Muscle Oxygenation Rather Than VO 2 Max Is A Strong Predictor of Performance in Sprint Canoe-Kayak

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Muscle Oxygenation Rather Than VO 2 max is a Strong Predictor of Performance

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Article in International journal of sports physiology and performance · May 2018

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0077
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“Muscle Oxygenation Rather Than VO2max is a Strong Predictor of Performance in Sprint Canoe-Kayak”
by Paquette M, Bieuzen F, Billaut F
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2018 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Note. This article will be published in a forthcoming issue of the

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. The article
appears here in its accepted, peer-reviewed form, as it was provided by
the submitting author. It has not been copyedited, proofread, or formatted
by the publisher.
Section: Original Investigation
Article Title: Muscle Oxygenation Rather Than VO2max is a Strong Predictor of Performance
in Sprint Canoe-Kayak
Authors: Myriam Paquette1,2, François Bieuzen1,2, François Billaut1,2
Affiliations: 1Université Laval, Département de kinésiologie, Québec (Québec), Canada.

2
Institut national du sport du Québec, Montréal (Québec), Canada.
Journal: International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
Acceptance Date: April 25, 2018
©2018 Human Kinetics, Inc.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0077
Muscle oxygenation rather than VO2max is a strong predictor of performance in sprint

canoe-kayak
Submission type: Original investigation
Authors: Myriam Paquette1,2, François Bieuzen1,2, François Billaut1,2

Downloaded by J S GERICKE LIBRARY on 05/13/18, Volume ${article.issue.volume}, Article Number ${article.issue.issue}
1
Université Laval, Département de kinésiologie, Québec (Québec), Canada
2
Institut national du sport du Québec, Montréal (Québec), Canada
Corresponding author:
A/Prof François Billaut
Département de kinésiologie
Université Laval
2300 rue de la Terrasse
Québec (Québec), Canada, G1V 0A6
E-mail: francois.billaut@kin.ulaval.ca
Preferred running head: Muscle oxygenation in sprint canoe-kayak

Abstract word count: 232
Text-only word count: 3482
Number of figures: 2
Number of tables: 3
Abstract
Purpose: This study aimed to characterize the relationships between muscle oxygenation and
performance during on- and off-water tests in highly trained sprint canoe-kayak athletes. Methods:
Thirty athletes (19 kayakers and 11 canoeists) performed a maximal incremental test on a canoe
or kayak ergometer for determination of VO2max and examination of the relation between peak
power output (PPO) and physiological parameters. A subset of 21 athletes also performed a 200-
m and a 500-m (for women) or 1000-m (for men) on-water time trials. Near-infrared spectroscopy
monitors were placed on the latissimus dorsi (LD), biceps brachii (BB), and vastus lateralis (VL)
during all tests to assess changes in muscle O2 saturation (SmO2) and deoxyhemoglobin
concentration ([HHb]). The minimum O2 oxygenation (SmO2min) and maximal O2 (Δ[HHb])
extraction were calculated for all subjects. Results: PPO was most strongly correlated with
VO2max (R=0.9), but there was also a large correlation between PPO and both SmO2min and
Δ[HHb] in LD (R=-0.5, R=0.6) and VL (R=-0.6, R=0.6, all p<0.05). Multiple-regression showed
that 90% of the variance in 200-m performance was explained by both Δ[HHb] and SmO2min in
the three muscles combined (p<0.01) and 71% of the variance in 500-/1000-m performance was
explained by Δ[HHb] in the three muscles (p<0.01). This suggests O2 extraction is a better
predictor of performance than VO2max in sprint canoe-kayak. Conclusions: These results
highlight the importance of peripheral adaptations in both short and long events, and stress the
relevance of adding muscle oxygenation measurements during testing and racing in sprint canoe-
kayak.
Keywords: oxygen saturation, peripheral adaptations, aerobic fitness

Introduction
In sprint canoe-kayak, Olympic individual events are 200-m and 500-m (~38 to ~120 sec)
for women and 200-m and 1000-m (~34 to ~220 sec) for men. Using the accumulated oxygen
deficit method, aerobic contribution in highly-trained to international level canoe-kayak athletes

has been estimated to be ~37%, ~64-78%, and ~85-87% for 200-m, 500-m and 1000-m events1-3.
In 500-m and 1000-m events, athletes are performing at 119% and 102% of VO2max2, and
therefore VO2max, maximal aerobic power and lactate threshold are strongly related to
performance4-6.
Shorter events (200-m) were added to the Olympic program more recently and few studies
have investigated the key physiological indicators for such event. In national level kayakers
specialized in 200-m races7, VO2max (4.45 L/min) was lower compared to the values reported
elsewhere for 500-m and 1000-m specialists (4.7 to 4.8 L/min)5,6. VO2max, maximal aerobic
power and lactate threshold were not related to 200-m performance, but total work performed
during a 30-sec modified Wingate test predicted 200-m performance7. These results highlight the
importance of anaerobic metabolism over aerobic metabolism in shorter canoe-kayak events.
The oncoming of affordable and portable near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) monitors has
increased accessibility to muscle oxygenation measures during exercise8. Only two studies have
investigated muscle oxygenation in canoe-kayak athletes9,10. Junior male athletes displayed a
moderate correlation between maximal O2 extraction in the latissimus dorsi (LD) during an
incremental test on a kayak ergometer and both 200-m and 1000-m performance10. However, the
LD was the only muscle investigated in relation to performance, and no published study has
measured muscle oxygenation during on-water race efforts.

