study ix 63 63 64 65 71 71 72 75 76Chapter 9 KILN PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 (METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS) Amount of Feed Required to Produce One Kilogram of Clinker , Dust Loss Potential Clinker Compounds and Clinker Factors Theoretical Heat Required to Produce One Kilogram Clinker Percent of Infiltrated Air at Kiln Feed End Excess Air Present in the Kiln Combustion Air Required to Bum One Kilogram of Fuel (Solid or Liquid) Weight of Combustion Air Required per Hour Air Infiltration at Firing Hood Cooler Air Balance Products of Combustion Weight of Gases from the Feed Total Weight of Kiln Exit Gases Percent Moisture in Kiln Exit Gases Density of Kiln Exit Gases Volume of Moist Kiln Exit Gas Kiln Performance Factors Results of Kiln Performance Study Chapter 10 HEAT BALANCE (ENGLISH SYSTEM OF UNITS) 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 Heat Input from Combustion of Fuel Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Fuel Heat Input from Organic Substance in Kiln Feed Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Kiln Feed Heat Input from Cooler Air Sensible Heat Heat Input from Primary Air Sensible Heat Heat Input from Infiltrated Air Sensible Heat Heat Required for Clinker Formation Heat Loss with Exit Gas Heat Loss Due to Moisture in Feed or Slurry Heat Losses Due to Dust in Exit Gases Heat Loss with Clinker at Cooler Discharge x 95 111 111 111 111 112 112 112 113 113 113 114 114 114~ 10.13 Heat Loss at Cooler Stack 10.14 Radiation and Convection Losses on Kiln Shell -° 10,15 Heat Loss Due to Calcination of Wasted Dust Chapter 11 HEAT BALANCE (METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS) » 11.01 Heat Input from the Combustion of Fuel “11.02 Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Fuel 11.03 Heat Input from Organic Substance in Kiln Feed 11.04 Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Kiln Feed *11.05 Heat Input from Cooler Air Sensible Heat 11.06 Heat Input from Primary Air Sensible Heat 11.07 Heat Input from Infiltrated Air Sensible Heat 11.08 Heat Required for Clinker Formation 11.09 Heat Loss with Kiln Exit Gas 11.10 Heat Loss Due to Moisture in Feed or Slurry 11.11 Heat Losses Due to Dust in the Kiln Exit Gases 11.12 Heat Loss with Clinker at Cooler Discharge 11.13 Heat Loss at Cooler Stack 11.14 Heat Losses by Radiation on Kiln Shelt 11.15 Heat Loss Due to Calcination of Wasted Kiln Dust Chapter 12 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF THREE KILN MODELS Chapter 13 SPECIFIC HEATS, HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS 115 115 116 118 118 118 119 119 119 120 120 120 121 122 122 122 122 123 124 126 AND COMPUTATIONS FOR NATURAL GAS FIRING 137 13.01 Mean Specific Heat of Clinker (Metric System) 13.02 Mean Specific Heat of Raw Materials (Metric System) 13.03 Mean Specific Heat of Exit Gas Components (Metric System) 13.04 Mean Specific Heat of Fuels (Metric System) 13.05 Mean Specific Heat of Water Vapor (Metric System) 13.06 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Heat Loss on Kiln Shell (Metric System) 13.07 Mean Specific Heat of Clinker (English System) 13.08 Mean Specific Heat of Raw Materials (English System) 13.09 Mean Specific Heat of Exit Gas Components (English System) 13.10 -Mean Specific Heat of Fuels (English System) xi 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 14713.11 Mean Specific Heat of Water Vapor (English System) 148 13.12 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Heat Loss on Kiln Shell (English : System) 149 13.13 Computations for Natural Gas Firing 150 Chapter 14 USEFUL FORMULAS IN KILN DESIGN AND OPERATION 153 14.01 Cooling of Kiln Exit Gases by Water 153 14.02 Kiln Feed Residence Time 154 14.03 Kiln Slope Conversion 155 14.04 Kiln Sulfur Balance 155 14.05 The Standard Coal Factor, Combustion Air Requirements 157 14.06 Cooler Performance 158 14.07 Combustion Air Required for Natural Gas Firing 159 14.08 Products of Combustion on Natural Gas Firing 160 14.09 Percent Loading of the Kiln 161 14.10 Cross-Sectional Loading of the Kiln 161 14.11 Flame Propagation Speed 162 14.12 Kiln Drive Horsepower 164 14.13. Theoretical Exit Gas Composition, by Volume 165 14.14 Conversion of Specific Heat Consumption into Annualized Costs 167 14.15 Theoretical Flame Temperature 168 14.16 The “True” CO, Content in the Exit Gases 168 14.17 Alkali Balance 169 14.18 Kiln Speed Conversions 170 14,19 Power Audit on Kiln Equipment 171 14.20 Coating and Ring Formation 172 14.21 Relationship Silica Ratio vs. Saturation Factor 172 Chapter 15 CHAIN SYSTEMS IN WET PROCESS KILNS 175 15.01 Chain Angle of Garland Hung Chains 176 15.02 Evaporation Rate (Wet Kilns) 178 15.03 Total Heat Transfer Surface 178 15.04 Effective Heat Transfer Volume for Evaporation 179 15.05 Chain Zone to Kiln Length Ratio 179 15.06 Length of Chain System 179 15.07 Chain Density 17915.08 Heat Transfer Required in Chain System 179 15.09 Specific Chain System Performance Factors 180 18.10 Chain System Design for Wet Process Kilns 181 1§.11 Kiln Chain Data—Round Links 185 : 15.12 Kiln Chain Data—Proof Coil (Oval Links) 185 15.13 Chain Shackle Data 185 ~ 15:14 Chain System Record Form 186 ‘: Chapter 16 KILN REFRACTORY 188 : 16,01 Refractory Shapes 188 16.02 Number of Bricks Required per Ring 192 16.03 Number of Bricks Required per Unit Kiln Length 194 "16.04 Kiln Diameter Conversion Table 195 Part II Grinding ~-Chapter 17 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF GRINDING MILL 199 ‘17.01 Technical Data of Grinding Circuit 200 Chapter 18 GRINDING MILL INVESTIGATION (ENGLISH SYSTEM OF UNITS) 201 * 18.01 Mill Critical Speed 202 18.02 Percent of Critical Speed 202 * 18.03 Ratio: Free Height to Mill Diameter 203 18.04 Internal Volume of Mill 203 “18.05 Percent Loading of the Mill 203 18.06 Bulk Volume of Ball Charge 204 18.07 Weight of Ball Charge 204 18.08 Weight of Feed in Mill 205 18.09 Steel to Clinker Ratio 205 18.10 Bond’s Laboratory Work Index 205 18.11 Power Required 206 18.12 Mill Power 206 - 18.13. True Specific Power Demand of Grinding Mill 206 18.84 Mill Operating Efficiency 207 18.15 Specific Surface Grinding Efficiency 207 18.16 Mill Size Ratio 20718.17 Specific Mil! Volume per Horsepower 18,18 Separator Load 18.19 Separator Efficiency 18.20 Circulating Load 18.21 Size of Grinding Balls Required Chapter 19 GRINDING MILL INVESTIGATION (METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS) 19.01 Mill Critical Speed 19,02 Percent of Critical Speed 19.03 Ratio: Free Height to Mill Diameter 19,04 Intemal Volume of Miil 19,05 Percent Loading of Mill 19,06 Bulk Volume of Ball Charge 19.07 Weight of Ball Charge 19.08 Weight of Feed in Milt 19.09 Steel to Clinker Ratio 19.10 Bond’s Laboratory Work Index {9.11 Power Required 19.12 Mill Power 19.13 True Specific Power Demand of Grinding Mill 19.14 Mill Operating Efficiency 19.15 Specific Surface Grinding Efficiency 19.16 Mill Size Ratio 19.17 Specific Mill Volume per Horsepower 19.18 Separator Load 19.19 Separator Efficiency 19.20 Circulating Load 19.21 Size of Grinding Balls Required Chapter 20 USEFUL DATA FOR GRINDING MILL STUDY 20.01 Work Index for Various Materials 20.02 Size Distribution for a New Ball Charge in Mill 20.03 Grindability Factor 20.04 Approximate 80 Percent Passing Size in Microns 20.05 Screen Size Conversion to Micron Size 20.06 Optimum SO; Content in Cement 20.07 Calculations Related to Gypsum xiv 207 207 208 208 209 225 225 226 226 227 228 229 2300.08 Perdent Gypsum Required for Desired SO3 in Cement {20.09 Cement Fineness 0.10 Heats of Hydration 0.11 Spray Cooling with Water ‘Chapter 21 GRINDING AIDS AND CEMENT FINENESS 1:01 Grinding Aid Solutions 1.02 Fineness of Portland Cement by Turbidimeter (Wagner) “21 03 Table of Logarithms for Turbidimeter Microammeter . Reading 1.04 Particle Size Distribution Part IV Engineering Formulas Chapter 22 STEAM ENGINEERING 01 Latent Heat of Vaporization 2.02 Saturated Steam Pressure : 2.04 Superheated Steam 05 Properties of Steam apter 23 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 01 The Basic Formulas 3.02 Direct Current Circuits 03° Alternating Current 04 Useful Electrical Formulas pter 24 FAN ENGINEERING Fan Laws Total Efficiency of a Fan Static Efficiency of a Fan Air Horsepower Shaft Horsepower Similar Fans Fan Static Pressure XV 230 230 231 231 233 233 234 234 236 241 241 242 242 243 244 246 246 247 248 251 255 255 256 257 257 257 257 257Chapter 25 FLUID FLOW 25.01 Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity Specific Weight Specific Volume Specific Gravity Mean Fluid Velocity Barometric Pressure Atmospheric Pressure Gauge Pressure Hydraulic Radius Pressure Loss in Any Pipe Friction Factor Poiseuille’s Law Reynolds Number Critical Velocity Total Head Pressure Head Velocity Head Resistance Coefficient Bemoulli’s Theorem Head Loss Flow Coefficient of Valves Flow Through a Valve Pressure Drop Through a Valve Flow Through Pipe Velocity vs. Cross-Sectional Area Potential Energy for Fluids Total Energy of a Liquid Power of a Liquid Flow Through Nozzles and Orifices Flow Coefficient Flow Through Pipes Flow Through Rectangular Weirs Flow Through Triangular Weirs Gas Flow Measurements Pilot Tube Measurements S-Tube Measurements xvi 259 259 259 260 260 261 262 263 263 263 263 263 265 265 265 266 266 266 266 267 267 267 267 268 268 268 268 269 269 269 270 270 270 270 272 27325.38 25.39 25.40 25.41 One-Point Traverse Conversions of Flow Rates Flow Determination with Orifice Plate Ventury Meters Chapter 26 HEAT TRANSFER 26.01 Heat Required for a Temperature Change Conduction Convection Radiation Nusselt Number Prandtl Number General Heat Transfer Equations Temperature Equivalents Temperature Conversion Table Chapter 27 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY © 27.01 27.02 27.03 27.04 27.05 27.06 27.07 27.08 27,09 27.10 27.11 27.12 27.13 27.14 27.15 27.16 27,17 Gas Laws Gas Law Constant Avogadros Law Density of a Gas Standard Condition of a Gas Normal Density of a Gas Molecular Weight of Gases Density Changes of Gases Moles Volumes Changes of a Gas Weight Percent of Solutions Mole Fraction of a Solution Molality of a Solution Molarity of a Solution Percent of an Element Contained in a Compound Percent of a Compound Contained in a Substance Weight Problems Chapter 28 PHYSICS 28.01 Newtons Law of Gravitation xvii 273 273 274 275 277 279 279 280 281 281 281 282 282 286 286 287 287 288 288 288 288 288 289 289 289 290 290 291 291 291 293 29328.02 Acceleration—Force 28.03 Mass of a Body 28.04 Weight of a Body 28.05 Work Done 28.06 Power 28.07 Molecular Heat of Gases 28.08 Molecular Heat of Solids 28.09 Latent Heat of Fusion 28.10 Latent Heat of Evaporation 28.11 Heat of Formation and Reaction 28.12 Joule Equivalent 28.13 Temperature of a Mixture 28.14 Gas Mixtures 28.15 Gas Constant 28.16 Friction Coefficient 28.17 Moment of Force—Torque Chapter 29 PSYCHROMETRY 29.01 Basic Psychrometric Equation 29.02 Wet Bulb Depression 29.03 Relative Humidity 29.04 Dew Point 29.05 Properties of Air and Water Vapor Part V Emission Control and Plant Equipment Chapter 30 TEST FOR PARTICULATE EMISSIONS 30.01 Data Needed for Stack Testing 30.02 Summary of Results 30.03 Calculations Chapter 31 USEFUL DATA FOR EMISSION CONTROL 31.01 Molecular Weights of Selected Gases 31.02 Conversion Factors for Emission Rates xviii 293 294 294 294 295 296 296 297 297 298 299 299 299 . 299 300 301 301 301 301 302 302 307 307 308 308 311 311 312Chapter 32. STORAGE AND TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT 32.01 Drum Dryers 32.02 Slurry Pumps 32.03 Bucket Elevators 32.04 Belt Conveyors 32.05 Screw Conveyors 32.06 Water Pumps 32.07 Storage Tanks 32.08 Drag Chains 32.09 Jaw and Gyratory Crushers 32.10 Stacks and Chimneys Part VI Appendix Section A MATHEMATICS Al. Algebra A1.01 Exponents A1.02 Fractions A1.03 Radicals A1.04 Factoring A1.05 Scientific Notations A1.06 Logarithms A107 Determinants A1.08 Quadratic Equation A1.09 Powers of Ten A1.10 Powers and Roots Al.11 Fractions and Decimal Equivalents A2. Trigonometry A2.01 Right Triangle A2.02 Any Triangle A3. Statistics A3.01 Standard Deviation A3.02 Variance A3.03 Coefficient of Variation 325 325 325 326 326 326 327 327 328 328 329 329 332 333 333 334 337 337 337 338A3.04 Relative Frequency A3.05 Geometric Mean A3.06 Least Squares A3.07 Coefficient of Correlation A4. ‘Finances A4.01 Compound Interest A4.02 Total Annual Cash Flow 4.4.03 After Tax Profit A4.04 Straight Line Depreciation A4.05 Double-Declining Balance Depreciation A4.06 Sum-of-Years Digit Depreciation A4.07 Sixth-Tenth Factor A4.08 Value of Investment After Depreciation A4.09 Return on Investment A4.10 Simple Compound Interest A4.11 Present Worth A4.12 Equal Payment Series Compound Amount A4.13 Compound Interest Factors A4.14, Discounted Cash Flow Factors A4.15 Deposit Calculation AS. Safety Formulas A501 Accident Frequency Rate A5.02 Severity Rate A5.03 Safety Performance A6. Plane and Solid Geometry A6.01 Rectangles A6.02 Parallelogram A6.03 Triangle A6.04 Circle A6.05 Circular Sector A6.06 Circular Segment A6.07 Circular Ring A6.08 Ellipse A6.09 Parabola A6.10 Polygon XX 338 347 348 348 349 349 349 350 350 351 351 352 352 352A611 A6.12 A6.13 A6.14 A615 A6.16 A6.17 A6.18 A6.19 A6.20 A6.21 A’. A7.01 A702 A703 A704 Trapezoid Catenary Cube Cylinder Pyramid Cone Frustum of a Cone Sphere Segment of a Sphere Sector of a Sphere Torus International System of Units Base Units Supplementary Units Derived Units Prefixes Section B CONVERSION FACTORS Bl. Dawn wa OADM AWH B10. Bll. B12. B13. Linear Measures Weights Area Volume Specific Weights and Volumes Flow Rates and Speeds Pressure Work, Power, and Force Power Heat Pressure Conversion to SI Units Viscosity Metric Standard Units 353 353 353 354 354 355 355 356 356 357 357 358 358 358 358 360 361 361 362 362 363 365 366 367 368 369 370 370 370PART I CEMENT CHEMISTRYChapter 1 QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS 1.01 Ignition Loss Ignition loss is usually determined by tests in a laboratory furnace. It can also be calculated from the chemical analysis of the kiln feed by the following formula: Ignition loss = 0.44 CaCO, + 0.524 MeCO, F pa gx + combined H,O + organic matter. 