Mantle Hood The ETHNOMUSICOLOGIST New Edition THE KENT STATE UNIVERSITY PRESSCopyright © 1971 by McGraw, foc, 1952 by The Kent State University Press, Kent, Ohio 14242 All rights reserved Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 82-14528 ISBN 0.87535.280-3 Manufactured in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Hood, Mantle “The ethnomastologst Bibliography: p. 1 Ethnomusicology. 1 Title MLST96.H6G 1082" 7SLTOTZ 52-1489 ISBN 0-87598-25053FOREWO ‘ro ausr of present knowledge, most students come to ethno- musicology because they have heard and become interested in some music that has not been dealt with in the course of their formal studies. A few may have come from other disciplines or from reading the articles ‘on musicology in journals, dictionaries, or encyclopedias of music. From these, they have probably gained the impression that ethnomusicology is a study zu ethnographischen Zwwecken, as Guido Adler put it, that is, of non-European, “exotic” music. In hs article “Ethnomusicology” in the Harvard Dictionary of Music (1968), Mantle Hood states categorically ‘Ethnomusicology is an approach to the study of any music, not only in terms of itself but also in relation to its cultural contest.” He continues, ‘Currently the term has two broad applications: (1) the study of all music outside the European art tradition, including, survivals of earlier formsof that tradition in Europe and elsewhere; (2) the sly of al varieties of asc Found in one lea o resin, ete ethnomicolgy” of Tokyo or Los Angeles te Suntage svold comprise the study in that locality ofall ypes of European reuse the mnie of stnic enclaves, folk, popslar and commercial me tna! hybrid, ees in atber words all music being wsed by the people of « given ae. Obviously, even as Toclites merge in an are, so areas merge i larger ants ntl webave the universally accepted ballvorls, Wester and non: Wester. ‘These in tum merge inthe concept ofthe musi of man as a whole that was inherent in the word “music” 25 applied to the bundle of traditions cultivated sh ect locality, or royion. But is this not precely the logical meaning ofthe vrord“sicology" Linguists is the sty of all the languages of tan, Atrono- wre do nt bint thee eld toa single galaxy, no do biologists, to insets with si lege ifthe study of muses ever to enter ito the increasingly interdsciplinary sade doa, test have the “troly world-wide perspective” Profesor Hood wands for The need for an ethnomesiology ofthe fe at of European music a argeat as for that of any other “high cule,” Ultimately, there would be ne roles for separate stdles, musiology and ethnomuslology: but there would Sill wen distinction betwen te musiclogca ad ethoomscological approaches the ft to the thing nal, She secon to the thing ns cutaral contest == tne of suite dumber of other contents, physical, mathematical, logic, pile sopbical, aesthetic, moral, economic, politcal, eligios “in pubes intavon to ie author ofthe present volume wasto vie actestbook, His angeet was tht conditions do not fsufy such an wndertaing that thee is no general agreement upon the nature ofethnomesiclogy—ypon thescopes metho and ais ofthe study and hence no clear distinction between tnusgsiogy and ethnomostcology, tat ethnomusicologiss are stil pioneer, and Tat ae atl pionering i the indivdeal stent, cater than an organized Solletive or profesion, tht blazes the pats, sets the pace, and creates the Standards He agreed, however, that the long-delayed upsurge of interest in the vrany muss of ankind ealled for broader and more comprehensive guidance ty mach ofthe few snatare wecKers who wil nd thelr own was, partly by inttion, pry by reaon, partly by leasning fom enc othe, a of the major younger men ad women won the course of choosing earers have to consider sot only what comes closest hes indvidl interests and abilities bat ao what ae the conditions andor which they mast prepare themselves fr and purse thet sarcers The Ettnomauicologst is, the, to be regarded primarily asthe stent Finoal_what, cot beginer, be can find ethnomuseologis to be and what, he goes though the training, he himself might be As of the 1970s we stand upon the thresbld af a second epoch tn thestudy of music. The first was dominated by Eric M. von Hornbostel. The learned ‘man approached musics that were not his own as objectively as possible, at his desk, by analysis, transcription into conventional European notation, and compar ative study ofthe field recordings and documentation of athers, though increasingly of his own, asin the case of Bartok, Kunst, Lachmann, and others. The job was strictly nonparticipatory as far as the music studied was concerned. The epoch will go down in history as that of “Comparative Musicology” (cergleichende ‘Musikwissenschaft). The seoond epoch got under way in the 1950s under the leadership of the author of the present volume. The “armchair” study, analysis, ‘manual transcription, and comparative study of the first epoch was intensified by development of electronic musie-weiting in Norway, Sweden, Germany, C: slovakia, Israel, and the United States. But the distinguishing mark of the second ‘epoch isthe learning to make, that is, becoming reasonably participatory in, the music one is studying. We have realized that to the speech knowledge of music— that is, the knowledge sought and expressed in terms of a language—there must be added the music knowledge of music, Where speech knowledge fails, music knowledge can be gained only by the making of it. One does, afterall, expect 4 foreign student of French or Chinese to be reasonably fluent in those languages. Candidates for the degree of doctor of philosophy in musicology are universally expected to be able to sing at least a nineteenth-century Lied in tune and to play with moderateyproficiency at least one concert-type instrument. The ethnonust ccologist of this book is, then, quite another person from the comparative must ccologist of the frst epoch—Béla Rartdk and a few others were probably exceptions. Precept and objectivity have their place in leaming, but there is more than one reason to believe that itis second to example, And in all example, the subjective clement —at least, in the humanities—is as important asthe objective. The example presented here is the author himself. In the final analysis itis he who is “The Ethnomusicologist” par excellence. He is already emulated by a number of prom ising young students. We shall be fortunate to whatever extent they achieve the rare combination of artist, scholar, and teacher that he is,To HAZEL the dancer who will understand how inevitable it always was that we should walk this tail togetherTABLE of CONTENTS PREFACE «iu ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. INTRODUCTION 10 THE NEW EDITION se INTRODUCTION 1 What's in a Name? 2 What's in a Book? 5 Society and its Seale of Values 9 Two Extremes: The United States and the Island of Bali Beatle Music: “Everything about it Affects Everything Else" ter for Area Studies 19 Two Modes of Discourse Field and Laboratory Instrumentation The Long Shot ‘The CChapter One Chapter Two Chapter Three MUSICAL LITERACY 24 Who Does the Hiring? 25 ‘The Long, Bumpy Road to Academia 27 Filling in the Holes 28 “One Either Has Them or Has Them Intemational Musicianship 32 Learning to Hear Learning to Perform: Rhythm Learning to Perform: Pitch Vocal Practice Instrumental Practice Interdiseiplinary Studies 41 Foreign Languages Area Studies Jide to Reading 45 ‘A Perspective on Early Sources The Time Lag A Critical Approach Not” 29 AG TRANSCRIPTION and NOTATION 50 Music Dictation: The Hors of a Dilemma 54 Passing through the Horns The G-S Line The Relative Efficiency of Notation 61 The Chronic Problem of 1893 85 The Hipkins Solution The Seeger Solution The Laban Solution ORGANOLOGY 123 Musical Instruments as a Unique Source of Information Orgunography Techniques of Performance Musical Function Decoration. Socio-Cultural Considerations ‘Symbolic Taxonomy: Orderly Phyla 143 123Symbolic Notation: The Organogram 146 Hardness Scales Instrument Position Performer's Position Instrument Support Ausiliary Symbols Basic Organograms Chapter Four FIELD METHODS and the HUMAN EQUATION 197 Preparation and the Slow Beginning 206 Nine Violations of the Muses Slow and Stoudy The Human Equation 215 Avoiding the Question ‘The Intellectual Iceberg 224 The Speech Mode of Discourse The Notebook and the Tape Recorder The Music Mode of Discourse 230 Musical Literacy The Value Equation 242 Chapter Flee FIELD METHODS and the TECHNICAL EQUATION 247 Recording 249 Equipment Single Mike Multiple Mikes ‘Automatic Record Special Uses Supplies The Log Still Photography 266 The Motion Picture 269 The Narratice, the Documentary, the Documentary-Narrative Editing The Super 8 The Single-System Sound Camera The Zoom Lens The CrewChapter Six Chapter Seven Chapter Eight QUEST for the NORMS of STYLE 284 The Puppet Play in Java and Bali 286 Musical Style 296 ‘The Consensus Makers of Music The Musical Consensus The