Evidence suggests that muscle O2 extraction might be an important physiological factor for
canoe-kayak performance. Kayak races are performed at supramaximal (> VO2max) intensities2,
which are associated with powerful muscle contractions that can results in intramuscular tensions
that exceed perfusion pressure and limit O2 delivery to working muscles11. Furthermore, kayak
uses mainly smaller muscle mass (upper body and core muscles), and athletes display lower
VO2max compared to rowers or cross-country skiers12. Thus, it is likely that peripheral oxygen
extraction is well developed in these athletes. Investigating the relation between muscle
oxygenation and performance will provide a better understanding of the respective role of central
and peripheral adaptations in short and long canoe-kayak races to improve current practices in
athlete testing and monitoring and talent identification. The objectives of this study were: 1) to
characterize the changes in oxygenation derived from NIRS in three active muscles during a
VO2max test and two on-water time trials (200-m and 500-m or 1000-m) in male and female U23
and Senior athletes, and 2) to examine the relation between muscle oxygenation, VO2max,
maximal cardiac output and performance.
Methods
Subjects
Thirty canoe-kayak athletes participated in this study, of which 19 were kayakers (6
women: WK; 13 men: MK) and 11 were canoeists (6 women: WC; 5 men: MC). Participants were
21 ± 3 years of age (range 18-28 years old) and weighted 74.6 ± 10.9 kg (MK: 79.9 ± 6.9, MC:
78.9 ± 15.1, WK: 68.2 ± 8.8, WC: 66.0 ± 9.2). Eleven of them were members of the Canadian
National Team, seven were members of Canadian Development Team, and twelve were provincial
level athletes. This study was approved by the local ethics committee and was conducted in
accordance to the principles established in the Declaration of Helsinki, with verbal and written
informed consent provided by all participants.
Experimental design
The thirty athletes performed a maximal incremental test on a canoe or kayak ergometer at
the end of their competitive season, for the examination of the relation between peak power output
(PPO) and various physiological variables (cardiac output, VO2max, muscle oxygenation). A
subset of twenty-one participants (8 MK, 4 MC, 4 WK and 5 WC) also performed two time-trials
(TT) on an Olympic basin, for the assessment of the relation between physiological variables and
performance.
Methodology
Maximal incremental test All participants performed a continuous incremental VO2max
testing consisting of six 2-min stages of increasing intensity on a kayak or canoe ergometer
(SpeedStroke Gym, KayakPro, Florida, USA). The ergometer was calibrated before each test,
according to the manufacturer recommendations and tension in the ergometer’s ropes was verified
regularly13. Participants received stroke-by-stroke feedback during the test and were asked to
maintain a constant intensity that would elicit effort perception of 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 10/10 during
stages 1 to 6, respectively. Stroke rate ranges were specified for the first 5 stages for canoe (30-
35; 35-40; 40-45; 45-50; 50-55; 55-60 strokes per minute) and kayak (60-65; 65-75; 75-85; 85-95;
95-105) to help athletes select the right intensity in each stage. Power output (PO) was recorded
on a computer, using the eMonitorPro2 software (KayakPro, Florida, USA). Expired air was
continuously recorded using a breath-by-breath gas analyzer (Vmax Encore metabolic cart,
CareFusion Corp, California, USA). PPO was the average power output developed during the last
2-min stage. Cardiac output (Q) and stroke volume (SV) were evaluated during the test using
thoracic electrical bioimpedance (Physioflow, Manatec Biomedical, France). Arteriovenous O2
difference ((a-v)O2-diff (ml/dl)) was calculated using the following equation: (a-v)O2-diff =
VO2(L/min)/Q(L/min)*100. VO2max, maximal Q (Qmax), maximal SV (SVmax) and maximal