1.02. Silica Ratio ____ SiO, Al,O; + Fe.03 Large variations of the silica ratio in the clinker can be an indication of poor uniformity in the kiln feed or the fired coal. Changes in coating formation in the burning zone, burnability of the clinker, and ring formations within the kiln can often be traced to changes of the silica ratio in the clinker. Asa rule, clinker with a high silica ratio is more difficult to burn and exhibits poor coating properties. Low silica ratios often lead to ring formations and low early strength (3-7 days) in the cement. 34 CEMENT MANUFACTURER'S HANDBOOK 1.03 Alumina-Iron Ratio _ Al,Os AIF Fe,03 Clinker with a high alumina-iron ratio, as a rule, produce cement with high early strength (1 to 3 days) but makes the reaction between the silica and calcium oxide in the burning zone more difficult. 1.04 - Lime Saturation Factor This factor has been used for kiln feed control for many years in Europe and ‘only recently has also found acceptance by American cement manu- facturers. When the lime saturation factor approaches unity, the clinker is difficult to bum and often shows excessive high free lime contents. A clinker, showing a lime saturation factor of 0.97 or higher approaches the threshold of being “overlimed’”’ wherein the free lime content could re- -main at high levels regardless of how much more fuel the kiln operator is feeding to the kiln. If A/F = > 0.64 CaO LSF = —-———————--- 2.8 SiO, + 1.65 Al,O, + 0.35 Fe,05 If A/F = < 0.64 LSF CaO ~ 2.8 SIO, + 1.1 Al,O3 + 0.7 Fe,0, 1.05 Hydraulic Ratio This index is very seldom used any more in moder cement technology for kiln feed control. CaO RR = ————_—___—___—_- SiO, + Al,0; + Fe,05QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS $ 1.06 Percent Liquid Clinker, when burned at a temperature of 2642°F., has the following liquid content: Percent liquid = 1.13 C;A + 1.35 C,AF + MgO + Alkalies 1.07 Burnability Index - This is an indicator of the ease of burning for a given clinker. The higher the index number, the harder the clinker is to burn. ___ cs CAF +C3A 1.08 Burnability Factor The burnability factor is used as a guideline for the kiln operator to show if a given clinker is easier or harder to burn. Higher burnability factors yield a clinker that is harder to bum. Conversely, lower factors make the clinker easier to burn. : BF = LSF +10 SR -3 (MgO + Alkalies)_ . (find LSF in 1.04 and SR in 1.02.) 1.09 Bogue Formulas for Clinker and Cement Constituents For a cement chemist, these formulas are the most important and frequently used indicators of the chemical properties of a cement or clinker. The constituents calculated by these formulas, however, are only the potential compositions when the clinker has been burned and cooled at given conditions, Changes in cooling rate or burning temperature can modify the true constituent composition to a considerable extent.6 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK a) Bogue Formulas for Cement Constituents If 4/F = >0.64 C38 = 4.071CaO — (7.602Si0, + 6.718A1,0, + 1.43Fe,05 + 2.852803) C8 2.867810. — 0.7544C,8 C3A = 2.65Al,03 - 1.692Fe,03 C,AF = 3.043Fe,03 If A/F = <0.64 C38 4.071CaO — (7.602Si02 + 4.479Al,03 + 2.859 Fe203 + 2.852803) C28 = 2.867S8iO, — 0.7544C38 0 C3A ss(CgAF + C2F) = 2.1 Alp03 + 1.702Fe203 b) Bogue Formulas for Clinker Constituents When appreciable amounts of SO, and MnO; are present in the clinker, the values of the chemical analysis have to be recalculated to take into account the amount of CaO that has been combined with SO, the amount of free lime present and the Mn203. The values to be used in the Bogue formulas are: Fe,0, = Fe.03 + Mn,0; CaQ = CaO ~ free CaO - (CaO combined with SO3) To find the amount of CaO that is combined with SO3 as CaSO, proceed as follows:QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS 7 Step 1 If (K,0/SO3) = < 1.176 then not all of the SO3 is combined with K,0 as K2SO« SO, in K,0 = 0.85 K,0 Step 2 Calculate SO, residue SO; — SO, (in K.0)= SO; (remaining) If [Na,0/SO4 (remain.)] = < 0.774 then not all of the remaining SOs is combined with Na2O as Na2SOq,. SO, in Na,O = 1.292 Na,O Step 3 Calculate the amount of CaO that has combined with the SO as CaSOq Ca0 (in $03) = 0.7 [S03 — SO; (in K,0) — SOs (in Na,0)] Having determined the appropriate values for the CaO and Fe,03, one can then proceed to calculating the potential clinker constituents by using the previously given Bogue formulas. When the Bogue formulas are used for kiln feed compositions, keep in mind that the coal ash addition, dust losses, and alkali cycles can alter the final composition of the clinker. Also use the analysis on a “loss free” basis in the calculations of the constituents. 1.10 Total Carbonates Total carbonates are usually determined analytically by the acid-alkali titration method. They can also be calculated from the raw (unignited) analysis as follows: TC = 1.784 CaO + 2.09 MgO8 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 1.11 Total Alkalies as Na, 0 The total alkali content in terms of sodium oxide is calculated from the loss free analysis: Total as Na,O = Na,O + 0.658 K,O 1.12 Conversion of Raw Analysis to Loss Free Basis 0, 0,= 100 ' 100-L where , O, = percent of oxide (by weight) on a raw basis O, = percent of oxide (by weight) on loss free basis L = percent loss on ignition (by weight) 1.13 Conversion of Kiln Dust Weight to Kiln Feed Weight Dust collected in a precipitator or baghouse of a kiln shows a different loss on ignition than the kiln feed because it has been partially calcined. For inventory control purposes and in some kiln operating studies it is often necessary to express the weight of dust in terms of equivalent feed weight. (w)(1 - £4) w, 2 1-L, where w, = weight of dust in terms of feed wie actual weight of dust L_, = percent ignition loss, dust (decimal) L, = percent ignition loss, kiln feed (decimal)QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS 9 1.14 Calculation of Total Carbonates from Acid-Alkali Titration This method is only applicable when the MgO content of the sample is known. Values from the raw (unignited) basis are used for the calculation. CaCO, = 1.66791 (@ = 1.48863 MgO) MgCO3 = 2.098 MgO TC =MgCO, +CaCO; CaO =: 0.93453 (a — 1.48863Mg0) @ = apparent total lime content from titration 1.15 Percent Calcination Kiln feed or dust samples taken at any location of the kiln are often investigated for the apparent degree of calcination the sample has under- gone. ,-4) C= 100 where C =apparent percent calcination of the sample J, = ignition loss of the original feed d, = ignition loss of the sample10 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS Problems and examples shown in this chapter and all subsequent chapters are arranged in the same sequence as the formulas are presented in the chapter. 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 A kilnfeed mix contains 78.5 percent CaCO;, 1.2 percent MeCO, and an estimated 0.4 percent combined H,O and organic matter. What is the ignition loss on this mix? Ignition loss = (0.44 X 78.5) + (0.524 X 1.2) + 0.4 = 35.6 percent (ans.) It is desired that a given kiln feed shows a silica ratio of 2.75. What must the Al,O3 content be if the Fe,03 remains constant at 2.95 and the SiO, at 22.45? 22.45 — (2.95 X 2,75 Al,O; = ae = 5.21 percent (ans.) The Al/Fe ratio is desired to be 1.80 and the Fe,0; is to be 2.75 in a given mix. What must the Al2O3 content be? Ai,O3 = 1.8 X 2.75 = 4.95 percent (ans.) Given a clinker of the following composition: CaO SiO, Al,O3; Fe,0; 66.75 22.15 596 2.93 What is the lime saturation factor? First —=——=2.03 ie.,>0.64QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS ll LSF = 66.75 = 0.916 [(2.8)(22.15)] + [(1.65)(5.96)] + [(0.35)(2.93)] (ans.) 1.05 What is the hydraulic ratio for the clinker example given in 1.04? 66.75 = ————____=215 (as) 22.15 + 5.96 + 2.93 1.06 Given a clinker of the following characteristics: C4AF MgO alkalies 897 2.15 0.65 What must the C3A content be to obtain 25.5 percent liquid in the clinker? 25.5 — 12.11 —2.15 — 0.65 A= =9.37 (ans. 1.13 ae.) 3 1.07 What is the burnability index for a clinker that shows 61.5 percent CS, 8.8 percent C,AF, and 9.8 percent C3A? ~ 38498 = 3.31 (ens) 1.08 What is the burnability factor for a clinker of the following characteristics: LSF = 92.0, S/R = 2.15, MgOtalk. = 3.15 BF = 92.0+ [(10)(2.75)] — ((3)(3.15)] = 110.1 (ans)12 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 1.09 Given a clinker of the following composition: Si Al Fe CaO MgO Mn,0, SO; K,0 Na2O free CaO 0.15 0.5 What values for the basic oxides have to be used when calculating the compound composition by the Bogue formula? a) For FeO Fe,03, = 2.65+0.12 = 2.77 (ns.) b) For CaO K,0 2 == 05, SO; inK,O = (0.85)(0.60) = 0.51 S03 SO, remaining = 1.2-—0.51 = 0.69 Na,O 0.15 = —— = 0.217 SOs em, 0-69 SO; in NaO = (1.292\(0.15) = 0.194 CaO in SO; = 0.7(1.2 -0.51—0.194) = 0.347 CaO = 66.85 — 0.5 — 0.347 = 66.00 (ans.) Hence, the oxide contents to be used are : CaO SiO, Al,03 Fe,03 66.00 21.84 S15 2.77 1.10 It is desired that a mix contain 79.8 percent total carbonates. What must the CaO content be if the MgO is a constant 1.3 percent on a raw basis?QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS 13 79.8 -2.72 CaO = ——-—— = 43.21 percent (@ns.) 1.784 1.11 What is the maximum permissible K,O content in the clinker if the Na,0 content is 0.18 percent and the total number of alkalies is not allowed to exceed 0.63 percent? 0.63 - 0.18 K,0 = —————— = 0.68 (ans) 0.658 1.12 In example 1.10, what is the CaO content, loss free, when the loss on ignition is 35.7 percent on this mix? 43.21 CaO (oss free) = 100-357 100 = 67.20 percent (@ns.) 1.13 A kiln is wasting 5850 1b of dust per hour. The loss on ignition of the dust is 19.5 percent and 35.8 percent on the kiln feed. What weight of kiln feed is wasted on this kiln per hour? $850(1 — 0.195) wy ee) = 73353 Ib/h (ans. e” 70358 ie ane) 1.14 What is the total carbonate content on a sample that shows CaO = 47.0 percent and MgO = 0.84 percent on a raw basis? TC = 1.66791 [47.0 - (1.48863)\(0.84) + (2.098}(0.84)] = 79.25 percent (ans.) 1,15 To what percent is the kiln dust in example 1.13 above calcined? ; 35.8 = 19.5 Percent calcination = 3a 100 = 45.5 percent (ans.)Chapter 2 KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS 2.01 CaCO, Required to Obtain a Given C,S in the Clinker This formula should only be used as a quick reference in times when no other analytical methods, other than the titration method, is available. CaCO; required = CaCO, (fee ay * 0.0806 (A =a) where A = desired C,S in clinker a = existing C35 in clinker 2.02 Two-Component Mix Calculations &) To obtain a constant total carbonate content This method can only be used when the MgCO3 content in the two components is constant. _ *C, + (100-x)C, 100 TC where x = material A needed (percent by weight) 14KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS 15 100 - x = material B needed (percent by weight) C, = TC in material A (percent by weight) C, = TC in material B (percent by weight) TC = desired total carbonates b) Percent of each component needed for a desired CaCO Use this formula only when the MgCO, content in the two components is constant. Cy — C3 1 a -G w= 00 where w= weight of material A needed for each 100 unit weights of material B C= CaCO, desired in mix C, = CaCO, in material A C, = CaCO; in material B c) To obtain a constant C3S/C.S ratio Insert the values found from the raw material analysis (on the raw basis) limestone clay $102 8) So Al,03 Ai Az Fe,03 F, Fi CaO Cr C2 MgO Mi M; Loss li Ll: For limestone x = C, + 14M, —(2.38, +1.7A, + F,)16 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK For clay y = 2.38, +1.7A, +F, —(Cz + 1.4M,) The number of parts (P) limestone required for 100 parts of clay wil! be: _ 100y x P The percent (by weight) of the mix is therefore 100 100+ P Percent clay = P Percent limestone = 100 100 +P d) Formulas for mix corrections Limestone added to a cement rock to correct mix. (M — F)(100 + A y= a+ RAI + 4) L-M where M = percent CaCOs desired in mix = percent CaCO; found in mix (before correction) A = percent limestone already added L = percent CaCO; in limestone X = corrected percent limestone needed to