Segment and the Consensus The Untalkables Scientific Methods SCIENTIFIC METHODS and the LABORATORY 3/3 Description 313 Analysis 320 Tuning System Scale Mode Ensemble Formatives Synthesis 335 Historical Sources 337 Comparison and Criticism 942 ‘The Universe of Music 349 COMMUNICATIONS 352 Speech-Music Modes 352 Human Movement 3: Impact of the Ethnomusicologist 358 Reciprocity 371 stbLiocRapu 377 rie neconpiNcs Inside back coverPREFACE APREFACE was omitted from the original edition with the justification that much of the material presented was, itself, prefatory in a new field like ethnomusicology. Symptoms of rapid ly expanding interest (ca. 1970) were cited: a plethora of different approaches to the study, little standardization in methods, no generally recognized body of accepted theory. Now, more than a decade later, I believe all this has changed. I try to support such a view in the Introduction to the New Edition; landmark develop- ments since 1971 are mentioned, and topics treated in the original text and requiring updating have been expanded. ‘The original publisher spared no cost in producing a truly handsome volume. But the author was persuaded, against his better judgment, that the extensive references entered as foot-notes obviated the need for a bibliography. I believe the addition of a Selective bibliography is a substantial improvement in the new edition. It includes all references mentioned in the text and representative, per- tinent publications that have appeared since 1971. International reviews of the earlier edition and personal letters of thanks have been gratifying. Such scholars as Paul Henry Lange in his essay review for The Musical Quarterly urged all students and practition- ters of Western music to read The Ethnomusicologist. So did Paul Collaer in Belgium and Trevor Jones in Australia, Ivan Vandor in Berlin and a reviewer for a London newspaper. I am especially appreciative of the warm comments received from scholars in communist countries, where foreign curreney problems had to be overcome by “pass-alongs” and gifs. ‘Over the span of nearly thirty years of teaching, my family of col leagues has grown to impressive size. Members of the clan can be found ‘on every continent and in so many different countries that I have never tried to list them, The early generation of once-younger scholars has spawned another—and it still another. Particularly for them this new edi tion has been prepared. olin Jy 4, 1982 MANTLE HOOD ACKNOWLEDCMENTS I want to thank Professor Terry Miller for calling attention to and correcting mistakes in the shape-note version of “Greensleeves” (p. 73) and for his general suggestions for updating the new edition, Tam also in debt to William-John Tudor for his current information about recording and filming equipment. ‘An especial word of appreciation goes to Professor William ‘Anderson and his colleagues, who suggested that the new edition of The Ethnomusicologist lead off the series of books in ethnomusicology plan- ned by the Center for the Study of World Musics, recently established at Kent State University. Incidentally, the Center and its publication series are good examples of the increasing academic support of ethnomusicology mentioned in the Introduction to the New Edition.INTRODUCTION to the NEW EDITION 16 THE original edition I indicated that this book repre- sented one of numerous approaches to training and research in ethnomusicology. At that time, there had not yet developed a generally accepted prescription for such a program; there was no widely recognized discipline but rather a number of differing approaches. This is no longer true. By now, university programs in the United States and in countries in Europe, Africa, Asia, and Latin America have begun. to mature. We may compare their curricula, appraise the publica- tions of their graduates, assess the validity of their pedagogical assumptions. Without needing to point out variations on a theme, let me stato simply that the prescription for training and research. set forth in the following pages has been adopted by nearly allmajor centers of ethnomusicology in the world. On rereading it in fact, 1 find it difficult to remember that some aspects of the recommended train ing were ever questioned. For example, in several places in the earlier edition the essentiality of practical training in the performance of non Western music is stressed. Today, this premise is the foundation of every significant program. Itis astounding to realize that only a decade has gone by since it was necessary to plead such a cause! ‘The core curriculum implicit in the original edition is very similar to those of programs of training found everywhere today. Differences in detail from one to another are a healthy indication that the field is still maturing. But at this writing, I may state with certainty that there is a discipline recognized as “ethnomusicology.” The following chapters pro- vide a clear guide to its requirements, There is other evidence of maturation in the field of ethnomusical ogy. In 1976, the Society for Ethnomusicology named its first Distin- guished Lecturer—-Charles Seeger, who was to make his presentation at the annual meeting held in Philadelphia. Shortly before his address, he said to me, a little mysteriously, that there really was no need for him to give his Distinguished Lecture. He held up a copy of the preliminary program published in connection with the forthcoming meeting of the ational Musicological Society to be held in Berkeley, California (August, 1977). The prestigious IMS, fifteen years before in New York City, had hot included one ethnomusicologist in its program. In 1977, the broad-ranging, interdiseiplinary character of the IMS meeting was un- mistakable evidence that an ethnomusicological point of view had gov- ‘ered the planning sessions of the program committee. August, 1977, was also the time of the Seeger Celebration, honoring his ninetieth year. When he died in 1979, the world of music losta true universalist, a philos- opher of music, a giant in scholarship. In 1980, the Society for Ethnomusicology celebrated its Silver niversary at Indiana University in Bloomington—and mourned the un- timely death of one of its leaders, Alan Merriam. It also elected its first European president, John Blacking, director of the program in ethn« musicology in the Department of Social Anthropology, The Qi University of Belfast. In 1981, the International Folk Music Council held its first meeting in Asia (Seoul, Korea); and after fifty years of existence, the IFMC re- sponded to an international sensitivity by changing its name to the Inter- national Council for Traditional Music (ICTM). It also responded toscholarly interests that originated in a panel (“Music and Archeology") of the IMS meeting in 1977 by forming a Study Group in Archeomusicology, a new field of inquiry that bears watching. In the past decade, greater interest has developed among Western composers, percussionists, and music educators in the limitless resources of music of the non-Western world. Theorists and snustcologists are adapt- ing an ethnomusicological viewpoint to their study of Western music. Many significant publications have appeared since 1971; some of these are given in the Bibliography. One published in 1980 deserves especial comment in the context of discussion intended to show signs of maturity in the field of ethnomusicology. Iam referring to The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie. As a mem ber of the Board of Editors with overall responsibility for entries pertain- ing to ethnomusicology, I can affirm its unique value: there is no other single reference as important to the interest of this field. Approximately 1,500,000 words, the equivalent of about one-and-a-half volumes, are devoted to entries associated with ethnomusicology. Headings appear in the general alphabetical listing, e.g., “AMinalis” (medieval theory), “Affanso, Alvaro” (Renaissance Portuguese court composer), “Alfret- tando” (tempo marking), “Afghanistan.” Music outside the European art tradition is no longer relegated to second-class citizenship. Ethnomusi cology has,come of age. Over the last ten years, the entire spectrum of education has been affected by a succession of economic crises. The bountiful years of a post-war economy are gone. Time magazine (May, 1982) claims that the computer generation, those born after 1965, shall inherit the earth. What place is there for humanists with particular interest in the arts, the ethno- musicologists? My intention is not to juxtapose the world of the scientist and the world of the humanist. On the contrary, the humanist interested in the arts and the scientist of whatever specialized interest are relevant to one an- other's ultimate goal, the richest possible fulfillment of life. More than ever before, the subject matter, the point of view, the broad interest char- acteristic of the ethnomusicologist are a necessary perspective in the face of deepening