(a-v)O2-diff were defined as the highest values achieved over a 30-sec period during the test.
Maximal respiratory exchange ratio (RERmax) was the average of RER from the 30-sec period
when VO2max occurred. All devices were calibrated according to manufacturer guidelines before
every test.
Time trials A subset of 21 athletes performed TTs over individual Olympic distances (200-
m and 500-m for WK and WC and 200-m and 1000-m for MK and MC). TTs were separated by a
minimum of 2 hours and a maximum of 1 day. All participants performed their habitual pre-race
warm-up before each TT. Performances are presented as % of actual world record (International
Canoe Federation) to allow for comparison between genders and disciplines. Women 500-m TT
and men 1000-m TT data were pooled together for further analysis.
Muscle oxygenation During all tests, NIRS monitors (Moxy monitors, Fortiori Design,
Minnesota, USA) were placed on three active muscles: LD – midpoint between the inferior border
of the scapula and posterior axillar fold10 –, biceps brachii (BB) – middle of the BB muscle belly
(8 to 12 cm above the elbow fold) – and vastus lateralis (VL) – distal part of the VL muscle belly
(10 to 15 cm above the proximal border of the patella)14. NIRS monitors were placed on the
athlete’s dominant side for kayakers, and on the front leg and opposite BB and LD for canoeists,
parallel to the muscle fibre orientation. They were attached and secured with a double-sided
adhesive disk and an adhesive patch, and covered by a dark bandage to reduce the intrusion of
extraneous light. Skinfold thickness at each site was measured using a skinfold caliper (Harpenden
Ltd) to ensure that the skinfold thickness was less than half the distance between the emitter and
the detector (25 mm). The raw muscle O2 saturation (SmO2) and total hemoglobin concentration
([THb]) signals were treated using a smooth spline filter to reduce the noise created by movement.
During exercise, SmO2 represents the balance between O2 delivery to and extraction by the muscle,
while [THb] serves as an indicator of local blood volume15. The deoxyhemoglobin concentration
([HHb]), representing muscle O2 extraction, was computed from SmO2 and [THb] using the
following equation: [HHb] = [THb] – SmO2*[THb]15. Baseline SmO2 and [THb] were computed
as a 2-min average when subjects seated still on the ergometer or on the canoe/kayak before the
beginning of the test. SmO2min was the lowest 5-sec average SmO2 reached during the test,
expressed as % from baseline SmO2. Δ[HHb] and Δ[THb] were also expressed in percent from
baseline values, and represented 5-sec averages taken when SmO2 was at its minimum. Mean
SmO2min was the average SmO2min in the three muscles. Sum Δ[THb] and sum Δ[HHb] were the
sum of Δ[THb] and Δ[HHb] in the three muscles, as surrogates of total change in blood volume
and total O2 extraction in the three assessed muscles.
Statistical analysis
Means and standard variations were calculated for performance and physiological
parameters, and ANOVAs were used to assess differences between groups. Cohen’s effect size
and 90% confidence interval are also reported to better emphasize the magnitude of the difference
between groups, when a significant difference existed. Pearson correlations with 90% confidence
interval between physiological parameters and PPO or TT performance were calculated.
Correlation coefficients of >0.3, >0.5 and >0.7 were considered moderate, large and very large16.
Stepwise multiple-regressions were also performed between physiological parameters, PPO and
TT performance to determine the best possible combination of independent variables to predict
PPO or TT performance.
Results
Table 1 shows the characteristics of the 30 participants included in this study. The power
output measurements are presented for 28 athletes due to technical issues. Due to poor signal
quality on some recordings, data from the Physioflow device are only presented for 14 athletes.
The TT were performed by 21 athletes. Three athletes could not complete the 500 or 1000-m TT
due to poor weather conditions, so data is presented for 18 athletes for these distances. Groups
were homogenous for level of performance in both 200-m and 500-/1000-m TTs.
Table 2 shows muscle oxygenation response to the incremental test and the TTs. Some
NIRS data was lost during TTs for the LD muscle due to excessive movement and poor contact
between the monitor and the skin. Therefore, LD data is presented for 11 athletes for the 200-m
and 12 athletes for the 500-/1000-m TT. SmO2min was lower for the three muscles in kayakers
compared to canoeists (BB: -26%, ES: -0.82 [-1.47, -0.17]; LD: -46%, ES: -1.56 [-2.27, -0.86];
VL: -42%, ES: -0.80 [-1.44, -0.15] and Δ[THb] was higher for BB (350%, ES: 1.45 [0.75, 2.14])
and VL (184%, ES: 1.42 [0.72, 2.11]).
Figure 1 shows SmO2min in the three muscles in subjects who completed all 3 testing
sessions. When canoe and kayak athletes’ data is pooled, BB deoxygenated to a greater extent than
LD in the 200-m TT (-41%, ES: -1.13 [-1.91, -0.35]) and 500-/1000-m TT (-34%, ES: -1.28 [-
2.07, -0.48]) and VL also reached a greater deoxygenation than LD in the 500-/1000-m TT (-24%,
ES: -0.88 [-1.64, -0.12]).
Sum Δ[HHb] and mean SmO2min were strongly related in the 200m TT (R=-0.931 [-0.98,
-0.78], p<0.001) and 500-1000m TT (R=-0.966 [-0.99, -0.89], p<0.001). Table 3 presents
correlations between physiological parameters and performance in the VO2max test and the TTs.
Figure 2 displays correlations between maximal O2 extraction and performance in the TTs. When
canoe and kayak athletes’ data is pooled, 200-m TT performance is related to SmO2min in the VL
(R=-0.571 [-0.8, -0.21], p=0.017), mean SmO2min (R=-0.774 [-0.92, -0.42], p=0.005), and sum
Δ[HHb] (R=0.930 [0.78, 0.98], p<0.001), but not to VO2max (L/min, R=0.369 [0.00, 0.65],
p=0.099). The 500-/1000-m TT performance is related to SmO2min in the VL (R=-0.522 [-0.78, -
0.12], p=0.038), mean SmO2min (R=-0.798 [-0.93, -0.47], p=0.003), sum Δ[HHb] (R=0.859 [0.61,
0.95], p=0.001) and VO2max, expressed in L/min (R=0.474 [0.09, 0.74], p=0.042).
Predicting PPO and performance
The best stepwise multiple-regression equation for predicting PPO was: PPO (W) =
38.06*VO2max (L/min)+5.59*VL Δ[HHb]–48.32. This equation yielded an R2 value of 0.94 and
a standard error of the estimate (SEE) of 10.7 W. This indicates that 94% of PPO variance could
be accounted for by a linear combination of both VO2max and VL Δ[HHb]. The best stepwise
multiple-regression equation for predicting 200-m performance was: 200-m performance (%WR)
= 2.20*sum Δ[HHb]+32.71*mean SmO2min+30.84. This equation yields an R2 value of 0.90 and a
SEE of 2.01%. The best stepwise multiple-regression equation for predicting 500-m or 1000-m
performance was: 500-/1000-m performance (%WR) = 0.92*sum Δ[HHb]+67.00. This equation
yielded an R2 value of 0.71 and a SEE of 2.08%. The addition of any other component to the
equation did not increase significantly the prediction power.
Discussion
We assessed muscle oxygenation parameters during an incremental kayak ergometer test
and 200-m and 500- or 1000-m on-water TTs in highly-trained sprint canoe-kayak athletes, and
examined the relation between muscle oxygenation, VO2max, Qmax, PPO and TT performance.
This study was the first to relate muscle oxygenation variables measured during on-water time
trials via portable NIRS to performance in canoe-kayak athletes. Results indicate that: 1) a high
VO2max (L/min), but also a good capacity to extract O2, especially in LD and VL muscles, are
independently related to the ability to generate a high power output during a 12-min maximal
incremental test on a canoe or kayak ergometer; 2) maximal O2 extraction in the three investigated
muscles is the best predictor of both 200-m and 500-/1000-m performance in sprint canoe-kayak.
Taken together, these findings suggest that maximal O2 extraction is independent from and a better
predicator of performance than VO2max in sprint canoe-kayak.
In this study we compared the oxygenation response in three active muscles during two on-
water TTs and an ergometer incremental test. BB and VL deoxygenated to the same extent (39%
from baseline) in all three tests, but LD reached lower SmO2 levels during the incremental test
compared to the two TT. It could suggest a higher LD recruitment during ergometer paddling
compared to on-water paddling, but a previous EMG study rather reported lower LD activation
during ergometer paddling compared to on-water paddling17, complicating the interpretation of
this finding. There was no difference in SmO2min or Δ[HHb] between 200-m TT and 500-/1000-m
TT, suggesting that maximal deoxygenation is similar between maximal efforts of ~40 sec to
~4min40 in duration, at least for this level of athletes. This observation of near-maximal muscle
deoxygenation in both efforts is supported by studies showing that a 30-sec maximal effort elicits
deoxygenation of >80% of arterial occlusion maximal deoxygenation18,19.
Physiological predictors of PPO
There was a very large correlation between maximal BB extraction and canoe performance,
and between maximal LD extraction and kayak performance. LD muscle is highly active during
the draw phase of the kayak stroke, hence contributing to the propulsion of the boat17. Therefore,
an increase in LD activation, which is likely to produce an increase in O2 extraction, is expected
to improve performance in kayak. Few studies have assessed EMG activity in canoe paddling. One
study comparing 2 national level canoeists found a greater BB activation during propulsive phase
for the canoeist qualified as having a more effective technique20. A greater arc from deepest blade
position to exit characterized this more effective technique. Thus, a greater BB activation might
be associated with a more effective technique in canoe, rendering a better performance.
Correlations and stepwise multiple-regression analysis suggested that 94% of PPO during
an ergometer test could be accounted for by a linear combination of both VO2max and VL Δ[HHb].
PPO is typically determined by aerobic fitness (VO2max), anaerobic fitness and energy cost of
paddling (or efficiency)21. Unpublished data from our group suggest a moderate correlation
between maximal lactate production and maximal deoxygenation during a 4 min all-out effort on
a kayak ergometer in a group of 8 elite kayakers, implying that an increased solicitation of the
anaerobic system is associated with greater muscle deoxygenation, potentially through decreased
pH and the Bohr effect22. The 6% of unexplained variance could be due to variations in mechanical
efficiency, and one may speculate that this unexplained variance would have been greater if the
test was performed on water compared to on an ergometer. The strong correlation between VL
maximal O2 extraction and PPO might be surprizing in upper-body dominant sports such as canoe
and kayak, however, these results reinforce the conclusions from other studies demonstrating an
increased kayaking speed with greater contribution from leg-muscle contractions23. We could
speculate that this ability to extract O2 in the VL is of even greater importance considering the
isometric contraction (canoe) and the seated position (kayak) potentially reducing the O2 delivery
in the lower body muscles. However, such findings will have to be robustly examined with specific
training of the lower limbs in canoe-kayak athletes to ascertain the level of strength training
required by these muscles compared to the upper-body musculature.
VO2max in our study was similar to VO2max reported for elite senior kayakers or canoeists
elsewere5,6,21,24, and higher than VO2max values reported for elite or sub-elite junior athletes2,10.
SmO2 values were also lower than the tissue saturation index (TSI) reported for kayakers in the
flexor carpi radialis9 and in the LD10 during an incremental test to exhaustion using a Portamon
NIRS device. Some unpublished data from our lab comparing Portamon and Moxy NIRS monitors
suggest that the SmO2 values derived from the Moxy monitor are generally lower compared to the
Portamon TSI, which could explain these differences. We were able to measure Qmax, SVmax
and maximal (a-v)O2-diff in a subset of 14 athletes. To our knowledge, no published study
examined the Qmax of kayakers or canoeists. Qmax and SVmax for male athletes were lower
compared to values measured by Physioflow among male triathletes of similar VO2max tested on
a cycling ergometer25,26, but maximal (a-v)O2 diff was higher than that reported for triathletes
(13.9-14.9 ml/dl)25. The lower Qmax of kayakers compared to triathletes is not surprising, as for
the same relative intensity, upper body exercise elicits lower VO2 and Q compared to lower body
or full body exercises27. Increase in Qmax is generally the most important factor contributing to
increase in VO2max in endurance athletes28. However in the present study, while there was a
moderate to large relation between Qmax/SVmax and VO2max/PPO, we observed very large
correlations between (a-v)O2-diff and VO2max/PPO. Studies have shown that power output at
VO2max of kayakers is only 57% of the power output produced by cyclists at VO2max, suggesting
a smaller muscle mass involved in kayaking compared to cycling24, and it is recognized that Qmax
is not the dominant factor limiting VO2max in exercise with an isolated muscle group28. We can
therefore hypothesize that the reduced active muscle mass in canoe and kayak makes the role of
Qmax less important for performance. Collectively, these results suggest that peripheral
adaptations may have a relatively large influence on the development of VO2max and PPO in
canoe-kayak.
Physiological predictors of TT performance