obtain M. Clay added to a limestone to correct mix. = p= F100 + 8) a F-CKILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS where M = percent CaO or CaCO; desired in the mix F = percent CaO or CaCO found in mix B = percent clay already added C = percent CaO or CaCO; in clay- X = percent clay needed to obtain M 2.03 Three Component Mix Calculation a) To obtain a desired LSF and SR Analysis on Raw Basis Material I Material IT SiO, Si ..... Sg ..... Al,O3 Ags saa Ageceee Fe,03 Fy ..... Fz ..... caQ Cy ..... Cy » ssncegy Desired LSF: KS, = were Desired S/R: SM = ..... a, = [(2.8KS,)(S,) + 1.65A, + 0.35F,)] -C, = by = (@8KS,)G2)+ 1.65A, + 0.35F,)-—C, = Cs —(2.8KS, + 1.654 +0.35Fs) a, = SM(A, +F,)-S; = by = SM (A. +F2)-S. is = S3 —SM (As +F3) at eg Material HY18 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK —¢2b = Sub =C2b1 = wee Parts of Material I ab. —azb, @,Cz —a2€ ee, Parts of Material II a,b2 —a,b,; 1.0 4 oS aes Parts of Material ITI u = Sum Total of all Parts Sees z= 100/u Bl oneens Percent of Material I yz F wesee percent Percent of Material II yz Seek percent Percent of Material III 1.000z = ..... percent Total 100 percent b) To obtain a desired SR and HR Let the following represent the analysis of the three raw materials (on a raw basis) Comp. 1 Comp. 2 Comp. 3 SiO, 8 Sz S3 AlgO3 + Fe203 Oy O_ 03 CaCO3 + MgCO3 Ll; lL, L3 Let SiO, r = silica ratio desired = ———————— Al,03 + Fe,03 CaO R= hydraulic ratio desired =| —————_—_—- ydraulic ratio desire Si0, + Fe,0; + Al,O,KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS 19 Then a=8,-r0, & = 70, -S8, e = rQ0;-S3 d =L,-(, +0))R e = (8, +0,)R-L, f = (83: +0;)R-L, The proportions of the components is thus Comp.1 Comp.2 Comp.3 ec-~bf ea—bd cd ~ fa Or if Comp. 1 = 100, then Comp. 2= = y 100 omp. 2= 7 ec — bf d—fa Comp.3 = 2 = y 199 ec —bf c} To obtain a given C38 and C3A content 1) Analysis of components (Raw Basis) SIO, ke eee ke ee ALO, 422 kee keen we FeO; 2 ae kee tw CaO copes te aE Total =n esse warn Bdge 2) Desired compound composition Whatever targets are set, make sure to make:20 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK C38 + C3A + (CaS + CaAF) + (MgO + alkalies + loss) = 100 C38 =x, = C3A = y, = C,8 + C,AF = Z, = 3) Theoretical compound composition for each component To be calculated from the raw analysis data. Also make sure to use the proper sign (+ or —). L C38 : Xp eee C3A : Vririeveee CaS +C,AF : Zp aeeee Total =: nw ene c I Xq FS vene Kg eceee Vo F eens y3= eae 2g = veeee 2 wee Note: Proceed with the calculations only when the sum total of the compounds corresponds to the total of the oxides, ie., for L: total oxides = Xy ty, t2Zy, etc. 4) Calculations, auxiliary matrix = xf = x3/%1 = xf = yo2-yia = 29-218 = (ya -yi bid = O,-y10/d = 23 —zb-ef @,-zZ1¢~eg)/h ~ FA y_oR 8 & A 5) Weight of each component needed per unit weight of clinker Either English or metric weight units can be used, i.e., the results can be expressed in Ib/lb, ton/ton, or kg/kg of clinker. Results obtained must all be positive numbers. If any of the results are negative, the desired mix can-KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS 21 not be obtained with the given raw materials. Either the targets have to be changed or other suitable raw materials must be selected. forl = i 8 FE sesceawnrew forC= ge-fi = pewres forL= e~aC—bi = eeu Total = W, = weight of mix/wt.clinker = ........0...000e 6) Final Mix proportions for/ = 1/W,, FE vememens forC= C/W, oe forL = L/W, Fs wns (Results are expressed as percent in form of decimals) 2.04 Four-Component Mix Calculation a) Analysis of components (raw basis) SiQZ} 4 §g.- jeeeyee Qype SERIE anaes ALO, = wees $eeew ee eag eeeaa FeO; kee et eet en ee CaO ee en ee b) Desired clinker composition (assume sum of MgO, total alkalies and ign. loss = 2 percent) C38 = xy ] cu awe CS = yp = ..eee C3A = 2, = ..... C,AF= w, = .....22 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK ¢) Theoretical compound composition for each component (to be calculated from raw analysis data, make sure to use the proper sign) L Cc I 5 C38 : Ky =] oe vas X2 = seve Hg = cceee C38 : Pa = aa nae Vg FE een eave Va = caeee CsA: Zi F seeee Zq = weeee LG, cecone one C4AF: Wy = sevee Wa = vaeee Wa = wceas d) Raw material costs (Insert here the total costs per ton, for each raw material. These costs will later be used to determine the cost of the calculated mix) Hilton: ee tt ment Note: The sum total of the oxides of each raw material must equal the sum total of the compounds of that material. e} Calculation, auxiliary matrix a = X2/t, = vases b= x3/X, = casas c = Xa/x1 Ee aee d = x,/x, = veces e@ = yo—-yia on evenese f = 4-130 = iy g = wW2-Wia secre o h = Oa —yibjle = waves i = (a —yicvle = seaee i = (y,-yiddle SaoKILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS 23 & = z3; -—bz, -fh ae wae i = ws —bw, —gh = oe... m= (24 —z1¢ -fifk ganas n= @,-2,d-f)fk = saa O = w,-wyc—gi —Im = veins P= (w,-wid—gj -Inj/o = eee, Note: Make sure to indicate the proper sign in the results. f) Weight of each component required per unit weight of clinker Either English or metric weight units can be used, i.e., the result can be expressed in terms of Ib/lb clinker, ton/ton or kg/kg clinker. Results obtained must all be positive numbers. forS = p eas for] = n—mp See aw forC= j-hl -ip Fea, forL = d-aC—bl-~cp Total = W,, = weight of mix/unit weight clinker 8) Final mix proportions forS = S/W, Flosyes percent for! = 1/W,, =..... percent forC= C/w, . Fem os percent forL= L/W, Fle... percent Note: All results are expressed in terms of a decimal. h) Cost of the mix The cost of the mix per unit weight of clinker can be calculated as follows:24 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK #funit weight clinker = [(percent S){S,)] + [(percent )(Z,)] + [(percent C)(C,)] + [(percent L)(Z,)]} = ...-- 2.05 Determination of Chemical Composition When certain properties are required in a mix, a preliminary investigation of the needed chemical composition can be.made by the following trial and error method. This method is only applicable when Al,03/Fe.03 = >0.64. Desired: a = SO, + MgO + Alkalies = ..... percent b = Fe,0, = sagan percent c = C3A Ss ee percent d = SR (silica ratio) = yeews percent e = C,S @ a6 vee percent Step1 x, = 100-a = ape ws Step 2 Al,03 = (c + 1.6925)/2.65 =) eine ad Step3 SiO, = d(Al,0; +5) Bae. Step4 CaO = 0,24564(e + 7.68i0, + 6.718A1,03 +...+1,43b + 2.852803) = 0... Step5 x = CaO + Al,0; + b+ SiO, = se vee Step 6 x must equal x, + 0.2 percent to make the calculated chemical composition acceptable.KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS 25 PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS 2.01 Given a clinker of 68.5 percent C38 and a kilnfeed of 81.3 percent CaCO;. What must the approximate CaCQ, content be in the kiln feed to obtain a clinker of 61 percent C38? CaCO3 = 81.3 + 0.0806 (61.0 — 68.5) = 80.70 percent ans.) 2.02 (a) Given a limestone of TC = 89.8 and a clay of TC = 21.0. What percentage of each is needed to make a mix that contains 79.6 percent total carbonates? _ 89.8x + (100 - x)21.0 796 100 68.8x = 5860 x = 85.17 Hence, the mix must contain 85.17 percent limestone and 100 — 85.17 = 14.83 percent clay. (@ns.) 2.02 (b) How many kilograms of limestone are needed for every 100 kg of clay in the example given in 2.02 (a) ? 79.6 — 21.0 = ————— 100 = 574.5 kg limestone (anss.) 89.8 ~ 79.6 2.02 (c) Given: Raw Basis SiO, Al,O3 Fe,0; CaO MgO limestone 1.06 0.68 0.43 55.32 1.03 clay 50.10 18.60 21.80 2.10 0.0126 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK What must the ratio be between these two raw materials in the mix? x = 55.32 + [(1.4)(1.03)] — [(2.3)(1.06)] + [(1.7)(0.68)] + 0.43 = 52,738 y = [(2.3)(50.1)] + [(1.7)08.6)] + 21.8 -2.1 + [(1.4)0.01)] = 166.536 Thus the required ratio is 166.536 = 3.16:1 (ans. 52.738 ka) 2,02 (d) A kilnfeed tank contains 58 percent limestone and shows a CaCO; content of 78.4 percent. What percent limestone must the tank contain to obtain a final CaCO, content of 79.3 percent? The limestone used to make this correction shows 91 4 percent CaCO3. (293 78.4)(100 + 58) x = 58 = 69.75 percent (ans. 914-793 p (ors) 2.03 (a) Given: Raw Basis Material I Material IT Material IIT SiO2 1.06 68.18 9.98 Al, O3 0.68 11.94 1.66 Fe203 0.43 2.68 83.48 caO §6.32 4.20 0.87 What percentage of each is needed to obtain a time saturation factor of 0.935 and a silica ratio of 2.75 in the mix? a, = 52.272 a 1.9925 b,= 194.934 b, = -27975 ¢, 2 —33.705 Cz =— 224.155KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS 27 for Material I, x = 41.57 for Material II, » = 10.97 for Material TI, =_1,00_ Total = 53.54 100 z= —— = 1.8678 53.54 percent of Material =41.57z = 77.64 (ans.) percent of Material IT =10.97z = 20.49 (ans.) percent of Material III = z =_187 (@s.) Total = 100.0 2.03 (c) Given the same three materials as in example 2.03 (a), determine the percentage of each needed to obtain C38 = 62 percent, C,A = 7.72 percent, and the sum C,S + C4AF = 28.28 percent. L(t} C(H) I(H} Target CaS ox, = 216.04 x2 =-585.25 x3 =-202.85 xy =62.0 CsA ¥1 = 1.07 yg = 27.11 x3 2-136.85 yy = 7.72 CaS+CgAF z; =—-158.63 z, = 645.14 z3 = 435.67 z, = 28.28 : Total : $8.48 87.00 95.97 98.00 a= ~— 2.7090 d= 30.0086 gt 0.2470 b= — 0.9389 e= 215.4113 A= 12618777 c= 0.2870 f= - 45269 ie 0.01633 I = 0.01633 = 0.01633 C = 0.2470 — [(4.5269)(0.01633)] = 0.32092 L = 0.287 — [(-2.709)(0.32092)] — [(-0.9389)(0.01633)] , = 1.17170 Total mix = 1.509028 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK Proportions: _ 0.01633 1.5090 = 0.0108 = 1.08 percent (gns.) _ 032092 "1.5090 = 0.2127 =21.27 percent (ans.) 1.1717 L= 1.5090 = 0.7765 =77.65 percent (ans.) Double check: C38 = [(1.1717)(216.04)] + [(0.32092)(-585.25)] + [(0.01633)(-202.85)] = 62.00 C3A = [(1.1717)(1.07)} + [(0.32092)(27.11)] + [(0.01633)(-136.85)] = 7.72 C,S+C,AF = [(1.1717)(-158,63)] + [(0.32092)(645.14)] + [(0.01633)(435.67)] = 28.29 2.04 Given the four raw materials below, calculate the percentage of each — needed to obtain a mix of 60.5 percent C38, 19.3 percent C2S, 10.3 percent CA, and 8.6 percent C,AF. a) Analysis (Raw basis) b) Targets: x, = 60,5 y_7 19.3 z,= 10,3 w, = 8.6KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS 29 ce) Compounds: x, = 149.22 ¥1 = 90.67 Z,;= 0.72 w, = 1.03 Total 60.3 a=~4,0733 b=-4.1338 =~3.5426 d= 0.4054 S= x2 =—607,82 Y2 = 653,93 Zz 29,60 We 11.96 87.67 e = 284.6039 f= 32,5328 g= 16.1555 h= 0.8239 1 =0.0521 -- [(-0.0938)(0.08157)] C= 0.197 — [(0.8239)(0.05975)] — [(0.7653)(0.08157)] ~ aye 0.7653 m =—0.0938 0.1970 a= 0.0521 0 = 64.4343 p = 0.08157 = 0.08157 = 0.05975 = 0.08535 L= 0.4054 = [(—4.0733)(0.08535)] = [(~4.1338)(0.05975)] — [(-3.5426)(0.08157)] = 1.28902 0.08157 Percent S = = 0.0538 1.51569 0.05975 _ Percent J = = 0.03942 1.51569 0.08535 Percent C = = 0.05631 1.51569 1.28902 Percent £ = = 0.8505 1.51569 Total =1.51569 5.38 percent (gns.) 3.94 percent (ans.) 5.63 percent (ans.) ‘= 85.05 percent (@ns.)30 CEMENT MANUFACTURER'S HANDBOOK Double check: C48 = [(1.28902)(149.22)] + [(0.08535)(-607.82)] + [(0.05975)(-616.85)} + [(0.08157)(~528.63)| = 60.49 (The other compounds, likewise, should be double checked in the same manner.) 2.05 Akilnfeed mix is desired that shows the following characteristics: Fe,03:2.95, C3A:11.85, (C38:53.0 S/R: 2.40 What is the chemical composition of this mix if the sum total of the auxiliary oxides (MgO, SOs, and alkalies) is expected to be 2.0 percent? Solution: x, = 100~2.0 +980. 11.85 + [1.692(2.95)] Al,0O; = ——————— =. 6.36 2.65 SiO, = 2.40 (6.36 + 2.95) = 22.34 : CaO =_—sCéO0.24564 (53.0 + [7.6(22.34)] + [6.718(6.36)] + [143 (2.95)}} = 66.26 x = 66.26 + 22.34 +6.36+2.95 = 97.91 The sum total of the primary oxides is 97.91 and x, has been found earlier to be 98.0. Therefore, this composition is acceptable since the two agree closely with each other.Chapter 3 KILN FEED SLURRY 3.01 Specific Gravity and Pulp Density of Slurries a) English units Table based on specific gravity = 2.7 for dry feed. Percent slurry 5p. Yb dry solids moisture slurry per fe? 16 2.123 132.48 111.18 i7 2,095 130,73 108.51 18 2.067 128.98 105.76 19 2,041 127.36 103.16 2 2.015 125.74 100.59 21 1,990 124.18 98.10 22 1.965 122.62 95.64 23 1,941 121.12 93.26 24 1.917 119.62 90.91 25 1,895 118.22 88.67 26 1,872 116.81 86.44 27 1.851 115.47 84.29 28 1,829 114.13 82.17 29 1,809 112.88 80.14 30 1.788 111,57 78.10 3t 1.769 110.39 T6AT 32 1.749 109,14 74.22 33 1,730 107.95 72.33 34 1,715 106.77 70,47 35 ° 1.693 105.64 68.67 36 1.675 104.52 66.89 aT 1.658 103.46 65.18 3B 1.640 102.34 63.45 39 1.624 101,34 61.82 40 1.607 100.28 60.17 41 1591 99.28 58.58 42 1.575 98.28 $7.00 43 1,560 97.34 55.48 44 1,545 96.41 53.99 45 1.530 95.47 3251 46 1515 94.54 $1.05 47 1,501 93.66 49.64 48 1.487 92.79 438.25 49 1.473 91.92 46.88 350 1.459 91.04 43,5232° CEMENT MANUFACTURER'S HANDBOOK b) Metric units (SI) Table is based on specific gravity of 2.7 for dry feed. Percent slurry Sp. gr. Pulp density kg dry solids moisture of slurry kg/m? per inKILN FEED SLURRY 33 3.02 Properties of Water 1 ft? of H,0 = 7.4805 U.S. gal = 62.43 Ib 1 gallon H,0 = 8.342 Ib = 0.1337 Ft? 1m? H,0 = 1000.00 liters = 1000.00 kg 1 liter H,0 = 1000.00 cc (cm?) = 100 kg 1,00 kgf/dm* @ 4°c 100°C @ sea level 0.50 keal/mh +« C 0.999 kcal/kg * C specific gravity of water boiling point thermal conductivity specific heat nou tl34 CEMENT MANUFACTURER'S HANDBOOK 3.03 Mass of Slurry Required per Mass of Clinker 100F wy 2 100-M English or metric units can be employed in this formula. 