economic recession. And we ethnomusicologists also need the scientist; ina later section of this Introduction I mention the usage of a special kind of computer essential to research in ethnomusicology. In the earlier edition I predicted that a growing demand for the properly trained ethnomusicologist would not be filled for a long time tocome. In spite of gloomy economic indicators I see no reason to change the forecast. Increasingly, academic administrators are aware of the unique sig- nificance of this field, and new jobs continue to be created for the ethno- musicologist. There has also been a notable tise in the number of post tions filled by ethnomusicologists outside the world of academe, e.g., here in the United States, in departments of Parks and Recreation, in local radio and television stations, in the recording industry, in museums, in the National Endowment for the Arts, in the Library of Congress, in the Smithsonian Institution, In 1980, I joined the University of Maryland Baltimore County to help launch a new graduate program. Within one year, enrollment rose from four to thirty graduate students from the United States and nine foreign countries. The endorsement has come from every quarter, There is unbounded goodwill from colleagues all over the campus and excellent support from both campus and central administration heads. They be lieve, as I do, that our young program is as important as UMBC’s famous Biology Department or its new computer center. They have reaffirmed my belief that colleagues and administrators, legislators and governors are fair targets for educating to the critical need for supporting ethnomusi- cology. At the deginning of our new program, an interviewer from the University newspaper asked me to explain what ethnomusicology is. The answer I gave him is a reflection of my convietions as this new edition goes to press: In southem India itis believed tha the most direct path to Nirvana is susie. Lean attest tothe fact that music isthe most direct path to the hear. In Affica, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania, music is inseparable from dance and poctic literature. Together they are often some kind of theater, dramatic spectacle, or ritual, including the plastic and graphic ars. Usually the arts are created and performed as part of religious worship: animist, cult ofthe ancestors, hero worship, a major form of world religion, or, not infrequently some combination of these Using music asa focal point, although another of the arts might serve tas well, [have discovered that the arts are a kind of camera obscura of society. Like that optical wonder, they reduce the whole of its identity sanctions and values, scred and secular beliefs and customs—to a faithful reflection in miniature, in living colors. To mingle in this world ofthe art, to try to understand it from the viewpoint ofits practitioners, to develop ‘minimal performance skills asthe best made of eommunication—such an‘approach leads to an apprchension of even some of the elusive traits of ‘character. In such endeavors we come to realize that getting to know thy neighbor is no easy matter have referred to far-flung places on the globe. But in essence the same attributes can be found among regional and local divisions of this country, different ethnic groups, different economic levels. Here, too the ants are a kind of camera obseura. Listen tothe songs being sung, under: stand the deeper meaning oftheir words, mark the aceasions for which they fare appropriate. Leam the dances, note the festivities surrounding a wed- ding, death, birth, coming-of-age. In this panoply of the arts ean be found the tre identity of a social group. Sometimes, its deeprgrained cultural expressions may be in conflict at the superficial level with those of other social entities Tam committed tothe idea that an empathic study of the arts ‘can suggest solutions to some conflicts inthe big city, the publi schocl, the arena of intemational polities, Beyond this, of comrse, is the pure pleasure of accomplishment and aesthetic enjoyment that come from the study of music and related arts, which, I cannot dispute, may well he the most direct path to Nirvana (UMBC Review, Winter, 1980) ALI UPDATE The island of Bali in the Republic of Indonesia is used in several places in the text “for the sake of example.” As predicted on page 15, tourism and great commercialization, a decade later, have inundated the island. There has beén an alarming importation of drugs, nudity, sun- worshiping surfers, free-loaders; luxury hotels have sprouted like mush- rooms almost overnight; UNESCO has initiated a project concemed with the effects of tourism on this very special part of the world Tam continually in touch with the Balinese, and there is genuine concer among them. There have been futile efforts to restrict undesi~ able elements to one or two areas of the island. Music, dance, and ritual are served up as commercial fare for the tourist with an unabashed inter- est in making money. Foreigners cannot purchase land in Bali; but too many Balinese are lured by the gleam of gold and subvert the law. The effects of all this on the arts, on religious practices, on dress and customs have been appalling, T also suggested on page 15 that as long as Balinese Hinduism remained intact, there would be one Bali seen by the tourist and another in which the Balinese live. I confess I am far less confident that this assurance has much meaning today. If responsible Balinese leaders andIndonesians of authority from the central government in Jakarta will take a close look at the devastating effects of tourism and foreign investment at Waikiki in Honolulu, Hawaii—if they can bypass the eager entrepreneur and hear the piteous accounts of the Hawaiians themselves—perhaps it will shock them into action. There are numerous Hawaiian islands not yet completely spoiled. But there is only one island of Bali, For centuries, frightening stone monsters have protected Balinese temples and their devotees from evil spirits. Now these shades of evil have assumed the form of the tourist and the foreign investor, forces too powerful for stone monsters to repel At least there is still a Balinese sense of humor about the problem, In the latter part of the 1970s, a one-man traveling show of paintings came to Honolulu. Among them were several rendered, more or less, in tradi tional tempera style, The busy scenes of Balinese people included a few tourists clad in scant bikinis and sunglasses. In the earlier edition I also used the Beatles for the sake of ex- ample. By now, of course, they have long since disbanded. But the com: parison remains valid and may be extended in kind to current groups and developments representative of the tastes of youth. ‘Other updates of this kind found in the text really require no further comment. ‘THE MeLocnsrit Beginning on page 95 and continuing in various places is a descrip- tion of the Seeger Melograph Model C and illustrations of its many poten- tials. The unique significance of this laboratory tool was the subject of a special edition of Selected Reports (Vol. II, No. 1, 1974). By the time 1 retired from UCLA (June, 1974), the Melograph was in urgent need of costly maintenance. Although theze were solemn promises that this would be corrected, it was not. To the best of my knowledge, Model C has not been operative for a good many years. Here at UMBC we expect to unveil its successor, Seeger Melo- graph Poly D, about the time this new edition comes off the press. All attributes of Model C, described in the first edition, are even better re- alized on the new Poly D. In addition, as its name suggests, the new instrument can also accommodate up to five different musical lines sirmul- taneouslyThe new laboratory tool, like its predecessor, will be made avatl able for world-wide users as soon as there has been sufficient testing and development of appropriate analytical and comparative programs. I want to reaffirm my conviction that any truly significant research requiring descriptive, analytical, comparative, and/or synthetic method applied to music requires this order of laboratory instrumentation. Several times in the earlier edition there was mention of the Insti- tute of Ethnomusicology at UCLA. The variety of research projects, sem: inars, and field work discussed were all part of the program of the Inst tute. Among other promises made at the time of my retirement from UCLA was assurance that the Institute not only would be continued but even strengthened. A few months later, it was wiped out. The training-research program described in this new edition con- tinues to be the mode! guiding our program today here at UMBC. The twenty years at UCLA and those following I have come to regard asa rich preparation for the center we are building here in Baltimore. oncaNocRAMs vis generally agreed that as a class musicians tend to be conserva- tive and reluctant to accept change. The concept of the organogram was introduced in Chapter 3 (Organology) in the hope that it might discourage further attempts to create systems of instrumental classification based on aan arbitrary designation of orderly phyla. But attempts continue, as re- cently as 1981 (see Bibliography, Sakurai, Tetsuo). Be that as it may, the organogram has had a large acceptance by ethnomusicologists and, a surprise to me, by intemational percussionists as well, The Republic of Indonesia has made the organogram an official notation in its conservatories and academies (another surprise!). Perhaps, ‘one day, organogram notation may yet achieve its ultimate potential: an international mode of instrumental notation, which can be computer- stored for quick retrieval in comparative studies, ELECTRONOPHONE I have expanded the system to inchide the fifth category mentioned in the first edition, namely “electronophone.” The tes some kind of electronic means of generating and/or modify ing sound intended for musical usage. It may be applied to: 1) eurly individual instruments that began to be developed in the 1920s (e.g., the term derINTRODUCTION % of @ preface to this hook is deceptive, since much of the material discusted in this and subsequent chapters might be considered prefatory in the rapidly developing feld known as ethnomusicology—a field that has almost as many approaches and ob- jectives es there are practitioners but has as yet no standard nomencla- ture, no generally recognized theories and certainly no theory of theories ‘There seems to be something about the term itself—“ethnomusicology”— that both repels and attracts. Some African and Asian scholars avoid the word entirely; others in the same parts of the world call themselves cethnomusicologists in the pursuit of studying their indigenous music, 1 know a young Japanese ethnomusicologist who is specializing in the music of India and a young German scholar who is concentrating on the traditions of Mexico, American ethnomusicologists seem to be involvedvith areas all over the globe, as well as with the music of the Amerindians [Anglo-American folk song, Negro spiritual, and even, to a limited extent, with the neglected field of American jazz. Cultural background, nationality, and “race” offer no particular clue to the identity of the ethnomusicologist snot too satisfied with accurate designation ‘The inventor of the term, Jaap Kunst, himself, bis coinage but defended it on the grounds that it was a mo: than “comparative musicology,” translation .of the German vergleichende Musikwissenschaft. Comparative method, he reasoned, like historical, descriptive, analytical, critical, and synthetic methods, may be applied to all branches of scientific inquiry. For a time some broudly oriented Western scholars were hopeful that the prefix would eventually he dropped in the conviction that musicology ‘ought to include the study of all kinds of music, everywhere, For a scholar like Frank Harrison, however, such breadth of inclusion carries implications of a new approach “The traditional enterprises of musicology can no Tonger be pursued in vacun For thelr ultimate meaning and valve rest on their contribution to restoring filent musi tothe state of being once mere a medium of human communication. Recreation fa any full sense cannot be divorced from the original function of fhe gnusc, any more than a musical work from another society can be fully ‘understood apart from its social context. Looked at in this way, itis the function of all musicology to be im fac cethnomusicology, that i to take its range of researc to Inckude material that fs termed “sociological.” This view would stil assume the basic importance of tnalyteal and stylistic studies, but would look further than bas been customary fn investigating the various aspects of music as an expression of an individual in hie social context? In time, this approach will be recognized as essential to the study of all while, the label “ethnomusicology” has focused attention on the fact that the requirements of this approach go beyond the usual practice of either musicology or ethnology. This tag, whatever Sensitive arguments might be raised. ‘agains it, has had the positive effect of establishing the identity of a unique field of inquiry, so that today, at least in the United States, itis widely known and accepted (though not necessarily understood) by scholarly societies of other disci- plines, the American Council of Learned Societies, university and college admin susie, Mes “rank Ll, Hacrson, “American Musicology and the European Tradition,” i Frank 1 Harton, Mantle Hood, uid Clade V- False, Mascoloy, pp. 79-80 ©) 1980 by the Trees of Pnctton Univesity, Reprinted by persia of Prentice Hal Ine, Englewood Cis, NJ. 2istrators, American foundations, and vatious branches ofthe federal governrieh dee aging the key continatin of pedantie arguments over termino}O the prefs “ethno” will probably adhere tote rot “music” and its sux “ology” for some long time to come? “arnold that requires the broadest posible interdiseiplinary approach, 41 is not surprising that there aze et to be developed a set of standard theoris and practices anda corresponding abstract nomenclature that can bs ‘understood Sadappled by representatives ofthe diferent dseplines.Profesiont membership ae scolgy inmade up of scholars of the most divers types of backeround toning and experience Tam ut erring oth individual whose principal lai to professionalism is « agra tape recorder and casual forays into vanes BOT xe pre word as a“callector” Noram Tincading the person whose singular dive eine ont Mitation with the Indian sitar. The casual collector may collect ws ething of valve; and serfous romance with an Taian star i Ukely to be tary fait jn one way oF another, But there is more to ethnomsicology than the postesion ofa profesional tape recorder or « pasion for indian muse Importaat as they are, neither the colletion of mie nor the performance of iter se makes the practitioner any kind of “ologit” I have even met one ot ‘wo individuals who call the saunpling of commercial recordings. Who is an ethnomusicologist? Are musicology and anthropology the qualifying diseipines for merabership io this rapidly inereasing tbe that apps a be self generating through no recognized kinship system? Yeap Kanst took hit degree in la, Erich M. von Horbostel was elie in pychology. and be was assisted by the physician Otto Abraham, whos chief Te cremee ia the physiology of music. George Herzog’s tning included linguini and folklore. fn the recent historical past of this elatyely YO field, aeace of te principal ploneets have been trained in art history physics, acon, sieheotogy, biology, and so fort. I is tr, however, that when compared with aac a ers of their respective discipline, these professionals are highly @ eptional in their devotion to Ue subject of ruse Tn fac, the generative free that has produced this polyglot tribe és musi Ge point is clear: The subject of stady in the Bld of ethnonsicalogy ismusie. Bwontally different but interdependent approaches to the subject might vet include related stles in history, ethnography, folklore, Wterature, dances ‘eligion, theater, archeology etymology iconography, and othe Belds concerned elves ethnomusicologiss because they own a fair vei cettural expressions, {n addition to purely musical information, various specently there have aio developed sich spaclized branches of stay a thnobotny cahnbiology, etalingsies, and others 3objectioes toward which the study leads might encompas a better understan Oftwo or tore societies or individual or groups within a society as to behavior fnyehology perteption syst of vals; artic, aesthetic and. philosophical Rundards ano forth, And potentially there aze a great numberof possible cppticeion of acknowledge gained about the subject hat might involve national ternational reatons, economics, communications lor relations propaganda, protest, censorship, and many tnswpected areas of intrest to the socal and politea stents, Pausible approaches t, objectives in, and applications of such $udy ze vistaly unlimited. Bat the primary subject of study in ethnonnsicology ‘Currently, nsttations of higher learn, especially inthe United States France, Germany, ndsome non European countries sich as el, Ghana, Nigeria, Japan, the Philippines nd Chile are tring ther attention tothe development Of taining prograns in ethnomascclogy. The majority of these programs are eatered in departnents or schools of musi; few are located in departments anthropology or in area study research centers. Kelly, such progra include ‘lowe cooperation vith related diplins in the humanities and social sciences ss well as centers for area studies, Instttional responsibilty for ths kind of Craluing apd research and the concomitant concern for jb placement represent a charp break withthe recent past. Formerly, ting, research, and ultimate Frofestonal employment were entirely the indieidua esponsibility of the dovoted holon, whatever dseplinry path he chowe to follow. The sie qua non of