We used stepwise multiple regression analysis to examine the physiological determinants
of 200-m and 500-/1000-m TT performance in kayakers and canoeists. Muscle oxygenation
parameters could predict both 200-m and 500-/100-m performance with a SEE of 2%. For
comparison purposes, the average coefficient of variation of race time between heats, semis and
finals of the top 8 athletes in all individual sprint canoe and kayak events in Rio Olympic Games
was 1.2%, and the average difference between a 4th and a 1st place finish was 1.5%. Stepwise
regression analysis indicated that both Δ[HHb] and SmO2min can independently help predict 200-
m performance, while only Δ[HHb] can predict 500-/1000-m performance. Δ[HHb] represents
muscle O2 extraction, while SmO2min represents the balance between muscle O2 delivery and
extraction15. Thus, in the 500-/1000-m event, a good O2 extraction ability appears to be of primary
importance. In 200m event, Δ[HHb] and SmO2min are independently related to performance, which
suggests that the best athletes over this distance extract more O2, but also have lower O2 delivery
to their active muscles compared to slower athletes. This is supported by the large negative
correlation between VL Δ[HHb] and 200m performance in canoe athletes (Table 3). Stronger
muscle contractions in faster athletes, probably compressing the blood vessels to a greater extent,
might be responsible for this decrease in O2 delivery. Only one previous study examined the
relation between 200-m and 1000-m performance and muscle oxygenation parameters, but these
parameters were measured during an incremental test on an ergometer, in junior kayakers10.
Authors also found a large correlation between LD O2 extraction and 200-/1000-m kayak
performance. Multiple-regression analysis further revealed 88% of 200-m TT performance was
explained by VO2max, Δ[HHb] and maximal aerobic power, while 85% of 1000-m TT
performance was explained by VO2max and Δ[HHb]. In our study, correlations between Δ[HHb],
SmO2min and performance were much stronger than in Borges et al. study, probably because
oxygenation parameters were measured during the on-water TT in our study. In our study, adding
VO2max to the multiple regression model did not increase the performance prediction power in
any event. There was still a moderate correlation between VO2max, expressed in L/min and 500-
/100-m TT performance. Other studies also found a stronger correlation between VO2max and
500-m or 1000-m kayak performance, when expressed in L/min rather than relative units,
suggesting an advantage of large body sizes in kayak4,5,12.
This study was the first to assess differences in muscle oxygenation between kayakers and
canoeists. Δ[HHb] was higher and SmO2min lower in all muscles in kayakers compared to canoeists
during the incremental test. As SmO2 response is associated with muscle EMG29 (a surrogate for
muscle recruitment), these differences suggest a greater recruitment of the investigated muscles in
kayakers compared to canoeists. Δ[THb] was lower in BB and VL in canoeists compared to
kayakers, suggesting a decrease in muscle blood volume in the front leg and in the lower arm in
canoe, but there was no difference in Qmax. One may speculate that the kneeling position in canoe
solicits more muscle mass, competing for the same Q, and therefore receiving a smaller increase
in blood flow compared to seated kayakers. While kayakers’ TT performance correlated with LD
and VL Δ[HHb] and SmO2min, BB Δ[HHb] and SmO2min was related to performance in canoeists,
also suggesting differences in muscle recruitment between kayakers and canoeists.