3.04 Slurry Feed Rate Required English units _ 249.35ew, __24,935Fe 8 d (100—M)d Metric units (SI) on, CF100 G ~ Fep .3.6(100 — MD 3.05 Clinker Production for a Given Slurry Rate English units _ ad _ 000-- Med 249.35w1 24,935F ec Metric units (SI) c= 36GD _ 3:6(100-M)DG Wi 100F C =clinker rate Gong tons per hour) ¢ =clinker rate (short tons per hour) w,=mass slurry per mass of clinker (tons/ton) or (kg/kg) D =pulp density of slurry (ke/m*) d =pulp density of slurry (ib/ft?) F = mass dry feed per mass of clinker (tons/ton) or (kg/kg) | G =slurry rate (m?/s) g =slurry rate (gpm) M = percent moistureKILN FEED SLURRY 3.06 Clinker Production per Slurry Tank Unit Note: This formula applies only to the cylindrical portion of the slurry tank. English units C, = 0.08333zr? s/2000F Metric units (SI} Cy = 1R?S/F 3.07 Specific Gravity of Slurry _ 100 “ew "Ml + (100-M)(Is,5) 3.08 Dry Solids per Unit Volume of Slurry English units s = 62.43s,,, [1 — (0/100)] Metric units (SI} S = 1000s,,, [1 ~ (0/100)] Note: values for S, s, 5, igw and s,, can also be obtained from 3.01. Sew c, =tons clinker per inch of slurry tank C;= kg clinker per meter of slurry tank height F = mass of dry feed per mass of clinker (kg/ kg) or(tons/ ton) R =radius of slurry tank (m) r =radius of slurry tank (fp) S =kg solids per m? of slurry s =I!b solids per ft? of slurry Ses specific gravity of dry solids = specific gravity of slurry3.03 3.04 3.05 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS A given kiln uses a slurry of 32 percent moisture and the dry solids rate has been found to be 1.593 kg/kg clinker. What is the slurry consumption on this kiln? jonas 2.343 kg slurry/kg clinker w, = — = 2. : 1 100-32 g slurry/kg clinker (ans.) In example 3.03 above, what is the slurry feed rate (it/s) when the kiln produces 36,500 kg clinker/h? Solution: 1. From Table 3.01 (b), find the pulp density of the slurry D = 1748.4 kg/m? _ (36,500)(2.343) ~~ 3.6)(1748.4) = 0.01359 m?/s and :(1000)(0.01359) = 13.59 liters/s (ens.) A kilnfeed tank has a diameter of 16.3 meters. The kiln receives slurry of 36 percent moisture and shows a specific dry feed consumption of 1.63 kg/kg clinker. How many kilograms of clinker are produced when the slurry level in the cylindrical portion of the tank drops 1 cm? Solution: From Table 3.01 (b), find the kg solids/m? of slurry. S = 1071.6 kg/m®KILN FEED SLURRY 37 _ G.1416)(8.15) (1071.6) _ 137,186 kg/m = 1.63 afm cr 1371.9 kg/cm = G@ns.) 3.07 Given: specific gravity of dry solids = 2.68. What is the specific gravity of the slurry when it contains 31.5 percent moisture? 100 So _— = 1753 4 “ew ~ 315 + (100 — 31.5)(1/2.68) (ans)Chapter 4 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS USED IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING H= €650°0 ‘$= LOr60 90'bE SAH O= 82770 9d = ZLLL'0 vee Od O= P00E'0 ad = 9669°0 896S1 foray He=9L07°0 = 97640 B00£ SHED O=vlLso O= 98740 s00'8z 00 O= £720 D=LzLz°0 S00'rr "02 OTH = 7607'0 fOS= S960 OFD = BS7£'0 évudt O'HZ + Yosea apyINS wasoupAH| aPIxO snoLa,y| aplxouop uoque}) aprKorg uoque,) (uinsd 48) ayezing urnysye5| spunodwioy Pomay 10°F fOs= 3850 ORD= 7ZIv0 £V9et "Osea (que) ayeyng winrye9| O=78z0 ®2= 8hlZ'0 20°95 or apixg unyoreD| OH = [€bz'0 OFD = 69540 Urbs *HO}ED aprrorpAH umniye>>| A= 99860 RD = C19€'0 L0°8L tae apyony.g wnrspe-)| 1D = L890 P= C1960 Ol toe SPHOTYS umioze->| “05 = 96£¢'0 OFD = 10950 é0001 Foor SBUOGIED UtIdTE>] OTH = SPE" folv= 9s59°0 97'9ST *(HO) AV aprxospAH wnuywnyy O=169¢'0 IV = £0Es'0 7T701 fotly epIxg unurumpy 1431314 r HOlsod wo juarsag Anjno2j0y DINU. 38PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING 39 0=9961'0 O= 96680 O= S665°0 O= S66F0 FOD = Lriv'0 O=8675'0 £OS = 76560 O= i691'0 O= vE9S'0 O=SS690 O=7EESO O = SE9E'O H = €€$27'0 O=&L9E'0 O=8c0eO O= P5770 O= P9660 700 = 9475'0 OTN = €S85°0 O74 = 80750 Le 18 10°08 90°08 90°69 O90! £09 OT PLT Oz'b6 Virl 70°96 loop ior ZOrb vO'91 £698 OF LSl 6.0L Ze OF Ze v8 uoujsoduo) iuariag 1ys1ay4 aapnaapoy Oprxerg umntuey SPRCOHL InyINS PIXON AnyTNS| Cyue) ayeuogred urnmpos) ayeyIng WinIssejo4! apIxO umsse jo 4] aprxojued snozoydsoug| aplxoleg woBor}IN| >PIXO snosIN| Oprxoig soursuryp] SpIxO oTuEsuep_y aplxg snoursueyy apPlxO wWnBouseyy PAEUOGIE’ UINSSUsE40 CEMENT MANUFACTURER'S HANDBOOK 4,02 Bulk Densities of Common Materials 2595 3045 2400-2965 1520-1760 1360-1520 1506 1200-1440 960-1200 1440-1700 800-865 - 480-640 2325 1760 919 7210 2805 1360 1040 1520 1665 895 1520 2480 1682 7850 1000 162 190 150-185 95-110 Aluminum Asbestos Brick (basic) (alu.) (fireclay) Cement (packed) (loose) (loose) Kiln Feed (dry) Kiln Dust (loose)PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING 41 ¥S aqpenuy O[NRTOA AO] OE snourumnyg apyefoa Ys ral snoulUnyig €@Z% snourwmg-qng PEE aqusry uoginy 4311 YSP 324g = BYNDJOA =—- @ANISIOW jpop fo adaj (siseg paataool sy) ssdqeuy yeop year, g0'pCEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 42 Chbe 1901 $0060 z9S00 OL gs £70 Bll re (ss043) ttySy ot 8H Bt "HO wrest Mg 14/34 eva StH *N OD aumuag auning aundoig «= auDytyY = auDYLaW sey PeNeN sorsadorg jon snoeses) weodéy, SOF Otr Ste srl ess vol G S 17s 19860 zl «wd, TaxUNT 9 “ON ssp zvse Il 9g Ltl tL j lee ¥S98°0 ze TO WaT 7°ON ror ose Let sos wel @ YF Lg9 «18780 OP auasolay [ON sy 8 N : g9/o9 = Br freoy =e + Te3 duane Appa (spupsnoy? ut} {a = ayfroads: Id¥ ada] apDig sarpiedorg TO eM AGA, FOFPROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING 43 4.06 Barometric Pressure at Different Altitudes44 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 4.07 Sieve Sizes ASTM E-11-60 Aperture DIN 4188 Aperture mesh per em mm in, microns mm microns 0.0117 32 0.5 0.0197 500 28 0.59 0.0232 144 0.5 500 100 06 600 4.08 Coefficients of Linear Expansion Substance Coefficient of linear expansion in./in./°F m/m/°C 0.00001 244 0.0000035 0.0000080 0.0000090 0.00000655 0.00000661 0.00000636 Wrought Iron Steel (mild) 4.09 Properties of Air a) English units Volume of Volume of Weight of Weight of ary air saturated air dry air water required @ 29.9 in. Hg ft? Ib @ 29.9 in. Hg to saturate air ft? /lb In/ft? Ib vapor/\b air 0.080714 0.003774 0.076366 0.01104 0.074924 0.01576. 0.072198 0.03106PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING 45 b) Metric units (SI) °€ Volume of Volume of Mass of Mass of water dry air saturated air dry air required to @ Latm. m?/kg @ | atm. saturate air m? /kg kg/m? kg vapor/kg air 0.003774 0.01104 0.01576 0.03106 4.10 Particulate Concentration in Gases For gases: "1 Ib/fe? = 385.1X 108m ppm 1 pg/liter = 24.04m ppm lug/m? = 0.02404 m ppm where m = molecular weight of gas Particulate: 1 grain/ft? = 2.29 X 108 ye/m> = 143 X 10% lb/ft? I Ib/ft? = 16.02 X 10° mg/m? = 16.02 prams/liter = 7.06 X 10? grains/ft> 1 mg/m? = 28.32 ue/ft? = 62.43 X 10°? lb/ft? 1 ug/m? 0.001 mg/m? 4.37 X 1077 g/ft? To calculate the particulate concentration in a known volume of gas, . use the following formula:46 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK c = (2.205 X 10°) (n/V) where c¢ = concentration, lb/ft? m = total particulate matter, mg V = volume of gas sample through dry gas meter (standard condition), ft? 4.11 Selected International Atomic Weights (Based on Carbon—12) Symbol Atomic Atomic Number Weight Al 13 26.9815 Ca 20 40.08 Cc 6 12.0115 cl 17 35.453 F 9 18.9984 H 1 1.00797 Fe 26 55.847 Pb 82 207.19 Magnesium Mg 12 24.312 Manganese Mn 25 §4.938 Nitrogen N 14.0067 Oxygen oO 15.9994 Phosphorus P 30.9738 Potassium K 39.102 Silicon Si 28.086 Sodium Na 22.9898 Sulfur 32.064 Titanium Ti 47.90 Zine Zn 65.37PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING 47 4.12 Selected Minerals and Ores Principal mineral Found in Other nomenclature or element Bauxide Hydrous aluminum oxide Gibbsite Boehmite Diaspore Cryolite Aluminum silicates | Montmorillonite (clays) Andalusite Kyanite Sillimanite Dumortierite Aluminum borosilicate Keolinite Asbestos Tremolite Calcium magnesium amphibole Actinolite Calcium magnesium-iron amphibole Crysotile Fibrous serpentine Barium Barite Barium sulfate Witherite Barium carbonate Bentonite Montmorillonite Borates Borax Ulexite Colemanite Kernite Probertite Cadmium Greenockite Cadmium sulfide Chromite Chromite Chrom-iron oxide Cobalt Cobaltite Sulfarsenide of cobalt Smaltite Cobalt diarsenide Erithrite Cobalt bloom48 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK Principal mineral Found in Other nomenclature or element Copper Chalcopyrite Copper-iron sulfide Bornite Cupriferrous pyr. Covellite Tetrahedrite Enarcite Cuprite Atacamite Malachite Azurite Chalcanthite Crysocolla Diatomite Diatomaceous earth Feldspars Sanadine Orthoclase of potassium or sodium Adularia Orthoclase Albite Sodium & aluminum silicate Anorthite Calcium-aluminum silicate Fluorspar Fluorite Calcium fluoride Gypsum Gypsum Hydrous calcium sulfate Iron Hematite Fossil ore (red) Limonite Bog ore (brown) Magnetite Lodestone (black) Siderite Black band, kidney ore Limestone Calcite Calcium carbonate Dolomite Calcium-magnesium carbonate Alkerite Calcium-magnesium-iron carbonate Aragonite Orthorhombic calcium carbonate Manganocalcite Magnesium Magnesite Magnesium carbonate Dolomite Pearlspar Brucite Magnesium hydroxide Carnallite Hydrous potassium-magnesium chloride 2 ikePROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING 49 Principal mineral or element Psilomelane Pyrolusite Collophane Apatite Wavellite Voelckerite Pyrite Sand Quartzite Amethyst Smoky quartz Citrine Rose quartz Aventurine Chalcedony Chrysoprase Heliotrope Agate Hmenite Rutile Sphene Manganese oxide Manganese dioxide Hydrous calcium phosphate Calcium-chloro-fluoro phosphate Hydrous alumina phosphate Iron disulfide Silicon dioxide Transparent quartz Smoky yellow, black Ferrous titanate Titanium oxide Calcium-titano silicate50 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 4,13 Classification of Minerals a) Igneous rock These are formed by the intrusion or extrusion of magma or by volcanic activity. The following minerals belong to this group: Crystalline quartz and orthoclase. Feldspar containing potassium. Feldspar containing calcium and sodium. Silicon dioxide A dark green form of mica consisting of silicate of Fe, Mg, K, or Al. Silicate minerals containing calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron, or aluminum. Silicate of magnesium and iron. Oxide of iron. b} Sedimentary rock These are formed by deposits of sedimentation. They can also consist of fragments of rock deposited in water or by precipitation from solutions and organisms. The following rocks belong to this group: Gravel Shale Sandstone Limestone Siltstone GypsumPROPERTIES OF MATERIALS IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING 51 ¢) Metamorphic rock These are minerats that have been changed by the action of heat, pressure, and water. The following minerals belong to this group: : Laminated or foliated metamorphic rock : Crystalline metamorphic rock with foliated structure along parallel planes. : Compressed clays and shales. : Metamorphic crystallized limestone. : Metamorphic sandstoneCEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 52 pV seo eytWeYPIO apyns uintoye)| LUZLI O*HZ + "OSD umsdAé5 olerpAtrp “ojezTNS UINIDTED| sispl o*H% - *OseD sued Jo 10}SP[d ayerpATuay “a7 eyTNS UNIO], blot rose aypAyuy ayey[Ns WII[eD) aan | ZOIS - OFOZ S79 “oNIsa aqeoTTs wnpoTeor| ZE8T SoisteD SED ‘onTY ayBOTs WINTO]eOH I] 80'9S oF) apixo umpyed| Ir p8T £O03W*oOor aquojog ajeuogzes umsouseur wnt9]eD| 60° PL (HO) aprxorpAy urntsyeD} 80°8L = LA) aqonyy apuony umyoye; 66°01 1080 apuoyygo wmno7eD| 60°001 £9080 oyuodere ‘o}07eD ayeuoqies umMTDfeD| 07047 fotrveed veo oyeuTUNye urNT]eO1F | pO'ss *o*ved SO'9tP “oIsz- ©OtIve ou ¥0'791 cols - ©O*IV a}yTueunyps ‘oyisnyepuy 109s otHe - O71 wnuTMye Jo 92eIPAYLL 96 LOT fotlv umpuni0p 00°82 (CHODIV aqtsqquy rf 66'6S (HO)OTV aqurysog ‘alodseig, eprxorpAy wmnutumry| SpeIOULP) UOTIUIO,) JO TyseM JeMMOAOW Pye EMOTO FOMEyD FTPm wy 2g . € z SS zel ODA AJRIOTYD wWiIsse}og| a Iz'se1 £00" ayeuoqies umnyssejog 5 ve Ble SOfSIVA asepoyyO s}LORSOUTUIN]E UINTSSEIOg =z 76'0L OuN d}soursueyy aprxo osounsuep & 6'L8 (HO)OUN ayuBsuey, ayxoipAy asouesueyy & | LS Lst EQtun ayuneig aprxombses ssouesuey, 3 6°98 7OuW alisnjorAg oprixorp esoursuey, te | F887 rorun s}TuueWsneH apixo ssouesueyy a LEZ t *ossW aqeyns unisouzeyy| = TLO+1 *oOISs*3N aqpeysi0 oyOTISOYPO unIssUseyL © | 6€ 001 Forsaw aqneysug ayeots urnisouseyy zZ | lor t o8n astplied apixo wnsoudeyy a eees (HO)8 a s]pnig OpxompAY Unisouse| = ce¥8 008K aysousey ojeUOgIED UNIsoUsEp] m Let totiVvan Jeutds a]RUTUINYS UINISSUsEPY Ri | ps Lez *ofed aqyousen aprxe wolE 3 69651 Eotay aqeweyq aptxo wo i SUL 08d ay4sen Mm opixo uoly oO | SLES foLLed ayuauny oyeumne}]} vor ” | se6ll "god SHSBOIeUL ‘OLA apyyinsrp wosq| BE | Sssil £0004 ayWOpls ayeuogsEo UOl] & | sovert om aqudno ‘aypooeyD & | rie *CHO)ROFOOND sere, m LUOSE O*HZ - *OSED aqyins um1syeD|CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 54 Les 6€ S71 os’ trl 06°62 69°0ST pO CEl 86°19 EP 6tP pr ss 66°S0T 72797 80°09 LOPLI 67'S TIO! TT'9s OUZ £oouz £QUL “OIL zous FOsteN torsx - OFEN oOFRN SoaTVERN 1D®N €oo72N SofIsIveN ols °OStH EoIs*y tONH HOX ayOUrZ ayTuOYTUS ayTyoolg ‘asejeue ‘ony atzoyIsse SSETSISIEM aqyoAID a7yey ‘yes WOULUTOD, anv S}TTeQoOIstmy> ‘zpTENgZy ayursry Iaqyadqeg pnuUuoy wcuoudgy OPIXO OUIZ, ayeUOg ed SUIZ oprxomnbsas winruezty, Oprxorp untueyL @pIxorp snowuue}s ayez[ns WNIPOs aqyeoris uNIpos eprxouow wnIpog ayldey eUTUINTE WNIpPOS SPHorYo UnIPOs a}euogsed UINIPOS SyROTISH] BUTUINTe GINTPOS SPIXOIP UOSTES aye][Ns Wnisse}0q| QPROTISEJOU LUNISsse}Og 9}BIIIU WINISsE}Od| aprxorpAy UINISse}Od|Chapter 5 FORMULAS AND DATA USED IN COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS 5.01 Thermochemical Reactions Formula: Cc 12 1 Molecular weight: Mass: and sO, + + + + + + 02 32 2.66 %QO, 16 1.33 02 32 8 0, 32 1 40, 0.25 55 non ow Hou i co, 44 3.66 Ib + 14,093 Btu/Ib 3.66 kg + 7829 kcal/kg co 28 2.33 Ib + 4320 Btu/Ib 2.33 kg + 2400 kcal/ke 2#H,0 36 9 1b + 60,991 Btu/Ib (gross) 9kg+28,641 kcal/kg (H,,) SO, 64 2 Ib + 3983 Btu/ib 2 kg + 2213 kcal/kg SO, 80 1.25a) English units Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Water vapor | Sulfur dioxide Methane Ethane Propane n-Butane n-Pentane CEMENT MANUFACTURER'S HANDBOOK 5.02 Combustion Constants Formula co CO, H,0 802 CH, CxH, C3Hs CaHio CsHi2 1/ft3 0.005327 0.08461 0.07439 0.07404 0.117 0.04758 0.1733 0.04246 0.08029 0.1196 0.1582 0.1904 Btu/ft? Btu/Ib) 14,093 324.9 60,991 3,983 1014.6 1789.0 2573.0 . 