Socal sues ethnomusicology—throogh txning in musc—vas usually suited outside is eaderic preparation, And linately his pemary profesional enployment often had ite or nothing to do with is principal interes, ethno- imusicology “Today the demand in colleges and universities in the United Stats for wetltrained etiomusiologis fr encceds the sply. And it appears ikely that the shortage wil become even more cried. A good program of traning leading to the PRD. bs necesarly long existing programs cannot hope to supply compe- tent graduates atthe rapid rate tat initotions are tying to ad thom to thelr Stat Scholae in the spetal sciences and the humanities have begun to recognize the nique contribution etinomusicologyf making to thelr own spheres interest. The vanguard of such scholars, forthe most pat, made up of those asoeated ty comoron Snteress in a center for area sue, rater than of scholars confined to the more isolated departmental structure of the university oF college. Much Iip service has boon pat to the importance of fterdepartmeata programs and smterdciplinary studies. In practice, however, there x very litle activity of his tor outs the ceate fo area tie or the insite of subject spin, There ivory Ite evidence of any real communication among departments ia the 4‘humanities; the same can be said of departments in the socal sciences, Scholarly intercourse among faculties and students of the humanities, socialsciences, and the physical sciences is almost ni. Very recently, however, there are indications that various disciplines recognize this fact and are actively seeking ways to establish communication. One of the catalysts that may help to break down this insularity is the broad interdisciplinary character of a subject discipline like y. The current interest in this young maverick profession can only tuccelerate, Supply and demand, in my judgment, will be out of balance for son years to come. It isa seller's market Wuar’s 18 A BOOK? Before accepting the invitation to write some kind of book concerned with the feld of ethnomusicology, I tried to determine the potential of reader audience in relation to brief outlines of some ten different books that appeared to be timely at this stage in the development of the field, T discussed these with advanced graduate students in music, anthropology, folklore, and linguists; wit various colleagues in ethnomusicology; and with scholars in other disciplines. Although there was a recognizable need for a “music-of-the-world” book, it was ruled out from the beginning as being an impossible assignment for any one author. In the course of glscussion, the lack of standard terminology, theory, and practice rade it clear tlat the usual type of textbook would be premature—in fact, for these reasons simply could not be written at this time. An exemplary monograph was considered for its value as a model, and it was agreed that this would make welcome addition tothe literature. But there were already a number of excellent ‘monographs to provide models, and such an additional study might reach a relatively limited audience. A “contributions” type of book—that is, a survey of high points in the development of ethnomusicalogy—would be lookiag backward; and besides there were several worthy approaches in this direction already availa ble. Specific problems peculiar to the feld seemed a good possibilty: notation and transcription, recording techniques, the documentary film, instrumental clas sifleation, descriptive and analytical methods. Bat each of these, in view of eurrent need, could hardly be justified as an individual study lifted out of the context of other closely related problems An outline for the tenth book developed in response to a nu considerations that at fist glance appear to have a very casual relationship, Some ber of “Compare Alka Mer, The Anthropology of Music, Northwatern Univrity Pres, Branston IL, 164 Beano Net Fok ond Tadtinal Mus ofthe Western Continent, Prentice Hal, Ine, Pnsierod Clie, NJ, 1965; Bruno Nett Theory end Method in Ethuomuicolgy, Fre Pes New York 1084vag once defined ethnomuscology asthe thing ethnomuscologiss do, tris tha isnot too enlightening, Dring the period of soul-searching inthe quest for a goed tin 1 vas asked to write an entry forthe new ein of the Hora Dleonary of Mule under te beading “ethnomusisogy.” Aer several draft tubmited t0 my colleagues for ectsn, the fal version sent of tothe pres cari the dfniton about as far as our let udgments could manage within the space limitations of ltionary etry. It went a ite farther than the ret Uefnttion mentioned above; by implication it even suggested in Ue mos general terms, «few ofthe base things an ehnomsicologist does, But, understandably, itl eaves haaging the question, "What does the ethnomusioogit wally da?” Anater ik in ths cain of dliberatios came from constant ascelation with students. Over the span of dozen ot 50 yeas of teaching I have heard any ofthe sae baste quetons asked by succeding generations of students Answer o Use question fied together in some Kind of logical order, might provide a wef teat. T have alo observed, however, tata whole range of even fore itl question are no sk, othe supe reson, Lsoppse that the dent tho hasnt yet been ou into the Eel ignorant ofthe racial problems that Stand between the thing tobe done and aetaly doing An edded ingredient tots kettle of rmination came asthe resldve of aot of reading. In tying to hemp abreast with new publications, {had noticed that rom the reader wiewpoint mos books contained two base oer of infor ination: on fats and Ses eallcted rom soures writen by oer scholars Invarou diplnes theater, fats and ges derived from the author's om personal experience of geting on with te pl Quite a few ofthese book, but estan not all seemed to be rather at ia theft onder of information (rom ook to book too often these information) sod noticably lan inthe second onde finfrmation, Now. ts tre, scolry documentation requires thescuty ofa heaeydowigeof secondary sources to shore up Endings and concsos based on the prinary activites ofthe lone scholar, Do not miundestand: Lam nt fora moment questioning the validity ofthis univerlly honored tain: to the contrary, with oe of two eral reservations T strongly suppor i, At the tnoment, however, I an ting to matin the point of view ofthe reader who specially cocernel withthe preservation of the sutor'simmacslate reputation bt more with the austanee ofthe matter at and. In ths reasonably merical posture, Ihave found that those pasages of a book writen drectly out of the author's Ssthand experience and oberation achive an immedacy ef communication alongside of which te information from secondary sures i pte ple Said anther way, i the formative stages of ts fel of ing the Drie intrest should be in what the ethnomustclogt i curenty doing ot Spring to door even in his hal-ormed questions that ave not yet managed 6to define his future doing. It is true, of course, that much can be learned from what he has already done, as long as we remember that it was done in the sociological, technological, and political climate of Blty years ago, twenty years ago, ten years ago—or even yesterday. ‘An unconsefous coutributor to part of the outline ofthis book isthe steady streamn of foreign und domestic vistors to the main Seminar in the Institute of Ethnomusicology at UCLA (Caivessity of California at Los Angeles) A few years ‘ago, during the visit of some VIP (Whose identity by now has been blurred by the sheer number of short-term visitors), those of us who meet for weekly de- Date—students and colleagues—suddenly realized that our discourse in English must sound to the visitor almost like a foreign language, In the course of many long deliberations, we had evolved, almost unconsciously, a fairly extensive vo- ceabulary of high-level abstractions, which for the initiate permitted an efficient and rapid exchange of ideas that otherwise would require almost interminable, tedious explanation. In some instances, months of exploration and discussion lay behind the ultimate common usage of a single term. For the occasional visitor and for the student newly introduced to this arena of deliberation, our expedient nomenclature made rather heavy demands. By the same token, it represents an invaluable factor in “doing” that deserves wider disseminatior ‘A principal contributor to the outline of this book has been the ever- ‘changing persgnnel and personality ofthe main Seminar itself. For those who have participated in the mixed pleasure and pain of our Wednesday aftemoon discus- sions this will come as no surprise, One pristine theorem has emerged from our collective efforts, Given a group of “doers” that represents a wide diversity of backgrounds, training, and experience; given an immediacy of communication founded on mutual understanding of terminology, approaches, and objectives: the ‘most abstract theories, the most specific practices, the widest range of speculations can be tested, evaluated, and recast