Limitations
Muscle oxygenation trends were assessed with the Moxy monitor from Fortiori Design.
While the Moxy-derived SmO2 has been shown to be sensible to running and cycling intensity30,31
and have a similar reliability compared to more traditional NIRS devices31, it still has not been
properly validated. Therefore, the peripheral disturbances reported in the current study during on-
water events will have to be ascertained. The current study is a correlational study describing the
physiological characteristics of successful sprint canoe-kayak athletes and, therefore, causal
relationships between oxygenation parameters and performance should be further examined with
experimental training studies. Arterial oxygen saturation was not measured in this study and
changes in muscle O2 saturation could have been influenced by exercise-induced arterial
hypoxemia32, although unlikely given the relatively low VO2max and cardiac output measured in
this study.
Practical applications and perspectives
Our study highlights the interest of muscle oxygenation measures as an assessment tool
during testing or racing in canoe-kayak athletes to get a better understanding of their physiology,
and for talent identification purposes. Future studies should look at the changes in muscle
oxygenation parameters through a year of training and an Olympic cycle to better understand the
dynamic relationship between these parameters and performance, and to assess their usefulness
for monitoring training adaptations. If, as suggested here, muscle capacity to extract O2 strongly
influences performance, while being independent of VO2max per se, then a more specific training
stimulus should be applied to target this peripheral component. Repeated sprint training and sprint
interval training are typically associated with greater peripheral over central adaptations33, and
sprint interval training has been shown to elicit large levels of deoxygenation34, potentially
conductive of peripheral adaptations. Thus, supramaximal intensities appear to be necessary to
target peripheral adaptations, but more studies are necessary to understand the proper training
stimulus to optimize muscle O2 extraction in sprint canoe-kayak.
Conclusion
While VO2max is often considered a major performance factor in longer distance canoe-
kayak events, current results suggest that peripheral adaptations (as assessed via NIRS-derived
changes in oxygenation) may be stronger predictors of canoe-kayak performance in both short and
long events. Differences in muscle oxygenation suggest different muscle recruitment between
canoe and kayak and between ergometer and on-water paddling. Monitoring of biceps brachii and
vastus lateralis oxygenation, or latissimus dorsi and vastus lateralis oxygenation may be more
relevant than monitoring VO2max in canoe and kayak athletes, respectively.
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank all coaches and athletes involved in the present study.
Conflicts of interest
The authors have to conflicts of interest to state.