3392.0 4200.0 Note: Volumes at 60°F and 30 in. Hg. All gross heating values. b) Metric units Formula kg/m? keal/m* 0.0853 1.3553 1,1916 1.1860 1.8742 0.7622 2.7760 0.6801 1.2861 1.9158 2.5341 3.0499 MJ/m? 2,892 12,098 2,862 11.975 9,030 37.781 15,922 66.618 22,900 95.812 30,189 126.309 37,380 156.398 Note: Volumes at 16°C and 760 mm Hg. keal/kg Vg 7,831 33,884 32,765 141,771 2,213 55,547 51,794 $0,028 49,840 $1,271FORMULAS & DATA INCOMBUSTION CALCULATIONS 57 5.03 Heat Value of Fuel The heat value of a fuel is usually determined in a calorimeter. For an approximate indication, the heat value can also be calculated from the ultimate analysis. Values for C (carbon), S (sulfur), H (hydrogen), etc., are expressed in terms of percent by weight for coal and oil and in terms of percent by volume for natural gas. For coal : gross heating value (Btu/lb) = 145.4C+40.4S+611.0H - 64.60, net heating value (Btu/ib) = 1454C+40.48 0, + 516.6 H “3 - 10.8m 0. net heating value (kcal/kg) = 80.8 C + 287 ( - =| + 22.45 § -6.0m where m = percent moisture in coal. ~ For oil: gross heating value (Btu/Ib) = 17,780 + 54 (API gravity) heating value (kcal/kg) = 12,958 — 3228d -70.0S where d = density at 15°C (kg/dm*)58 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK For natural gas: Btu/ft? = 10.146 CH, + 17.89 CzH, + 25.73 C3He + 33.92 CaHyo + 42.0 C5H,2 + 6.47 HS keal/m* = 90.3 CH, + 159.2 CH, + 229C3Hg + 301.9 CaHio + 373.8 CsHi2 + 57.6 HS 5.04 Conversion from “Gross” to “Net” Heating Value The net heating value accounts for the heat losses that are experienced for the evaporation of the moisture in the fuel as well as the water that is generated by the combustion of hydrogen. Heating values obtained in the calorimeter are “‘gross” values and can be converted to the “net” basis by the following formulas: a) English units AV (net) — H V eross) — 9270 Hz (Btu/!b) b) Metric units it (net) ~ Hu (gross) ~ 5150 Ha (kcal/kg) where H, = percent hydrogen (sum total of H2 in the fuel and the moisture) In Europe it is the custom to express the heating value or fuel consump- tions in terms of the “net” basis whereas in North America the “gross” heating value is generally used.FORMULAS & DATA IN COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS 59 5.05 Analysis of Coal a) Ultimate analysis C+H+N+S+O+ Ash = 100 percent (by weight) where C=percent carbon, H=percent hydrogen, N = percent nitrogen, S = percent sulfur, O= percent oxygen. The percent oxygen (O) is not determined by analytical methods but calculated by difference to make the sum total equal to 100. 5} Proximate analysis V+freeC +ash+m = 100 percent where Vv = percent volatiles, freeC = percent free carbon, and m = percent moisture. The percent free carbon is calculated by difference to make the sum total equal to 100. 5.06 Methods of Expressing Solid Fuel Analysis Analysis of solid fuels should be reported with a note containing a re- mark in respect to the method in which the analysis is expressed. The following are the methods (basis) frequently used: a) “as analyzed” b) “dry basis” c) “as received” d) “combustible basis” (moisture and ash free) €) “as fired”60 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK For inventory control purposes it is of advantage to express coal ton- nage, heating value and its composition on the “dry basis” to eliminate the fluctuations coal undergoes when it is stored outside and exposed to weathering. 5.07 Conversion of Coal Analysis to Different Basis Let Y = percent C,S,N, or percent ash O = percent oxygen H = percent hydrogen m = percent moisture subscript: a = “as analyzed” basis d = “dry basis” r = “as received” basis f = “as fired” basis ¢ = “combustible” basis a} To convert from “as analyzed” to “dry” basis a 100 4 * 100-m, 1 Ha = Gy-01119m,) Oq = calculated by difference b} To convert from “dry” to “as received” basis Multiply all components, except hydrogen, by the factorFORMULAS & DATA IN COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS 61 100 -m, 100 c) To convert from “dry” to “as fired” basis Multiply all components, except hydrogen, by the factor 100 — my, 100 Note: in b) and c) above, the percent hydrogen is calculated as follows: 100 — 100 H=H, +0.1119m a) To convert from “as received” to “dry” basis Multiply each component, except the hydrogen, by the factor 100 100 -m, H. , - 0.1119m,) a = —0.1119m,) ———. q ‘ ”" 100-m, Og = calculated by difference e) To convert from “combustible” to “as fired” basis Multiply each component, except the hydrogen, by the factor 100 - (ash + m,) 10062 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 100 — (ash + m,) Hy, =H, ————— + 0.1119m, 100 I 0; calculated by difference f) To convert from “as received” to “combustible” basis Multiply each component, except the hydrogen, by the factor 100 100 — (ash + m,) 100 H, = (H,-0.1119m,). ——_—— eG, ™") 100 — (ash + m,) The following table shows clearly how the values of a coal analysis and the heating value can change when the analysis is expressed in different terms. As Dry Ash and ‘As As analyzed basis _ moisture free received fired C (carbon) 61.24 67.30 75.36 57.00 5.74 §.20 5.93 6.12 2.46 2.70 3.03 2.29 1.73 1.90 2.12 1.61 O (oxygen) 19.09 12.20 13.56 8.62 Ash 9.74 10.70 - 9.06 m (moisture) 9.0 = - 15.3 Volatiles 32.49 35.70 39.97 30.24 Free Carbon 48.78 53.60 60.02 45.40 10,785 11,850 13,320 10,040 5,992 6,583 7,400 5,578 25,071 27,543 30,962 23,338FORMULAS & DATA IN COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS 63 5.08 Typical Coal Ash Analysis For a cement chemist, it is important to know the chemical composition of the coal ash. The majority of the ash, during the burning of coal, enters the clinker and modifies its chemical composition. On coal fired kilns, it is not only important to maintain a uniform kiln feed but also to fire the kiln with a coal of uniform composition. In plants, where coal originates from several different suppliers, provisions should be made to blend these coals before they are fired in the kiln. A typical analysis of coal ash is shown in the following: SiO. Al,03 Fe,03 CaO 46.3 percent 25.6percent 18.7 percent 2.8 percent 5.09 Fuel Ignition Temperatures The approximate ignition temperatures of various fuels are °F °C Coal 480 250 Wood 570 300 Bunker C oil 400 200 Diese! fuel 650 350 Natural gas 1050 550 5.10 Percent Coal Ash Absorbed in Clinker The percent coal ash contained in the clinker can be calculated from the loss-free analysis of the ash, raw mix, and clinker as follows:64 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK Analysis c-C x = =~ 100 = sage Cy -Cry s-S XxX. = = 100 SF canons & 8, - Sy, A- xX, = Am 100 = area es A, —An F-F xe = ” 100 @ wees F,-F iy The percent coal ash contained in the clinker (percent) is: Xy tx, +X3 +X Percent = a = ue ae 5.11 Effect of Coal Ash on Clinker Composition Changes in the composition of the clinker as a result of coal ash addition can be calculated by the following method:FORMULAS & DATA IN COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS = 65 Analysis (loss-free) cao SiO. Al,O3; Fe,03 MgO Aikalies Total w = coal factor (weight coal/wt. cl.), decimal = cease y = ash content of coal, decimal FS eaee z = ash absorption by clinker (usually 0.40 to 1.00) FS onsaas ACs wyCz= ..... AF = wyFz= woes AS=wySz= ..... AM= wyM z= ..... AA= wyAgz= ...-- AN= wyN,Z= «.--- clinker composition caQ = C-AC = (..-. XP) 2 essap Si0Q, = S-AS = (...+.+)(X/) See aee ALO; = A~AA = (....)(/ry) Swe ae Fe,0; = F-AF = (....)(X/) = vines MgO =M-AM = (...+)(%/) ZB oeaes Alkalies = N-~AN = (...-)(X/) = itzes y = Total Fee te ateenene! ws Note: for (w) above either the English (Ib coal/tb clinker) or metric units (kg coal/kg clinker) can be used. 5.12 Determination of Theoretical Fuel Consumption Knowing the properties of the coal, kiln feed, and the exit gas allows an engineer to calculate the coal consumption by using Dr. Kuhl’s formuia:66 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK Data needed: a = constant, 0.266 & = percent carbon in dry coal ¢ = percent hydrogen in dry coal d = percent nitrogen in dry coal e = percent oxygen in dry coal f = percent sulfur in dry coal & = percent ash in dry coal m = percent total carbonates in dry feed (CaCO, + MgCO;) n = percent loss on ignition of dry feed Pp = percent “true” CO, in exit gas. Calculated as follows: _ 100 CO, +CO # 100 + 1.89 CO ~ 4.78 O2 q = percent O, (oxygen) in exit gas Ss = percent N2 (nitrogen) in exit gas t = percent CO (carbon monoxide) in exit gas Calculations 400m K, = 100 —n b d K, = Sgt ee Sab 3 7. 8 8 b m, x, -2.—™ 3 2500 - 25n V + ; = a - _ # 2 W =pttFORMULAS & DATA IN COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS 67 coal consumption, KiV x = — K,W-K3V where x = Ib coal/100 Jb clinker or kg coal/100 kg clinker Example: A kiln under investigation showed the following analysis during the time of the test: Coal (dry) Kiln feed (dry) percent carbon : 72.16 total carbonates : 79.26 percent hydrogen: 5.37 loss on ignition : 35.8 percent nitrogen : 1.58 * percent oxygen : 7.89 Exit gas percent sulfur : 2.00 . percent ash > 11.00 COs (true) | das Os : 16 co Do No : 70.99 What is the coal consumption on this kiln? 400) (79.26 = 4097926) _ 493.83 100 - 35.8 72.16 158 7.89 2.00 Ky # + 5.37 + 0.266 —— -—— +—— = 28.75 3 7 8 8 72.16 K, = 236 _ _(7926)(1100) = 95.5) 3 2500 = [(25)(35.8)] 0 V = (0.266)(70.99) ~ 1.6 + >= 17.2868 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 27.38 + 0 = 27.38 = q _ (493.83)(17.28) (28.75)(27.38) - (23.51) (17.28)] = 22.4 1b coal/100 lb clinker or = 22.4 kg coal/100 kg clinker (ans.)“$03 5.04 5.10 FORMULAS & DATA IN COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS 69 PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS Expressed on a “as fired” basis, a coal shows the following ultimate analysis: Cc § H, OO, moisture 58 15 48 89 05 What is the net heating value of this coal expressed in terms of kcal/ kg? H, = gosyosael(an a] + [22.45(1.5)] — [6(0.5)} = 7216.6 kcal/kg (ans) The specific heat consumption of a kiln is stated at 5.2 million Btu/ ton of clinker based on the gross heating value of 12,750 Btu/lb of coal. What is the specific heat consumption of this kiln in terms of net Btu/ton when the coal contains 4.3 percent hydrogen? Hy (net) = 12,750 - [9270(0.043)] = 12351 Btu/Ib and 5.2 Hal = 5.04 milli t Btu/ton clink (ans.) i 12750 ‘ million ne ufton clinker ans. Given the following analysis on a loss free basis: CaO SiO, Al,O3 Fe.03 Ash ¢ 0.4 49.3 28.6 20.9 Kiln feed; 679 19.8 6.9 2.1 Clinker : 66.5 20.5 73 2.570 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK What percent ash does the clinker contain? 66.5 -67.9 x, = ————~ 100 = 207 04-679 20.5 - 19.8 x, = ——— 100 = 237 49.3 - 19.8 73-69 ted kg = ToS = S > 286-69 25-2. Xe = — 100 = 2.13 20.9 = 2.1 . 2.07 + 2.37 + 1.84 + 2.13 Percent ash in clinker = ———~—--—— = 2.10 percent 4 (ans.)Chapter 6 pH: HYDROGEN—ION—CONCENTRATIONS 6.01 Definition of pH The pH value of a chemical is indicated by the negative log of the hydrogen-ion-concentration (#,+). <—————__ acid — basic (alkaline) ——~> [H* ] dominant [OH ] dominant : Jn a compound, if: (H*] > [0H] i compound is acidic in nature {OH} > [TH 3 compound is basic (alkaline) (H"] = [OH] : compound is neutral 7172 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 6.02 Calculation of pH pH = x-—logy tH] = ylo* [H*] - [OH] = constant (~ 10°!