in a much more substantial mold than any that might be fashioned by the isolated professional. It might appear to be self fevident that « group of scholars and advanced graduate students can apply critical method more successfully than any one member ofthe group. However, the person who has attended a number of congresses with thelr inevitable panel discussions and “structured” conference themes will agree, I believe, that both premises of our theorem are essential to a predictable result. Professionals in ethnomusicology the world over seem to have one hell ofa time understanding one another's terms and objectives, Although I have not attempted to determine the relative weight of the several observations that finally shaped the character of this book, all of them seem to point toward a particular need: a concrete exposition of the things an cethnomusicologist does, illustrated by specific examples drawn from firsthandexperience. That experience includes about sixteen years of preoccupation with Indonesian studies, two field trips to Java and Bali, two to West Africa, and responsiblity for # program of training and research in ethnomusteology since 1954, in which context I have had the privilege of prolonged contact with per forming musicians from many pasts of the world. { have tried to keep secondary sources at a minimum, using such materials when, to the best of my knowledge, they are not widely known in existing literature and seemed to offer the best solution in driving home a point. Within the classical tradition of scholarly documentation, perhaps itis a sign of human frailty that too often the reader's critical faculties are temporarily numbed the moment his attention is focused between quotation marks, I shall take refuge in the inherent “authority” of this device as little as possible. Some of the things an ethnomusicologist does require aural examples if they are to be illustrated clearly. The three LP records accompanying this book ‘comprise brief excerpts of pertinent recordings made or supervised by me in t field, From time to time, I shall ask the reader to hear particular examples illustrative of important points in the text. It was tated in the first sentence that there are almost as many approaches, and objectives in this field as there are practitioners. I have set down one of these approaches jn the most forthright style I could muster in the expectation that it will be atcepted as only one of a number of possibilities. By now the reader may have scanned the table of contents. Although T believe the subject headings are clear, a few words of warning may be in order about the inevitable bias that tends to be present in molding terary flesh to such a skeleton. As ringleader of the many individuals who have participated in the main Seminar! T assume full—well, at least partial—responsibility for the circuitous Tt impossble to aekwlede all who ave contebutd dccty ov inet to these ootinsing Semina, but anong them mst be mentioned ay eolagues: Chars Seeger (researc tnuicologst) Willam Hichinen (psychology of misc), Leea Keopo physics, opis, muse omponton), Willam BughtGogustc, anthropology), Davia Merton (expose, ethnomasicol x) Thalan} land Cralapp (at history), Kane Wachimann(etuwomscology—AEica), Hocmoz Farhat (composition ethnomestslogy~-Lan, Hors Kreme (composition, ethnomusiolgy—the Tht) a former graduates whe now are invlved with tel a programs at other tations, {ncluing expecaly Pofoore Willan P. Asim (Universty of Michi) ost Maced (Univesity af te Paine} Tanjore Viwanathan (Univers of Maia), Robert Beown (Califor insite forthe Aro) Robect Garas (Univerity of Washington), Wilem Adranse (Univenty of Sydney, aby Onstin (Brown Univerty) Los Aaderon Vaiversty of Wiconsi), Sum Chins (Binghamton University Joseph Kat (Columba Univers), Donn Borcher (deceased), Fred Lieberman (rowan, {Universiy) Ricardo Tells (University of Hava Ata Mensa (University of Zambia) Bet Aning (Cubversty of Chane} Akin Bubs (le Univerty, Niger), Esher Grebe (Univensty of Chile Members othe sta hn hve contributed tothe Seminar mater and substantively are Michiel ‘Moore econ tthe}, David Kalpatick fsa technician), Aan Bye irartan, Sun Fiera and Dick FitzGerald litte editor, Max Hare. (scum sien), Hard Susiloroute we have traveled together. And as author of this book I relieve the partici- pants of any responsibility for the bias, viewpoint, and personal penchant with yy be reported here, An esayist—and [believe that what you are reading isa kind of essay—i likely to be influenced, consciously or otherwise, by his total background and experience. If he is a good essayist, he tres to make an objective presentation of viewpoints that conflict with his own, But the problem of doing this with complete success is something like fone man playing both sides of a chessboard. If ethnomusicology is what un e to what he is, which any of our ideas held in eon ethnomusicologist does, then what he does must somehow relat ‘Therefore, a fow vital statsties may be of some help in recognizing the random forces that have motivated the chess player. My undergraduate trai equally divided between the humanities and the sciences. Extracurricular studies in music began about the age of sit end have never stopped. The (or chessboard) of professional activities in the continual process of breadwinning have included several fields of the arts, tooling engineering, and agricultural science, The frst exposure to European societies was in the role of infantryman, ‘in World War II. Repeated exposures to Furopean, Asian, and African societies have been as a recipient of several research grants. A prolonged involvement with jazz and with musical composition established a certain descriptive and analytical point of view long before the beginning of formal, academic training in music. ‘There have beep strong influences from teachers like Ernst Toch, Jaap Kunst, and ‘Charles Seeger: Another factor, which does not show itself too readily in a eurric: tulum vitae isthe compelling tendency to identify with and to establish an empathy for other human beings. Perhaps Kunst had such a trait in mind when he said, intuition and tact, one either has them or has them not, but they are dispensable if satisfactory results are to be obtained."* An abiding concern for other human beings, I believe, is an estential attribute of the person attracted to the field of ethnormusicology. Without it, he had better chart a different course. ‘was about eckerboard ‘Two exrnestes: THE UNITED stares AND THE ISLAND OF pat The atti tudes of different societies and of different groups within a society toward the arts vary widely. The circumstances, underlying conditions, and motivations that lecturer fs Indonesian ruse and technical taglato), Tuu-Yuea Lui lecture in Chinese mesic bd technical tranlato),Suenobu To (ectrerin Japanese asic and dance and techaal tensa) ‘THokorda Mas lecturer Balinese sic anechnial alto), Gayahr Rajpurecrer inna ss), Robert Aytee (eetazer in ARScan mus yeap Kunst, Ehnimusclogy, Sd od, Marius Nye, The Hagoo, 1959, p. 2.shape these attitudes are not always easy to discern. But a truly significant study ‘of music oF dance or theater cannot be isolated from its socio-cultural context and the scale of values it implies. For the sake of comparative illustration, we might look briefly at two contrasting examples with the assumption that the attitudes of all other societies fall somewhere between these two extremes: the United States and the island of Ball in Indonesia ‘Suppose we start with a thumbnail sketch of the United States as it might bbe viewed from the outside looking in, The mainland of the United States covers aan area about 2,000 by 3,000 miles, has a topography that includes high mountain ranges, broad fertile plains, and deserts, and has a climate that ranges from subtropical to temperate; the large land mass of the state of Alaska has a frigid Climate, and the state of Hawaii is a chain of semitropical islands. The total population is about 200 million. The states of Alaska and Hawaii as well a several states on the mainland are relatively underpopulated, and two-thirds of the ‘mainland population live in fewer than ninety metropolitan centers, the rest in rural areas. The oldest arrivals ia the United States are the Eskimos and the American Indians; more recently arrived are the Polynesians of Hawaii; and the ‘most recent arrivals, beginning in the sixteenth century but rapidly inereasing in the nineteenth century, are a population majority of European descent and a considerable number of Asian, African, and mixed descent, Presently, there are many ethnicygroups which show some tendency of being segregated as enclaves ‘within the society, location usually being determined by earlier economic factors that, during the rapid growth of the country in the past century or so, attracted different segments of a worldwide labor foree, Although itis considered a classless society, several diferent economée strata can be identified