References
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Figure 1: SmO2min of the three exercising muscles during the on-water time trials and the
ergometer incremental test
* statistically different (p<0.05) from incremental test: in kayakers, LD SmO2min was lower in TT1
and TT2 compared to Inc (TT1: -54%, ES: -1.83 [-2.86, -0.81], TT2: -55%, ES: -2.17 [-3.26, -
1.09]) and in canoeists, BB SmO2min was lower in TT1 compared to Inc (-40%, ES: 1.22 [0.28,
2.17]); black values represent individual athletes, grey bars represent mean for all kayak or canoe
athletes; Inc = incremental test, TT1 = 200-m TT, TT2 = 500-/1000-m TT
Figure 2: Correlations between maximal oxygen extraction and performance in the 200- and 500-
/1000-m time-trials
Solid lines represent correlations including both canoe and kayak athletes.
Table 1. Characteristics of the study participants (n = 30)
Variable All (n = 30) MC (n = 5) MK (n =13) WC (n = 6) WK (n = 6)

Age (years) 21 ± 3 19 ± 2 21 ± 4 20 ± 2 22 ± 3
Weight (kg) 74.6 ± 10.9 78.9 ± 15.1 79.9 ± 6.9 65.6 ± 9.3γ 68.2 ± 8.8γ
VO2max (L/min) 3.8 ± 0.9 4.1 ± 0.7 4.5 ± 0.5 2.7 ± 0.5 β,γ 3.2 ± 0.4γ
VO2max (ml/kg/min) 50.9 ± 7.7 52.1 ± 2.4 56.4 ± 3.6 41.1 ± 5.0 β,γ 47.6 ± 8.4γ
RER 1.10 ± 0.07 1.07 ± 0.03 1.13 ± 0.05 1.06 ± 0.06 1.09 ± 0.10
130 ± 42 117 ± 21 160 ± 28β 73 ± 17γ 96 ± 6γ

PPO (W)
(n = 28) (n = 4) (n = 13) (n = 6) (n = 5)
1.7 ± 0.4 1.6 ± 0.1 2.0 ± 0.2β 1.2 ± 0.2γ,β 1.3 ± 0.1γ
PPO (W/kg)
(n = 28) (n = 4) (n = 13) (n = 6) (n = 5)
119 ± 17 128 ± 21 129 ± 16 108 ± 13 114 ± 17
SVmax (ml/beat)
(n = 14) (n = 2) (n = 4) (n = 4) (n = 4)
24.8 ± 3.16 23.3 ± 2.1 23.9 ± 3.2 20.3 ± 1.9 21.3 ± 4.1
Qmax (L/min)
(n = 14) (n = 2) (n = 4) (n = 4) (n = 4)
Max (a-v)O2-diff 16.2 ± 3.1 16.8 ± 0.1 19.2 ± 1.9 14.3 ± 2.1 14.8 ± 3.8
(ml/dl) (n = 14) (n = 2) (n = 4) (n = 4) (n = 4)
Max heart rate (bpm) 189 ± 7 187 ± 12 188 ± 5 189 ± 7 190 ± 11
46.8 ± 6.2 47.6 ± 2.0 40.4 ± 2.3 β 55.1 ± 2.9 β, γ 48.3 ± 1.6 γ, ρ
200-m TT (sec)
(n = 21) (n = 4) (n = 8) (n = 5) (n = 4)
78 ± 7 73 ± 5 81 ± 6 81 ± 6 73 ± 4
200-m TT (%WR)
(n = 21) (n = 4) (n = 8) (n = 5) (n = 4)
4:38.4 ± 4:07.2 ± 2:36.0 ± 2:13.2 ±
500-/1000-m TT
- 0:11.4 0:10.2 β 0:07.2 0:06.0 ρ
(mm:ss.0)
(n = 4) (n = 6) (n = 4) (n = 4)
500-/1000-m TT 77 ± 5 76 ± 5 78 ± 5 77 ± 5 75 ± 6
(%WR) (n = 18) (n = 4) (n = 6) (n = 4) (n = 4)
β different from MC, γ different from MK, ρ different from WC, %WR percentage of world record
Table 2. Muscle oxygenation response to the effort tests in canoeists and kayakers
Canoe Kayak
Variable Inc TT1 TT2 Inc TT1 TT2
n = 11 n=9 n=8 n = 19 n = 12 n = 10
SmO2min BB 47 ± 15 30 ± 17β 42 ± 16γ 36 ± 12* 35 ± 14 40 ± 14
(% of LD 48 ± 18 58 ± 28 68 ± 14 26 ± 10* 54 ± 24 55 ± 20
baseline) VL 43 ± 23 52 ± 17 51 ± 18 25 ± 24* 46 ± 26 43 ± 14
0.1 ± 0.2β 0.3 ± 0.1*