*) Example A solution of NaOH is 0.015 N. What is the pH? {OH} = 0.015 gram equivalent per liter log(OH] 9 = -1.824 [ow] = 190154 but (H*] -{OH] = 1074 thus, 14 10° + e eee es 12,176 re] net pH = 12.176 6.03 Indicators Reagent Indicator Color change Red phenolphthalein Color free Blue litmus paper Yellow methy! orange Red litmus paper Colorless phenolphthalein Red methyl orangePART II BURNING' Chapter 7 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF KILN PERFORMANCE Introduction The significant formulas for a study of the kiln performance and efficiency are given. An engineer should follow the sequence in which the formulas are presented herein as many calculations require the results obtained from earlier computations. To simplify the engineer’s task, all the formulas are presented in the form of work sheets that can be used to arrange the study in an orderly fashion, At the conclusion, a summary sheet is also given to compile all the significant results of this study. Data, formulas, and results can be presented either in English or metric system units by using the appropriate worksheets in this chapter. These work sheets can also be used to perform studies of parts of the kiln system (e.g., the cooler operation). The reader should have no diffi- culties in selecting the appropriate formulas from the worksheets in these - instances. For a complete study, it is essential that the kiln data be selected during a time when the kiln operates in a stable and uniform manner. 7576 CEMENT MANUFACTURER'S HANDBOOK 7.01 Technical Information on Kiln Equipment Plant. Location: Kiln: Kiln Process: Manufactured by: Year placed in operation: ————________ Types of clinker produced: Types of fuel burned: ———___ Primary air source: Feeder type: Type of dust collector: ————_____ -Dust processing: Preheater Type: Manufactured by: Year: Cooler Type: Manufactured by: Year: Fans Cooler fan 1TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF KILN PERFORMANCE 77 Cooler Exhaust “Induced draft Recycle fan Nose ring Shet! cooling Drives Kiln drive Auxiliary drive Cooler drive Other kiln equipment Function Type Hp ” Date of investigation : Tested byChapter 8 KILN PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY (ENGLISH SYSTEM OF UNITS) DATA NEEDED Fuel Analysis (Oil or Coal} All values to be shown on the “as fired” basis A, = Percent ash = eee. A, = Percent hydrogen = sass Ag = Percent carbon Sse Ay = Percent nitrogen FS eae Ag = Percent oxygen : SB oeeeee Ag = Percent sulfur Ss eae Ay = Percent moisture Fs cccecne Aq = Heat value (gross Btu/lb) = ase: Coal Ash Analysis Bs; = Percent SiO, = wees By, = Percent Al.O3 = wo... Br. = Percent Fe,O3 = seise Bog = Percent Cad i casas 78KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (ENGLISH SYSTEM) 79 Kiln Feed Analysis All oxides must be shown on a “loss free” basis Cs; = Percent SiO, tue -es Cy, = Percent Al.O3 Sl aveus Cre = Percent Fe,03 Fol... Coq = Percent CaO - = vekes Cug = Percent MgO er Cyq = Percent NaQ, So espeg Ce = Percent K,0 : = Lee. i Cs = Percent SO; = nae Cry = Percent loss on ignition 7) sae ae Cy = Percent moisture Faas Cso = Percent retained on No. 50 sieve = eeaaa C200 = Percent retained on No. 200 sieve = Leek, Co = Percent organic matter Sl pena Cyp = Specific gravity (dry solids) = oe... Kiln Exit Gas Analysis Determined by Orsat analysis Doo, = Percent CO (by weight) So... Deo = Percent CO (by weight) e peuee Do = Percent O, (by weight) = oo... Dy = Percent N2 (by weight) = seine Precipitator Outlet Gas Analysis Percent CO, (by weight) Ss eruas Percent O, (by weight) = ..aee Eco, Eo. 2_ 80 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK Ambient Air Data Fy = Ambient air temperature (F) Fy = Relative humidity (percent) Fn = Elevation (feet above sea level) Fp, = Barometric pressure (in. Hg) Weights of Materials Wo = Kiln output (tph) Wap = Lb dry feed per ton of clinker (show actual feed rate) Wa = Ub fuel per ton of clinker (as fired) Wo, = Total tons of chains Kiln Dust Analysis All oxides must be shown on a “loss free” basis Gs; Cat Gre Gea Gx Gs Gr, G Percent SiO, Percent Al,03 Percent Fe203 Percent CaO Percent K,0 Percent SO; Percent loss on ignition Percent of dust that is retumed to kiln (decimal)KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (ENGLISH SYSTEM) 81 Kiln Dimensions Volumes Veg Vix Voo Kiln length (ft) Kiln diameter (ft) Primary air nozzle diameter (ft) Length of chain section (ft) Total chain surface area (ft?) Effective kiln feed end throat diameter (ft) Refractory lining thickness (in.) Total feet of chains Kiln shell thickness (in.) Kiln slope (degrees) Feed entering kiln (°F) Secondary Air (°F) Primary Air (°F) Feed end (°F) Cooler stack (°F) Clinker at cooler exit (°F) Fuel as fired (°F) Average shell temperature, lower third of kiln (°F) Average shell temperature, middle third of kiln (°F) Average shell temperature, upper third of kiln (°F) Average kiln room temperature (°F) Primary air flow (SCFM @ 32°F, S.L.) Excess cooler air (SCFM @ 32°F, 8.L.) Total air into cooler (SCFM @ 32°F, S.L.)82 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK Other Parameters P, = Hood draft (in. H20) S 5 paww Pp. = Feed end draft (in. H.0) = ..aee Py, = Kiln speed (RPH) = wee Xx, = Cooler length, grates only (ft) Boye ces Xx, = Cooler width, grates only (ft) Fae Xx; = Total area of openings in hood (ft?) S o.e.ee Clinker Analysis Hg, = Percent SiO, Feaae Ha, = Percent AJ,03 = cstas Hpe = Percent Fe203 Sask Hog = Percent CaO = Ay, = Percent MgO = Hs = Percent SO; = Hay = Percent total alkalies (as NaO2) = Hig = Percent loss on ignition = CALCULATIONS 8.01 Amount of Feed Required to Produce One Ton of Clinker The result obtained herein does not include any dust losses. The assumption also made is that all the coal ash enters the clinker and none leaves the kiln with the exit gas.KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (ENGLISH SYSTEM) 83 -a@ = 35.68 Coy FE eee b = 41.80 Cy, = nase ee _¢ = 200 Cy, = seueeiss o « d= 200 Cz, = weese e = 200 Cp, = ...e f = 1508 Cy, + 7.06 Cy, = lee. subtotal: = ..... . 100 — Hy, . g = subtotal times ——~_~ = oo... 100 Subtract ash in clinker. ih = We (44 100 | * \1oo/\100 — Cj, = 1b feed required/ton of clinker = pease » 8.02 Dust Losa Dust losses are expressed in terms of equivalent feed. ky = Wap - 3 = eee k a = eee War In the absence of reliable data for actual feed usage, Wy, can also be determined by the following formula which takes into account the difference in the loss on ignition between the kiln feed and the dust among the other factors. 2000 h = ——— |100-H,, + Wp (100 -Gy)—>—} = +e aF “ 100-Cy, te * Mo ( 18) ~ 00084 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK where W, = tons of dust wasted per ton of clinker The factor “h” can be obtained from 8.01, all other variables are given in the data sheet. 8.03 Potential Clinker Compounds and Clinker Factors C38 = 407g, - (7.6 Hg; t 6.72 Hy, + 143 Ape +285Hs) = ..... CS = 2.87 Hy, -0.75 C38 = ..ae. CsA = 2.65 H,,- 1.69 Hp. Bases C,AF = 3.04H;, So... 100 A LSF = —_— Bg ones 2.8 Hy, + 1.65 Hy, + 0.35 He, A SR = SL zo... Hy +Hre A A/F =— =... Hre Percent liquid = 1.13C3A+ 135 C,AF + HyytHay 9 = +++: For an accurate determination of the clinker compounds, the clinker analysis has to be adjusted as shown in Chapter 1, Problem 1.09 (b), prior to using the oxide values in the above calculations. This takes into account the amount of CaO that is combined with the sulfur as CaSO, and the free lime present in the clinker. 8.04 Theoretical Heat Required to Produce One Ton of Clinker The result obtained represents only that amount of heat that must beKILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (ENGLISH SYSTEM) 85 imparted to the feed to tur it into one ton of clinker. It does not include heat losses in the system nor does it account for the heat that is recoverable from the hot clinker after the clinkering reaction is completed. The result, however, does take into account the exothermic reaction at clinkering temperature. 1 = 14795 H,,+ 23326.7 Hyg 27524.07 Hog — 18416.58 Hy) — 2123.88 Hp, = ..... Btu/ton 8.05 Percent of Infiltrated Air at Kiln Feed End Infiltration is expressed on the basis of the kiln exit gases being equal to 100 moles and the precipitator gases containing 100 + x moles, where x represents the moles of infiltrated air. First, solve the following equation for x Do, Eo, 3.78 Eo, x =— + (100 +x) + ———* (100 + x) - 478 100 100 100 then, the percent infiltrated air is 100x n= = 100 +x 8.06 Excess Air Present in the Kiln n= —189@Do, Deo) Dy - [1.89 (2Dp, —Deo)l 8.07 Combustion Air Required to Burn One Pound of Fuel This formula applies only to liquid’and solid fuels. To determine the combustion air required for gaseous fuels, use the formula given in 13.08.86 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK o = +) 0.115944, 40.34783(4,, -42 100)" c m8 + 0.04348 Ag] =..... 8.08 Weight of Combustion Air per Minute Entering Kiln (Note: for natural gas firing use formula given in 13.08). 8.09 Air Infiltration at Hood Ws Mt (7.74)(0.75)x, (0.081P,)” - N " " . Ws Percent infiltration ={— w 8.10 Cooler Air Balance This air balance is being established in terms of lb/min flow rates. Keep in mind too that flow volumes in the data sheet are given at a base temperature 32 F at zero elevation. W, = 0.081 ¥p, B oesias Wz) = Wi —-W4—-Ws Bi nasa w, = 0.081 Vp, cage Ww, = 0.081 Yoo Bo, Wy = Wp-W2 = W3 Buna where wy, represents the amount of cooler air lost by leaks in the cooler, the amount of air removed from the cooler for the drying of the coal, and/or the amount of cooler air recuperated for the precalciner or rawKILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (ENGLISH SYSTEM) 87 grind. Note Wi ———— = 10-..... Wa t Wq t Ws The percent primary air is ‘ow, — 100 =..... Wr The air utilization efficiency of the cooler can be expressed by Wi efficiency = —— 100 =..... Wy Note: To obtain the true efficiency of coolers where part of the heated air is used for raw grinding, coal drying or as secondary air in the precaiciner subtract this amount of air from wy before using the above formula. 8.11 Products of Combustion (Ib/ton) CO, from fuel = 0.0367 AoW, = oases $0, from fuel = 0.02 AgW, = saan H,0 from fuel = 0.09 4z,W, Bees A N, from fuel = = Fea 3.3478 (0.0267 Ap + 0.01 Ag +0.08A;, = 0.01 Ap)]Wy = eves Subtotal = «1... m Add excess air: ——~ (subtotal) = ls... : 100 We = total (Ib/ton clinker) @ egeas Note: for natural gas firing use the formula given in 13.08.88 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK Find “m” in 8.06. 8.12 Weight of Gases from Slurry (Ib/ton) CO, from feed (1+ 0.5 ky)(0.44¢+0.5216b) = 2... _ 100 War HzOg¢. fromfeed = 100 - Gr War = ona: H2Ojem from feed = (ltk2)f = ec W, = total = eee Note: Assumption: The dust wasted has given off 50 percent of its CO, and all of its moisture (free and chemical combined). Find “k,” in 8.02 and “a,” “‘b,” “f” in 8.01. 8.13 Total Weight of Kiln Exit Gases The best method for determining the weight of kiln exit gases is by measuring the actual flow at the back end of the kiln and subtracting the percent of infiltrated air that enters through leaks at the feed end (see 8.05). In many instances, such flow measurements are suspect in accuracy because it is often difficult to measure the build-up in the duct where the measurements are taken. The large size of the ducts in this area also require special probes and a multitude of test points to obtain a meaningful traverse in the duct. In cases where this testing method is suspect, it is advisable to calculate the weight of kiln exit gases by adding the products found in 8.11 and 8.12.KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (ENGLISH SYSTEM) 89 CO, fromfuel ...... CO, from slurry ...... TotalCO, = ..... H,O from fuel ...... H,0 from slurry (incl.chem) ....... TotalH,O = ..... 50 percent of SO, from fuel TotalSO, = ..... N, from combustion TotalN,; = ..... Excess air (see 8.11) Total Excess Air = ..... Wom = Total S wena: Wea = Won — Total H,0 (above) @ geese Note: In the above calculations the assumption is made that 50 percent of the sulfur in the fuel leaves the kiln with the exit gas and the other half leaves with the clinker. 8.14 Percent Moisture in Kiln Exit Gases Wem — W, Percent moisture =| 2 ——£44 100 = ..... Worn The percent moisture in the exit gases can also be determined from the ~ condensate collected when the flue gases were tested with a dry gas meter see Chapter 30, Section 30.03 (b)]. . 8.15 Density of Kiln Exit Gas The values for CO,, SO,, etc., in the following formula are found in 8.13. Since the formula given applies to gas at 32°F at sea level, the result has to be converted to prevailing temperatures and pressures by using the well-known, general gas law.90 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK a} At 32 F and atmospheric pressure. 