which in the large cities effect certain residential segregation based on income bracket, Nonetheless, the various races and ethnic groups that make up the society follow fairly homogeneous. habits relating to creature comforts, taste, and implied standards of living, probably due to advanced technology and an efficient flow of interstate commerce. There is nearly a total separation of church and state, and the society enjoys religious freedom when this is not in conflict with the Bill of Rights, « national document guaranteeing certain rights reserved for the individual. In practice, racial diserimination and both implicit and explicit segregation abrogate some of these rights. The United States is governed by a type of indirect democracy. Beginning within the framework of the town meeting, its governmental structure expanded to a loose confederation of states and finally matured with the adoption of a constitution that united the under a central federal agency comprised of an administrative branch, a judicial branch, and a congress representing the electorate. Through the years, 1s the machinery of government became increasingly complex, the relationship , mass-media communication, skillful merchandising, 10between the people and the representatives elected to govern them has become increasingly indirect. At the base of its economy, the country has great wealth in natural resources; it has a well-developed agriculture, fsheries, forestry, heavy fand light industries, and a vigorous national and international trade. Its citizens endorse compulsory education through the twelfth grade, encourage mass higher ‘education through state taxation, private endowments, and some federal aid, and subsidize research in the social and physical selences and to a lesser extent support creativity and a modicum of research in the arts and the humanities, Ball is a tiny but culturally very important part of the Republic of Indonesia, a political unit of heterogeneous peoples living on some 3,000 islands that girdle the equator like a belt 1,700 males wide and 3,000 miles long, running ‘east from the tip of Southeast Asia. The island of Bali is about the size of the state of Rhode Island or (lightly larger than) the island of Majorca and hes a population of fewer than 2 million. It is situated a few hundred miles south of the equator, and the temperature of its tropical climate varies little in the six- ‘month alternation of dry and wet monsoons. Ringed by a fertile coastline and foothills it rises to a central area of high voleanic mountains. The Balinese are Malay-Polynesian stock that migrated from the mainland of Southeast Asia during the Neolithic period sometime betwoen 2500 and 1500 n.. There are two recog: nized strata of society, early arrivals kmown as the Bali Ags, now living in the ‘rountainous regions, and late arrivals dwelling in the coastal areas and foothills, Most recently arrived are a small number of Chinese and Indian merchants and traders, Fishing, agriculture, and limited animal husbandry form the base of a self-sufficient econoiny. The majority of the population live in small rural villages; and, except for two urban centers, one in the north and one in the south, there is no electricity. There is complete freedom of religion, but almost the whole society is devoted to Balinese Hinduism, a form of religious worship originating in India and introduced to Bali from the neighboring island of Java where it had undergone several centuries of assimilation with indigenous forms of animism and ancestor worship. National policies of the central government in Djakarta have affected the social patter of the Balinese very little beyond the enforcement of compulsory education and certain esentially restrictive contrals effected by military and state oficialdom. Local government is derivative of an ancient form of benevolent feudalism operating within the framework of Balinese Hindusim— the basis of the social structure—wich results in little real discrimination among, Priest, prince, and commoner. In spite of a residual caste system, Balt has a ‘communal society that includes group ownership of most land and group respon- sibility for plethora of religious duties and obligations, for the welfare of the village, its temples, rice fields, and so forth. This complex but highly organized communal structure has produced a nearly classless society, totally committed to uthe values and sanctions that have made religion a way of life, Education in the traditions ofthe society, existing apart from the formal requirements of national policy, is acquired through oral methods and strict imitation of the time-honored ores essential to Balinese Hinduism. The perpetuation of these traditions seems assured as long as this form of religious devotion continues. Aside from a small aristocracy and an even sinaller number of white-collar workers in the two urban centers, the society has a relatively uniform standard of living and tastes, Now let us make a cursory examination of the attitudes of these two societies toward the arts, Afterward, we might consider additional factors that could deepen the evaluation. Viewed asa total society, the United States regards the arts as nonessential, low on ts scale of values, The hero of the day is in orbit in outer space or tunneling into the bowels of the earth or exploring the ocean floor. The poet, the painter, the musician, the dancer, the writer, the actor manage a tolerable acceptance 1s nonessential members of an aflluent society. Modem plumbing, electricity, and the full range of modern appliances, inckuding hi-fi and television, are considered essential parts of the average man’s hovsehold. He is a rare man indeed who foregoes any one of these items in order to afford a painting or sculpture or ‘monetary contributions to the local civic symphony or amateur dance group or neighborhood theater group. It is true, there is lively business in the popular arts: reeprdings of rock music and a variety of hybrids; paperback books on every {imaginable subject from philosophy to pornography; reproductions of calendar and classical arts; TV productions of soap operas, horse operas, situation comedies, ccomie-strip series, science-fiction series; motion pictures with suggested audiences rated all the way from “family” to the “underground” variety which, like that fof much current theater, seeks the sensationalism of public nudity and implicit or explicit sex acts. This heterogeneous assortment of popular arts is nominally supported by a majority of the population through the direct purchase of the product itself, tickets for admission, or leading brands of cigarettes, beauty aids, and automobiles. Possession ofa fist and a second automobile has high priority over direct support of the arts. On the other hand, fairly recently some large public and private buildings have had a smal, very small, percentage oftheir budgets reserved for murals or mosaics and outdoor sculpture, usually of an avant-garde style that communicates little with the general public and sometimes arouses eivic contro- versy. Whatever the persuasion ofthe individual consumer of automobiles, televi sion sets, and cosmetics it ean also be pointed out that dollar support of the arts, in one form or another, by private foundations, some institutions of higher learning, and benevolent individuals is probably greater in the United States than any othercountry in the world. However, dollar support is not necessarily an index of consumer valuation in determining the attitude of a society toward the arts Perhaps this generous funding from the top economic stratum can be considered a kind of “forced feeding.” It is indicative that within the federal government there is no “ministry of culture.” The recently formed federal agencies called the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment for the Humanities are token response, with token budgets, to the hue and ery from some intellectual minorities that there Js a gross imbalance between support of the arts and humanities and support of the sciences, Representatives in the Congress can be comfortable inthe knowledge that their token response, after all, was made to only a slim minority of their constituency. Products of explicit value in this technological society tend to be ‘measured in the most concrete terms—another landing on the moon, a superatomic arsenal, the (contraceptive) pil, imitation milk. It might be interesting to speculate whether the gradual acceptance of electronie music is an extension of this set of values to include an art form based on such reassuring tangibles as scientific know-how and technological gadgetry. The moot question is the extent to which approval is being won through a fascination with technology rather than the valid search for new aesthetic and artistic standards. Jost how essential is music to the functioning of this society? If it is true that the arts are a reflection of the times and society of which they are a part, how