BB 0.2 ± 0.1γ 0.1 ± 0.1 γβ 0.2 ± 0.2 0.1 ± 0.2
Δ[THb]
(AU) LD 0.0 ± 0.1β -0.1 ± 0.2 -0.3 ± 0.5 0.0 ± 0.2β 0.1 ± 0.4 0.2 ± 0.5*
VL -0.1 ± 0.2 0.1 ± 0.2 0.1 ± 0.3 0.1 ± 0.1* 0.2 ± 0.2 0.1 ± 0.1
BB 5.2 ± 1.8 6.1 ± 1.6γ β 4.9 ± 1.6γ 6.1 ± 1.4 5.5 ± 1.1 5.1 ± 1.2
Δ[HHb]
LD 4.7 ± 1.7 3.5 ± 2.1 2.6 ± 1.2 6.3 ± 1.0* 4.3 ± 2.7 4.1 ± 1.8
(AU)
VL 4.6 ± 2.4 4.2 ± 1.7 4.4 ± 1.8 6.6 ± 2.3* 5.1 ± 3 5.2 ± 1.6
Inc = incremental test, TT1 = 200-m, TT2 = 500-/1000-m, AU: arbitrary units, * different from canoe (p<0.05), γ
different from LD (p<0.05), β different from VL (p<0.05). Data is presented for 30 athletes in the incremental test, 21
athletes in the TT1 and 18 athletes in the TT2
Table 3. Correlations between power output, VO2max, TT performance and physiological

parameters
VO2max Canoe Kayak

PPO (W)
Variable (L/min) TT1 TT2 TT1 TT2
(n = 28)
(n = 30) (n = 9) (n = 8) (n = 12) (n = 10)
-0.331 -0.248 -0.544 -0.824 0.02 0.344
BB [-0.59, -0.02] [-0.52, 0.06] [-0.86, 0.06] [-0.96, -0.41] [-0.48, 0.51] [-0.26, 0.75]
-0.536** -0.352 -0.100 -0.073 -0.800* -0.249

SmO2min LD [-0.73, -0.26] [-0.59, -0.05] [-0.85, 0.79] [-0.77, 0.70] [-0.95, -0.35] [-0.84, 0.60]
(% of -0.471* -0.123 -0.301 -0.518 -0.706* -0.568
baseline) VL [-0.69, -0.18] [-0.41, 0.19] [-0.78, 0.40] [-0.88, 0.24] [-0.91, -0.20] [-0.87, 0.03]
-0.578** -0.292 -0.835 -0.797 -0.775* -0.797
Mean [-0.76, -0.32] [-0.55, 0.02] [-0.99, 0.42] [-0.98, 0.07] [-0.95, -0.21] [-0.97, -0.14]
0.576* 0.454* -0.349 0.733 -0.112 -0.077
BB [0.32, 0.76] [0.17, 0.67] [-0.78, 0.30] [0.11, 0.94] [-0.58, 0.41] [-0.60, 0.50]
-0.017 0.088 0.661 -0.100 0.583 0.534
Δ[THb] LD [-0.33, 0.30] [-0.22, 0.38] [-0.35, 0.96] [-0.78, 0.69] [-0.15, 0.90] [-0.34, 0.91]
(AU) VL
0.632** 0.519** -0.900* -0.054 0.464 -0.399
[0.39, 0.79] [0.25, 0.71] [-0.98, -0.63] [-0.70, 0.65] [-0.17, 0.83] [-0.8, 0.24]
0.612** 0.543** 0.030 -0.012 0.571 0.501
Sum [0.36, 0.78] [0.28, 0.73] [-0.92, 0.93] [-0.93, 0.93] [-0.29, 0.92] [-0.38, 0.91]
0.351 0.255 0.563 0.862** 0.163 -0.394
BB [0.04, 0.60] [-0.06, 0.52] [-0.03, 0.86] [0.51, 0.97] [-0.37, 0.61] [-0.78, 0.20]
0.541 0.329 0.164 0.251 0.869* 0.335
Δ[HHb] LD [0.27, 0.73] [0.02, 0.58] [-0.76, 0.87] [-0.60, 0.84] [0.47, 0.97] [-0.54, 0.86]
(AU) VL
0.574 0.238 0.267 0.510 0.775* 0.544
[0.31, 0.75] [-0.07, 0.51] [-0.43, 0.77] [-0.25, 0.88] [0.35, 0.94] [-0.06, 0.86]
0.603 0.328 0.913 0.887* 0.936** 0.850*
Sum [0.35, 0.77] [0.02, 0.58] [-0.10, 1.00] [0.24, 0.99] [0.64, 0.99] [0.30, 0.98]
0.922** 1.000** -0.074 0.382 0.755** 0.603
VO2max (L/min) [0.85, 0.96] [-0.63, 0.54] [-0.32, 0.81] [0.41, 0.91] [0.08, 0.87]
VO2max 0.769** 0.805** -0.257 0.144 0.530 0.495
(ml/kg/min) [0.60, 0.87] [0.66, 0.89] [-0.73, 0.39] [-0.53, 0.71] [0.04, 0.81] [-0.08, 0.82]
0.534** 0.620* -0.109 -0.702 -0.150 0.404
SVmax (ml/beat) [0.10, 0.80] [0.23, 0.84] [-0.94, 0.91] [-0.99, 0.65] [-0.80, 0.66] [-0.48, 0.88]
0.385 0.516 -0.421 -0.840 -0.254 0.450
Qmax (L/min) [-0.09, 0.72] [0.07, 0.79] [-0.97, 0.83] [-0.99, 0.40] [-0.84, 0.60] [-0.43, 0.89]
max (a-v)O2-diff 0.762** 0.782** -0.232 0.411 0.864 0.557
(ml/dl) [0.47, 0.90] [0.5, 0.91] [-0.95, 0.89] [-0.84, 0.97] [0.34, 0.98] [-0.31, 0.92]
Values are Pearson correlation coefficient with 90% confidence limits * p<0.05, ** p < 0.01, AU: arbitrary units,
number of participants included in the analysis are shown for every column. Due to missing data, n is lower for
SVmax, Qmax and max(a-v)O2-diff and stated here: n = 14 for columns 1 and 2, n = 4 for columns 3 and 4 and n = 6
for columns 5 and 6.
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Muscle Oxygenation Rather Than VO 2 max is a Strong Predictor of Performance