0.1234C0, + 0.182780, + 0.0503H,0 + 0.0781N2 + 0.0807 excess air a7 Ow oo oy FZ evees lb/ft? b) At prevailing pressures and temperature. a 492 $]14.7+0.0361Pp2 a1 7, + 460 147 02 ™ 8.16 Volume of Moist Kiln Exit Gases wy, YBe = o Fe ease ft3 /ton clinker O2 WeiPae Yacrm = 7 S segs oo ACFM 8.17 Kiln Performance Factors These factors are often used to compare a given kiln performance with another of similar dimensions. a} Cooler air factor. Expresses the specific air flow rate per square foot of grate area. —_— = SCFM air/ft? of grate areaKILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (ENGLISH SYSTEM) 91 b]) Primary air velocity. ” The velocity of the primary air at the burner tip has a profound influ- ence on the flame length and shape. For direct coal fired kilns one must include the volume of water vapor present in the primary air to obtain the proper velocity at the burner tip. This water vapor volume can be calculated from the percent moisture in the coal and converting this into the actual cubic feet per minute by using the steam table given in Chapter 22, Section 22.05. The resultant volume is then added to the flow rate calculated by the following formula: Convert primary air flow, Vp, , from standard to actual conditions by using V, ACFM =————*4——. = ..... Fpar \{Tpa + 460 29.92 530 ACFM Pri ir velocity = ——— = .....ft/min rimary air velocity wh La? f c) Specific kiln surface area loading. This expresses the kiln output in terms of daily tons per square foot of kiln surface area, Kiln surface area = (Lz — 0.1667.L,)aL, =..... ft? Specifi loading = _24Wer d/et? pecific area loading Flgtige 7h tpd/ft a) Specific kiln volume loading. This factor expresses the kiln output in terms of daily tons per cubic foot of internal kiln volume. This factor is often used to determine if a given kiln operates at, below, or above the design capacity for this kiln. Kiln volume = 1(4L, —0.0833L4)? Ly Bee ft?92 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 24We; Specific volume loading = —~—-— = ....-- tpd/fe? ft? volume e) Specific thermal loading of the burning zone. Experience with different types and sizes of kilns has shown that there exists a relationship between the specific thermal loading of the burning zone and the life expectancy of the refractory. The higher the specific thermal loading, the shorter the brick life. Burning zone surface = m(L2 -0.1667L,)L, = -..-: ft? W4WejA Specific thermal loading = Ae ee Btu/h/ft? B.Z. surface where Ly, = lining thickness (inches) L, = length of the burning zone Burning zone length, for this purpose, is defined as that length over which a thick, dark coating is formed over the refractory. f) Gas velocity in the calcining zone. For wet kilns, Wp, = Wey, — [0.9(H20 gee from slurry)] . For all other kilns ge gm Wee Wer Yeat SAA LS, Aa 72 (0.5L, —0.0833L7)* 093 KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (ENGLISH SYSTEM) queoied "777" : Pooy UTTY ye UONeI [UT We Jo yuSsag una/qi' 77" : pooy UPD ye poyenpyur py 125 MESH : (uyui/re q]) parmbex aye uorsnquios jo 1ys1aKM tener eee ys (Jang qf/2e q]) pazmnber aye uonsnquiog quaoiod st : se8 1X9 UT ITB ssdoXe JUadIEg quosred 7 -** weg pus pag] 1e poyesz[UI Ie WUSSISg uoymg ttt : UOTeULIO] JOxUTPD JO} parmba yeoy jLonsiosyL, qusojad" * +" : pinbiy quso10g eddie! FES opel uo-eurunye “y/V sow eae se ones vars ‘y/s JoyoRJ UVONBINIeS SUT] “ST sayuypo ut ¥&D TeyUTP Ul S?D Aeyuyo ut gs pee} YserJ JO SUL} UT sso] Jsnq JSNp Se poyse psaj Jo yUNOUTY JOAUT[D UT JU9]U05 YSy pemmnber psa} Jo yunouse feonelosyL, Apng souruuoplag Upty] JO sys BT'SCEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 94 oufuinig ei5/Par 2/pds un /3y Al Uy] 6 J wo uon/ el 2/1" eu/d qusored ‘TP wo} /qq “Pp u07/qI “pp 07a "Pp u01/qI° yusored * uyur/qy * uyut/qq * umur/qy* upu/qy” ouoz Suring Jo Surpeo| jeuUey], UY Jo Surpeo] auinjoa oylads UPY JO Burpeoy ooeyins syoods dp young ye Aypojaa Ire Arewg (ware 33838 JO ,34/ IJ) 1OJORY Te Jajoog OUI} {UN UT AOL] sed Xa Jo oUMJOA MOT SLB PIX9 JO BUNJOA SUOHTPUOD [eN{dE 4B Sased 1X9 JsIOUL JO AISUNG *e ZE) UONTPUOS prepuEys ye Sosed J1X9 JsTOUL Jo AysUaq, se8 1X9 JO JU9]U0d. aIN)STOW Moly sed y1xa AIp [EO], MOL sed FIXo ISIOUW [BIO], AUNys 10 p9ey Wor} psonpoid sasery Jeny wos syonposd uoNsnquiod [BO], aye Areunid yus10g AOTy Tye Areung UJPY 0} Moy sre Arepuoseg youys I9JOO9 7e PopUsA Ie ssaoxg SUIAIp 10} 10 syeay OF SNP ISO] ITE 19100) 391009 01 MOT] Ive [BIOLChapter 9 KILN PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY (METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS) DATA NEEDED Fuel Analysis (Oil or Coal—as Fired) Ay = Percent ash = see Ay = Percent hydrogen veneers Ac = Percent carbon a Ay = Percent nitrogen =" cpecars g Ao = Percent oxygen TS sentsenies oi Ag = Percent sulfur Scopes Ay = Percent moisture Suc aee Ag = Heat value (kcal/kg) = eaves Ay = Heat value (kJ/kg) SE cconnan Coal Ash Analysis Bg; = Percent SiO, ™ iaanw Ba, = Percent Al,05 Fo... Bre = Percent Fe203 Sas er Bog = Percent CaO Fetes 9596 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK Kiln Feed Analysis (Loss Free Basis) Cs: = Percent SiO, Fo ..ae Car = Percent Al,O3 = sgeas Cre = ‘Percent Fe203 Foo... Coq = Percent C20 S cases Cy = Percent MgO Beane Cna = Percent Na,0 = issue Cy = Percent K,0 Fs viene Cs = Percent SO3 So... Cig = Percent ignition loss = 370m Cw = Percent moisture Sy ceneaese Casoo = Percent —4900 mesh = eee Caoo = - Percent +400 mesh = ieee Co = Percent organics = sayen s Kiln Exit Gas Analysis (By Orsat} Deo, = Percent CO, (by weight) = .aaee Deg = Percent CO (by weight) = wa... Do = Percent O, (by weight) TTT o Dy = Percent N, (by weight) = lasses Precipitator Outlet Gas Analysis Eco,= = Percent CO2 (by weight) = yiase Eo, = Percent Q, (by weight) = 38885KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (METRIC SYSTEM) 97 Ambient Air and Location + Fr = Ambient air temp. (°C) Fy = Percent relative humidity Fe, = Elevation (meters above sea level) Fp,, = Barometric pressure (mm Hg) Weights of Materials Wey = Kiln output (kg/h) War = Dry feed rate.(kg/kg of clinker) Ww, = Fuel rate, as fired (kg/kg of clinker) Kiln Dust Analysis (Loss Free Basis) Percent SiO, Percent Al,03 4 Percent Fe203 Percent CaO Percent K,0 Percent SO3 Percent ignition loss Percent of collected dust that is returned to the kiln (decimal)98 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK Kiln Dimensions Ly = Kiln length (m) Ly = Kiln diameter (m) Ly = Effective bumer tip orifice area (m7) Ls = Length of chain section (m) Ls = Total chain surface area (m7) Le = Effective kiln feedend throat area (m?) Ly = Refractory thickness (mm) Ls = Sum total of (all) chain length (m) Ly = Kiln shell thickness (mm) Lyo = Kiln slope (degrees) Operating Parameters P, = Hood draft (mm H,0) Pee = Feed end draft (mm H,0) Pre = Kiln speed (rpm) Cinker Analysis (Loss Free Basis) Percent SiO, Percent Al,O3 Percent Fe,0, Percent CaO Percent MgO Percent SO3 Percent alkalies (total as Na,O) Percent ignition loss It oun aKILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (METRIC SYSTEM) 99 Temperatures (Celsius) Te = Feed entering kiln Ts = Secondary air Tp = Primary air Tre = Kiln exit gas Ts, = Cooler stack To; = Clinker at cooler exit Tr = Fuel as fired Tz, = Average shell, lower third Tz, = Average shell, middle third Tz, = Average shell, upper third T = Kiln room Air Volumes (Standard m3 /s @ 0 C, 760 mm Hg) Dimensions xX, = Xy 2 X; = Primary air flow Cooler vent stack Total air into cooler Kiln exit Cooler length, grates, (m) Cooler width, grates, (m) Total effective area of hood opening (m?) where ambient air is infiltrated100 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK CALCULATIONS For detailed descriptions and notes pertaining to the formulas given, refer to the previously given formulas in the English system of units. 9.01 Amount of Feed Required to Produce One Kilogram of Clinker a = 0.01784 Co, = ee, b = 00209 Cy, = cease e = 0.01 Cay = eee d = 0.01 Cs = siaas e = 001 Cre = ase f = 0.00075 Cy + 0.0035 Cy, Fi sseae Subtotal = ..... (oot) g = subtotl{——— fo see et 100 Subtract ash in clinker n= w, (44,2? — 2 (coq 100 - Ge HF ee kg feed required per kg clinker Swan ss 9.02 Dust Loss Dust losses are expressed in terms of equivalent feed. ky= Wap-i 2 oye. kg/kg cl.KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (METRIC SYSTEM) 101 me t 22 Fw. percen War In the absence of reliable data for actual feed usage, Wy, can also be determined as follows: wy. = 100], (100-Gig\ , (100-Hie\ 5) aF 100-¢,, | 7\ 100 100 J | where Wp = kg of dust wasted per kg clinker “h” can be found in 9.01. 9.03 Potential Clinker Compounds and Clinker Factors C38 = 4.07 Ho, = (7.6 Hg, + 6.72H 4, + 1.43 Hp +285Hs) = ..... CS = 287Hg-0.75C38 =o... CG;A = 2.65H4,-1.69 Hp, Bo, CiAF = 3.04Hp, = lass 100 He, * LSF 0 = ————_ “4 -_—___ = lie. 2.8 Hg + 1.65 Ha; + 0.35 Hre H sR = — SL =... Ha; t+ Are H A/F = —4L =o... Hre ‘ Percent liquid = 113C3A+135C,AF +HyetHym = sees102 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 9,04 Theoretical Heat Required to Produce One Kilogram Clinker 1 = 4.11 Hyg, + 6.48 Ayyy + 7.646 Hyg — 5.116 Hg ~0.59 Ape Fo... keal/kg 9.05 Percent of Infiltrated Air at Kiln Feed End First, solve the following equation for x: E 378 E D, x = —2 (100+x) + ——22 (100 +x) - 478 —2 100 100 100 The percent of infiltrated air is found by the following formula: 9.06 Excess Air Present in the Kiln __189(2.0D0,-Deo) __ — Dy — [1.89 (2.0D9, -Deo)] 9.07 Combustion Air Required to Burn One Kilogram of Fuel (Solid or Liquid) oF ( + ia) 011504 #034189 ty “a 100 8 + 0.04348 Ag! =..... kg air/kg fuel Note: For gaseous fuel see 13.01 in Chapter 13.KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (METRIC SYSTEM) 103 9.08 Weight of Combustion Air Required per Hour Note: For gaseous fuel see 13.01 in Chapter 13. 9.09 Air Infiltration at Firing Hood Ws = 11,720.3X5 (1.157P,)” = eee kg/h wi zZ = Percent infiltration = — 100 Fs sacar percent Wi 9.10 Cooler Air Balance we = 4654.44 Vp, S sae s kg/h Wy = Wy —W4 Ws 2S ceases 3 kg/h w, = 4654.44 V,. = ueaea kgfh w, = 4654.44 Veo ; =... .kpph. Wy = Wp-W2 —W3 Sena s kg/h Note: “1 = 105... Wy twa tws The percent primary air is: The air utilization efficiency of the cooler can be expressed by the following formula:104 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK w efficiency = —— 100 = ..... ’ Ww, 9.11 Products of Combustion CO, from fuel = 0.03667 A, W, Faw ws SO, from fuel = 0.02 A.W, mommin H,0 from fuel = 0,09.4,,"%, = srews i A Nz from fuel [= + 3.3478 (0.02674, + 0.01 As +0.08 4, -0.014p)} Wy = ..... Subtotal: = ..... m Add excess air: —— (subtotal = says exc 100 ( 1) We = Total : Bw... kg/kg clinker Note: For natural gas firing, use the formula 13.08 in Chapter 13. 9.12 Weight of Gases from the Feed CO, from feed = (14+0.5k,)(0.442¢+ 0.52166) = ..... 100War H0:,., from feed = i00-c. 0.7 War = oo... H2O chem from feed = = (1+k.)f = geese Wy = Total Bs avate kg/kg cl. Note: The assumption is made that the wasted dust has been 50 percent calcined. Finda, b, fin 9.01 and k2 in 9.02.KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (METRIC SYSTEM) 105 9.13 Total Weight of Kiln Exit Gases Adding the products in 9.11 and 9,12 gives the total weight of exit gas. CO, fromfuel = ..... CO, from slurry = ..... FotalCO, = ..... H,0 from fuel = ..ee H,0 from feed Feb de TotalH,O = .....- 50 percent of SO, from fuel : TotalSO, = ...-- N, from combustion ‘ TotalN, = ..... Excess air (see 9.11): Excessair = ..-.- Wem = = Total moist gases Bima kg/kg clinker Dry gases = Weg = Wom — total H,O = gs eee kg/kg 9.14 Percent Moisture in Kiln Exit Gas = = Wea = Percent H,O = —-———*~- 100 = ..... percent 9.15 Density of Kiln Exit Gas a) AtOC, 760 mm Hg 1.977CO, + 2.92780, + 0.806H20 + 1.251N2 + 1.2928 excess air do, = ee Note: Use calculated values from 9.13 for CO, , SOz, etc.106 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 5) At prevailing pressures and temperatures _ 273.2 760 ~ 0.0736Pp. 4 doy “do, = + [P| Sn ocigiee 9.16 Volume of Moist Kiln Exit Gas Yap = ao nn m? /kg cl. O2 y . Oge)(Wer) = m3/s : Uti‘ ié‘SéSCS*;*;*S 9.17 Kiln Performance Factors a) Cooler air factor. Veo a = ..... m°s/m" grate area XX, fin Br b) Primary air velocity. Tp +273.2 760 273.2 Fear m?/s (act) ~ Vea m?/s {act} Primary air velocity = ——-——- = yO ALs)KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (METRIC SYSTEM) 107 c) Specific kiln surface area loading. Kiln surface area 9 = (Ly — 0.002 L,)nZ,=..... m 24 Woy Specific area loading= ~———— >~———- = 1000 (m? surface) d} Specific kiin volume loading. Using the “inside lining” kiln volume, the specific volume loading in terms of daily metric tons production is calculated as follows 24 Wer cn mace daily t/m? Specific vol loading = —,— = Peete volume 6 1000(m? volume) e) Specific thermal loading of the burning zone. Burning Zone surface + (Lz - 0.002L,)L, =..... m? Ha) Weilq) _ ific ° al loadi SO ee kcal/h/m? Specific ‘Thermal loading (an? surface) cal/h/ W,)(Wey)(A = Waveney Foe. kJ/hh/m? (m’ surface) where ‘ L, = lining and coating thickness (mm) L, = length of buming zone (m)CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 108 pinby yusdI9g oer uor—eurumye “4/7 oper Boris “y/S: JO}OR} UOTEINYes SUT] ‘S'T yayurp ut TV"D sayurp ur WED yayulp UE S*D Toy UE SED past pooj JO JUNOWWE ENjOy peas YSolj JO SUI} UT “sso] IsNP USOIEg {SNP sB paysem poay Jo UNOWY FOYT Ul JUIUOD Sy pernbar pooy Jo JUNOUTE POW AOU L, Apnyg soueunoyiog Uy jo Mey B16KILN PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY (METRIC SYSTEM) 109 sed JJX9 Ul 1U9]U0D SIN}sSIOP, sosed 11X09 AIp [EOL sased 71X9 JS|OUI [e}0], p2oy 10 Aumnys wWoly sasery syonpoid uonsnquicg are Arewutud jusoleg aye ABUL UP] BY} 0} UT are UONsNquICD YOVIS 1BJOOS 32 PazRUA Ife Ssaox Ig]OO9 OJUT MOF We [eIO], Paye1j[YUL Ie UONSNqQUIOD JO JUadIag pooy je payer jut ITy awn qun/parnber se vorsnquiog Jeny 3y/parmnba sje uopsnquio; seS 11X90 UT yuasold ITe ssoox PUe poo} 72 poyenpyUt ne yus010g panmba yeay Peonaroayy,CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 110 euapyfeoy eu /suo; Apep zu /suo}y auoz BuTuNg Jo Zurpeoy jeuuayy, Burpeo] aunjoa ayToadg SuTpeo] aovjins oyfoadg AOA sre Areurg 10}9RJ IIe Igjoo9 um) yun Jed aumyoa se8 yIxq sesed 1X9 Jo eunyoA, (Won Tpuod jenjoR) sased ys10W jo Aylsuoqy- Chapter 10 HEAT BALANCE (ENGLISH SYSTEM OF UNITS) In Chapter 12 there are graphs that show the mean specific heat for gases and solids at stated temperatures. In all the formulas given, “Q” denotes the heat content (Btu/ton clinker) and “c,,” denotes the mean specific heat of the gas or solid at the stated temperature. HEAT INPUT 10.01 Heat Input from Combustion of Fuel Q= WA, =... Btu/ton 10.02 Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Fuel Q = Walp (Tp - 32) = -.--- Btu/ton 10.03 Heat Input from Organic Substance in Kiln Feed It is assumed that the organic matter in the kiln feed has a constant heat value of 9050 Btu/lb. 111112 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK C. Q=g8 (2) 9050 = ..... Btu/ton ’ (find g in 8.01). 10.04 Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Kiln Feed War m (T, — 32) = oe... a a, (H,0 in durry)(T - 32) = oe... 10.05 Heat Input from Cooler Air Sensible Heat Q=, ae (F,-32) = ..... Btu/ton (find w, in 8.10). 10,06 Heat Input from Primary Air (Sensible Heat) Make sure to include in this calculation only that amount of primary air that originates from ambient source. Do not include the fraction of primary air that has its origin from the cooler air. 60 Qg= wine im (1 ~ 32) = ..... Btu/ton Wer (find w, in 8.10) .HEAT BALANCE (ENGLISH SYSTEM OF UNITS) 113 10.07 Heat Input from Infiltrated Air (Sensible Heat) When the temperature in the area of the firing hood is significantly different from “7”, use the appropriate temperature in the ensuing calculation. 60 Q= elem (T—32) =..... Btu/ton Wey (find wg in 8.09). Note: The fuel efficiency, i.e., the specific heat consumption of the kiln under investigation, is given by the result obtained in 10.01. One must keep in mind that this value is expressed in terms of gross Btu per ton of clinker. A footnote should be used to state whether the fuel efficiency is expressed in net or gross Btu per ton clinker to avoid confusion when this fuel efficiency is compared with European kilns that state this efficiency exclusively as net Btu per ton. HEAT OUTPUT 10.08 Heat Required for Clinker Formation Obtain this directly from 8.04. Fi... Btu/ton 10.09 Heat Loss with Exit Gas __ The heat loss in the exit gas is calculated from the heat content of each individual gas component. The weight of each component can be obtained from 8.13. .114 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK Geo, = Woo,¢m Tax — 32) = eaee 21,0 = Wi,0¢m Tae ~ 32) So... Oso, = Ws02¢m (Tae ~ 32) Fees Qn, = Wyo Cm Tae 32) Hl oseeus Qexcess air ~ Wexcess air ©m (Te ” 32) Soaa 5 10.10 Heat Loss Due to Moisture in Feed or Slurry In 8.13, the total amount of water, including the chemically combined water, has been calculated. This weight is used in the following calculation. Keep in mind that the result obtained represents only the amount of heat that has to be expanded to turn the given weight of water into steam at 32 F. The heat losses associated with raising this steam to the kiln exit gas temperature have already been included in 10.09. Q= (Weotat Ho) 1075.8 = ..... Btu/ton 10.11 Heat Losses Due to Dust in Exit Gases Q = ki Cy (Tgp —32) = ...-- Btu/ton (find ky in 8.02). 10.12 Heat Loss with Clinker at Cooler Discharge Q = 2000c,, (Te; =32) = «+++ Btu/tonHEAT BALANCE (ENGLISH SYSTEM OF UNITS) 115. 10.13 Heat Loss at Cooler Stack 60 ‘ Q = wz ——c,, (Tsp - 32) = ...-- Btu/ton Wer (find w, in 8.10). 10.14 Radiation and Convection Losses on Kiln Sheil The shell temperature is measured over the entire length of the kiln in five-foot intervals by meatis ofa radiation pyrometer. The total kiln length is then divided into three equal areas and the average shell temperature, Tz, is calculated for each zone. In Chapter 13, a graph is given that shows the heat transfer coefficient, & , to be used in the following calculations. Let 3, = kiln shell surface area, ‘L, 5, = 42) Fl, ft? 3 = 1 = Q, = 6F Tz, -D 7 Te seurmrane = 1 = Q = 6F Tz,-D) BS ssaconne Q; = 3,F (Tz, -T) v6S “us Jayuyp ur ge sToo 960'0 P99} YSa1y JO SULIO} UE sso] Isnd TBP Osrl 4snp Se pojsem paay Jo JuNouryY VLE OED IsYUYO Ur yu9yWoOo ysy*§ HANDBOOK CEMENT MANUFACTURER 132 “il S198 UIZ6E L°7886 z'se9 V6Eerrl ut Ves 19987 g9°0! SLi T9sh €°76EE 9°0P8S S°80€ Pv IPse £t 196 SPreP zL'Ol STIL 9°P09 EIL9SE vz Veer 8907 09°01 ae Arewnid yuo0Jeg AOT] Ie Arewug UTP] 0} Mots Ie Arepuoseg YPRIsS JapOo 1B poyuaa Ive ssaoxg SUTAIP 10} IO SyBa] 0} ANP jsO] Te IajOOD Igjooo ovUuT MOLT qe yewoL, pooy UTP 3e WOT BIIPUT Ie Jo JUVDIOg pooy UTP, 38 pazexyyuy Ty (uqur/s7e q]) perber we vorsnquioo Jo Tse (Peng Qi/ie qf) pombe re uornsnquroy133 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF THREE KILN MODELS 00466 Lo1-0 vE'0 ‘eu L9Ovt SZ7S‘TSI 1Ze'SL €0s0°0 7460'0 os L009€ LBSLe S LOL 006°86 1z0"0 920'0 ‘eu PLbl LOS‘Z6I L771 61£0°0 8€60'0 oP T919¢ 00808 © 7z0'0 sso'0 — S671 066‘0L 6I7'SEl S1so'0 8800 “sz SELIS 8°€969 LYELZ Upry 1384 (4. ° auoz Butuing Jo Zulpeo] jeusay_y, UTPT JO 3uTpeoy ournyjoa orptoadg UTPY JO Fupeoy soezins oytosdsg dy roumq ye Ayooyea aye Areunig (Bare 09833 JO 21)/,1J) 10}08J We 13]009 SUIT} JTUN UT MOT] seZ 4x9 JO auINTOA, OT} SUS JIXS JO oUINTOA, SUONTPUOS TeNIOE JB Sse IIXa ysIOUT JO AYISUOG Z£) UOHIpUCD * pjs Je sase 7X9 JsJOUI JO ATISUOC S¥8 3IX9 JO JU9}U00 aInzsloyy Ol) Sea X93 AIP [210], AMOTJ SBT JIXO |SIOUI [EIOL Auinjs Io paay wos poonpoid sasey S1Qe Teak Ou,CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 134 ‘Tenbo sopis Om) ey} oyxeUI 0} soUsIazyIP Aq payernapeo ore sesso] Psjunoooeuyy TUez0s Oot LUezos pr ol sossO] pajuNoooeUL) jsNp pajsem Jo Te po}el] eO'Se WOPPUTDTLO OF BNP Sasso] Hl TL°79s Sasso] []syS UD 00°0 “[IJUI UT eoy aTqisuas ae 67 E91 SASSO] YDEIS L]O0D or 66L Areurnd wt 3e0y aqarsusg 89'8b sSIEYISIP IsxUYD fog LV'S9 He s9]000 ut Jeay afqisueg €l'6 sed JIxo Uy Jsnq i 98°16 p9aj UT JBOy oQIsuag v9 Sz6r amysiour Jo UoreIodeag - Poo} UT Ja}]eW sTUEZIQ SP OP9 Sasso] Sed HX q 4 STP Jeny ur Jeoy aTQIsueg OT PEST parinbox jeaq jeotjozosyL, . PS ShS8b [any JO uoNsnquoD nig wu 8.0001 gndjno joary fuaaag S.0001 | indut jwary (upry ssa301g 19M) SONV IVE LVI135 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF THREE KILN MODELS “Tenbo sopis omg oy) oyeur 0} souerezyIp Aq poyernsyeo ore sesso] payuMoouUL), :9}0N, O8 P6zP OOT O8'Fé7r se LS v91 Sasso] PoyUNODIEUL) 4SNP poysem JO : qe payer » vO $8'St UOPEATO[eS OF ONp sasso'T 60 “THOL UF yeoy eTqrsusg at éVizs Sasso] [JOYS UY 1" ne SIL -vz"80s Sass] YORIS I}0D EOI] 70 BEL Axeurpd uy yeay, oqrsuag ZI 29'S aBeyosip WOxUN ZT" 91 O€'OL We LaJO09 ut yeay aIqrsuas £0 Pl seg xo urisng IT v1 er 39 peoy UT yay ayqrsusg 09 Or'ssz amysjour jo woyerodeaq = :01'01} ~ pagj ur J9}JeUr oTUeBIQ Lit «1968 sesso] seB 4K -60'OI] TO 9'E Teng ur yeay ayqisueg 99€ GTELSL Pommberyeay jeoneiosyL :goOT] S96 — TI'PbIP Jeng Jo uorsnquiog suazag ug 4ndjno 1pazy {uaa yng indui ivafyt (airy sse001g Aig) HONV Vd LVIHCEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 136 O0T veSOLE ‘Tenba sapis om) 943 oyu 0} eouarajsIp Aq payeqnoyes are sassoy payunoooeuy, :3}0N FIoL OOT 6'SOle gr v0 Or pst eI s9 Sel 9 6P ZOE srl TZes cee OST O8'L7S 199s tl 12707 LE Lee STrST Sasso] payuNooIeUy snp paqsem jo UWOTpeUTO[eD 0} onp sesso] Sasso] [Joys UY SOSSO] YORIs 19J00D asreyosip JayUYyO sed }IX9 Ul ysng aInjSlOUr JO UOTye1OdBAq sassoy ses 11xq pomnbes yeay [eoer0ayL duaadag yng andino jpapy slandeg are poqeqy iso “TUT UT yeoy a[qustag aye 97's Arewid ul je9y efqisusg 9P'99 tz = Poof UT 19}7eUT STURSIC. He Ja[O09 uy jeay afqisuag. poe] Ur Jeay aIqrsuag 19°% [any uy yeay oyqisusg 00°6L67 [any Jo uorsnqurog ung snduy yoary (Up 198A YoIg VoIsUadsng) FONV IV LVAH “LO‘OI 79001 S0°OT *P0'0T “€0°O1 "tO'OI “10°OTChapter 13 SPECIFIC HEATS, HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS, AND COMPUTATIONS FOR NATURAL GAS FIRING Compiled in this chapter, are the important parameters an engineer needs to complete a kiln investigation as outlined in Chapters 8 through 11. Here the engineer will find the graphs that show him at a glance the appropriate specific heat and heat transfer coefficient to be used for his computations, The reader is advised to make use of the appropriate graphs and formulas in accordance with the particular system of units employed (English, metric, or S.1.) for this study. Failure to use the proper applicable system of units can introduce large errors in the result obtained. The formulas shown in Chapter 8 through 9 apply to kilns fired with coal or fuel oil. In this chapter, the appropriate formulas for gas firing which should be used in Chapter 8 and 9 are also shown. 137CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 138 Mean specific heat, c,, (kcal/kg °c) O6t" O02" om" oz" rz" osz" oz" gz" 0.) adn naaduay QOET OOZT GOT ODOT 006 009 OOs 809 05 Ooy OSE bot sz az os 90°71 o'r onl al vit ord att O2°1 (9.0 seg) s9yuTD Jo yeayy oyroadg uea 1Q'eT O, B/ Pp) fy qoay atlfioads unay139 SPECIFIC HEATS, HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS Mean specific heat, c,, (kcal/kg °C) OOtt «COzT ,) ani niaduas OOTL OOOT 006 coe 00s 009 OOS OS cor ose Of ose oor Ost not 7 (9.0 :98eg) sTeneyEy Mey Jo way oyradg ues zO'ET $e” se* 06° TT ©, 24/09) fy ‘way oyfioads uvayCEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 140 Mean specific heat, ¢_ (kcal/kg °C) 0,) ainjpsodiua [ 006 «6Os8 =O OSL OL = OS9 0D aSS OSS OYE = OME SZ OST OOT eT 7 - so" OL" si ‘way oLfivads uvay oz 0zz 8 ay/r9) fo ° ne ite} (3.0 :a8eg) syusuodui0y ses qq Jo Jeaq] OYtoadg URI, EO'ET141 SPECIFIC HEATS, HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS Mean specific heat, ¢,, (keal/kg °c) + Wy yay oIpoads ay} WoO G6O'O JOBIIQNS ‘asPaID (9,) aantpiadwuas, 001 oe OL og i ap yuaorad ¢ yoea 10g “9 07 60'O Ppe JuajUOS THLIOA UT SSBaIOUT JUadIed ¢ Alaa 10d -ALC (9.0 :98eg) sjang Jo yeox OYtoadg URW FO'ET ‘qoay oifioads uvay ay/on) /o ° 0,CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 142 Mean specific heat, ¢,, (kcal/kg °C) (0,) a¢nipiadmay Os 008 O52 GOL 059 009 OTs DOS OS? Or ose. Fa ve oy ay ws" n° 0,0 18 payelodeas Aprasje Jazem yyIM Buryeys (9.0 :98eg) s0de, 0784 Jo qwayy syed wea cQ'ET ‘qway aifioads uvay fy 2/0) (94143 SPECIFIC HEATS, HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS %&, = kealfhm?°C (0,) aanineadiuay 24s ose oot osz id ost 00T os [YS ULLY UO s807] WOH 10J syUAIIIZJoo| sJoysuesy, wa] QO'ET 'b DO, 2UU/Lt =CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 144 Oosz Dov 00zZ__ 0007 (4,) aeninsadmay (A.&§ *8eG) AUNT) Jo aH oyoodg uo 20°ET toads upayy pay oft145 SPECIFIC HEATS, HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS (4,) snimsodmiay 009% «O0%Z O22 COOZ 00ST 009T COFT O0ZI OOOT 006 OO 00L 009 00S OOF OOF 002 HOT (4.38 +98eg) sqepoyepy MEY yuaUIaT) Jo yea] oVodg ULAR g0'ET Ole” azz" Oee” jOsz* Ogz* qoay oiftoads unaCEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 146 (4,) aenppsaduay OORT OOLT O09T COST QO! OOET OOZT BOTT OOOT 006 00s O0t 009005 omy ez wih a Pig ™ (4.ZE 28eq) sUsUOdUIO|D sed WXY Jo eaY] oyLOadS UKA 6 0'ET ypay ofioads upayy147 SPECIFIC HEATS, HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS (d,) aéniviadway Pr Wy Pr OP DF Bay aigioads payeoIpur 941} Wolj 60'0 joenqns | “esealoap jusosad ¢ YoRs JO] “60'Q PPE juaquoo |. | aqveIoa ut aseazoUT juaored ¢ AleAe JOY -ALON (4,2 98eg) sjony yo eazy oyTOadg uKAB OT-ET ufroads upayy qway 9CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 148 WORT OOLT GO9T COST OORT OOfT OOZL OOTT OObT 006 O08 GOL 009 oos OOF ooc 00t —00T (1) aanjpiaduia 1 if ca { Af I oes :a8kq) sode A 22784 Jo Jeo oyoadg wa Ist 40ay oifiaads unayy149 SPECIFIC HEATS, HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS (4) ainjniadual jays OGL 009 00s OF O0z (4) Teys upEy uo sasso7T yeazy 109 yUAIOYJe0+ JaysuEI], Jeopy cVel =b Wa/ uid150 CEMENT MANUFACTURER’S HANDBOOK 13.13 Computations for Natural Gas Firing Analysis of natural gas fuels are usually expressed in terms of percent by volume which is the same as molar proportions. The formulas given below allow for combustion calculations in terms of the unit production of clinker. Hence, the results obtained are expressed in the same terms as the results computed in this study for liquid and solid fuels. Data required: Analysis of natural gas Percent by volume expressed as a decimal a, = CO2, carbon dioxide = vias b, = Na, nitrogen = c,; = CHa, methane = care d, = CH¢, ethane Sg anerorn é, = Cs3Hg, propane gs anes fi = CaHyo, butane (iso + N-butane) ZS eeee £1 = CsHy2,, pentane (iso + V-pentane) Sas tee. Fuel rate Ww, ft? gas/ton of clinker Saved a or m? gas/kg of clinker @ gay we Combustion air required (items 8.07 and 9.07 for natural gas firing). When English units are used in this calculation, the result is also expressed in English units. Likewise, when metric units are used the results are expressed in metric terms.

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