Article in International journal of sports physiology and performance · May 2018

Myriam Paquette François Bieuzen

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Section: Original Investigation

Authors: Myriam Paquette1,2, François Bieuzen1,2, François Billaut1,2

Affiliations: 1Université Laval, Département de kinésiologie, Québec (Québec), Canada.

Journal: International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

Acceptance Date: April 25, 2018

©2018 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Muscle oxygenation rather than VO2max is a strong predictor of performance in sprint

Submission type: Original investigation

Authors: Myriam Paquette1,2, François Bieuzen1,2, François Billaut1,2

Preferred running head: Muscle oxygenation in sprint canoe-kayak

concentration ([HHb]). The minimum O2 oxygenation (SmO2min) and maximal O2 (Δ[HHb])

predictor of performance than VO2max in sprint canoe-kayak. Conclusions: These results

Keywords: oxygen saturation, peripheral adaptations, aerobic fitness

deficit method, aerobic contribution in highly-trained to international level canoe-kayak athletes

importance of anaerobic metabolism over aerobic metabolism in shorter canoe-kayak events.

investigated muscle oxygenation in canoe-kayak athletes9,10. Junior male athletes displayed a

measured muscle oxygenation during on-water race efforts.

maximal cardiac output and performance.

Thirty canoe-kayak athletes participated in this study, of which 19 were kayakers (6

informed consent provided by all participants.

Maximal incremental test All participants performed a continuous incremental VO2max

thoracic electrical bioimpedance (Physioflow, Manatec Biomedical, France). Arteriovenous O2

VO2(L/min)/Q(L/min)*100. VO2max, maximal Q (Qmax), maximal SV (SVmax) and maximal

and total O2 extraction in the three assessed muscles.

interval between physiological parameters and PPO or TT performance were calculated.

TT performance to determine the best possible combination of independent variables to predict

and VL (184%, ES: 1.42 [0.72, 2.11]).

ES: -0.88 [-1.64, -0.12]).

p=0.099). The 500-/1000-m TT performance is related to SmO2min in the VL (R=-0.522 [-0.78, -

Predicting PPO and performance

38.06*VO2max (L/min)+5.59*VL Δ[HHb]–48.32. This equation yielded an R2 value of 0.94 and

= 2.20*sum Δ[HHb]+32.71*mean SmO2min+30.84. This equation yields an R2 value of 0.90 and a

performance was: 500-/1000-m performance (%WR) = 0.92*sum Δ[HHb]+67.00. This equation

equation did not increase significantly the prediction power.

We assessed muscle oxygenation parameters during an incremental kayak ergometer test

predicator of performance than VO2max in sprint canoe-kayak.

during ergometer paddling compared to on-water paddling17, complicating the interpretation of

deoxygenation of >80% of arterial occlusion maximal deoxygenation18,19.

Physiological predictors of PPO

an increase in LD activation, which is likely to produce an increase in O2 extraction, is expected

be associated with a more effective technique in canoe, rendering a better performance.

required by these muscles compared to the upper-body musculature.

and maximal (a-v)O2-diff in a subset of 14 athletes. To our knowledge, no published study

Physiological predictors of TT performance

We used stepwise multiple regression analysis to examine the physiological determinants

of 200-m and 500-/1000-m TT performance in kayakers and canoeists. Muscle oxygenation

parameters were measured during an incremental test on an ergometer, in junior kayakers10.

performance. Multiple-regression analysis further revealed 88% of 200-m TT performance was

suggesting an advantage of large body sizes in kayak4,5,12.

kayakers compared to canoeists. Δ[THb] was lower in BB and VL in canoeists compared to

also suggesting differences in muscle recruitment between kayakers and canoeists.

physiological characteristics of successful sprint canoe-kayak athletes and, therefore, causal

changes in muscle O2 saturation could have been influenced by exercise-induced arterial

Practical applications and perspectives

conductive of peripheral adaptations. Thus, supramaximal intensities appear to be necessary to

38.06VO2max (L/min)+5.59VL Δ[HHb]–48.32. This equation yielded an R2 value of 0.94 and

= 2.20sum Δ[HHb]+32.71mean SmO2min+30.84. This equation yields an R2 value of 0.90 and a