long will it be before electronic music replaces Mendelssohn's “Wedding March” or “Happy Birthday,” assuming, for the sake of argument, that this new direction in musie Is indeed a refleetion of the times. But thos far we have been considering a type of music that represents ‘a minuscule percentage of social acceptance. On the basis of current broad social acceptance, we might sooner expect weddings, birthdays, funerals, and religious devotion—about the only truly essential usage of music in this society—to be celebrated with a beatle style of music making. And indeed beatle-influenced rock music has had such a role. Or perhaps these residual evidences of a functional ‘usage of music in American society, again using relative percentage of saturation, as a guide, will be brought abreast of the times by the formulas of industrial psychology that have produced that monster Muzak for which every imaginable kind of consumer has built up a tolerance. ‘The native reader of American English may begin to bridle at this point, especially if he is a dedicated concertgocr, devoted to the theater, or a collector of original works of art. Since I eount myself in this segment of American society, Tet me come to his defense by pointing out that the bring reader and I belong to a very small, though admittedly not inconspicuous, group that could hardly 13be thought of as representative of the total society. The champion of Anglo: American folk song might also be indignant, claiming that I have slighted or ignored an invaluable part of his heritage. Forgetting for the moment the “Anglo ingredient in his argument, I have no quarrel with his value judgment; but again it represents a fractional percentage of society—unless he means to include all the hybrids like hillbilly, citybilly, rockabilly, and so forth. And then, of course he is no longer referring to Anglo-American folk music but rather to a large and profitable slice of the commercial music business, which does have a sizable audience. “Folk” and “pop” musie festivals draw enormous crowd. Music and dance of the American Indian is little known or appreciated beyond the small number of users native to the tradition and a handful of my dedicated colleagues in ethnomusicology. Indian arts and crafts have a wider appeal, but the technological context in which they struggle to survive offers synthetic substitute materials and suffocates incentive with bald and constant reminder that their use and function have become anachronistic. Traditional Polynesian arts are jealously guarded by a few Hawaiians who, perhaps wisely, protect the remnants of their culture from the millions of exotica seekers who ‘come to the tropical paradise of tourism. Commercial hybrids oftheir arts manage a thriving business. The art of the Eskimo is highly prized by the private collector and by the museums; and, to a slight extent, it has developed a small market in reproductions. The oldest layers of American society~the Eskimo, the Indian, the Polynesifn—have the most defenseless traditions in a technological age. The ‘more recent arrivals from China and Japan, from Western Europe, the Balkans and the Near Fast—when these segments of society live in enelaves—manage to keep some semblance of their respective traditions as a reminder of their original heritage. But with each succeeding generation, this contact with a past identity becomes more tenuous African slaves in the southern United States managed to retain less of thelr African heritage than those who were settled in South America. And yet it was the American Negro's contribution to jazz that produced the blues and generated a style of music making that is truly # unique contribution from the ‘United States. Jazz, with its many popular hybrids, has a lar ccan socely and has won an international acceptance as well. This indigenous development in musical expression tends to be ignored by the small intellectual segment of society that supports the syrnphony orchestra and the chamber ensem- ble. Until very recently, American jazz has enjoyed more respectability abroad than in its own society. Capitalizing on the wide appeal of jazz, efforts to use it for international propaganda have usually been highly successful but sometimes have badly misfired, In summary, aside from a certain entertainment and commercial value, 4the arts in the United States are regarded as nonessential recreation or as oma ‘mentation befitting an affluent mode of life Tre island of Bali, tothe best of my knowledge, has more artists per capita than any other society. Here, where religion pervades every aspect of living, the ‘reation and performance of music, dance, various forms of theater, sculpture, painting, and decoration are such an indispensable part of religious devotion that the arts, too, have become a way of life. Within the communal organization of Balinese society, the artist and his products ate regarded as absolute essentials ‘in the functioning of the community. Almost every performance or creation in the field of the arts is considered a kind of religious offering in which the dancer, the musician, or the carver is fullling all or part of his communal obligations. Music and dance and the literature on which they are based are fundamental to the constant round of religious rituals honoring major and minor temples and are ‘equally essential in the assuagement of calamity, disaster, threat, pestilence—ell the victssitudes of life. From birth to death, the events that mark the personal, Social, and religious life of the individual are celebrated under the panoply of Balinose traditional arts. The gamelan orchestra, the dance costumes and masks, the demons carved in stone that guard the entrances of local temples are as ‘important to the life of the Balinese community asthe surrounding rice fields that supply its food. There is no word in the Balinese language for “art”; the arts are such an organic part of living that there appears to be no need for such an abstraction, Completely outside this rich sphere of Balinese tradition is a compara Lively small commercial traffic with tourism, Inferior carvings and paintings, special performances of music and dance out of their proper context are served up for the eager tourist who predictably is overwhelmed by the exposure. One ‘might speculate that when greater political and economic stability is achieved {n Indonesia, tourism in Bali will reach considerable proportions and that « much ssteater commercialization of the arts will result, Even in the context of this eventuality, however, there will always remain two worlds of the arts ia Bali: that of the tourist and that of the Balinese, A deep commitment to the arts can also be seen at the national level The central government of Indonesia has a ministry of education and culture and ‘maintains cultural offices throughout Java and Bali as well as many of the Outer Islands. There is governmental support of conservatories devoted to training in the traditional arts as well as several academies that provide opportunities for ‘graduates ofthe conservatories in advanced training and research in the arts. The traditional arts are programmed constantly by the national radio and are part of the curriculum in the public schools. Fromn the poorest villager to the political elite, from the military to the university faculty, from the businessman to the 6students of elementary and secondary schools, there is a knowledge of and often ‘tect involvement in the arts. Such an attitude is typical of most of Indonesia's peoples. In Bal it is the most concentrated. The arts rank at the very top of the scale of values and are considered essential to the Balinese way of life. rit exninaton ofthe aude of two diferent societies could be strengthened se cgderton of a tanber of deta. In sexking a deeper evaluation of the vy tad af the United Stites toward the ats would be desirable to dently ee categories ofthe ars andthe diferent segent of soci with which dee castSuted We dou Know the percentage ofthe total society tat « Se en reps ad held ascertain he ais eporoncer medal a Been crt valu that segment of society plces on aspect form ofa Trane a intel to one gent of society an one typeof artistic expreston Tho mosnses rogue te ot too complex However, na etonly unifed ere the Luted Staten in stand of ving, tate, modes of acon, commere, communication is roably tre tals ey cer aoc: everything ee to «gran ot ler depot. Theear, a se lation of soy ang eae 0 take itn account ts ateron wih tetra wey Te haat the point, let consider the development of betle musi inthe Und Sates Begining as un importation from Great Britain, this ye wae hod cra character, both musica and nonmuseal, ha rudy aie cnnicton ith tet-agesin he United States who a this sage cri eu inthe parca society are gt tally in evo aga the thc elders Detinctive has, des, and abandon in body movements ren age an dey tat set him apart rom oer age groups. Homespon Fo aera hgh and an eared gotosbel tite made the Hate reve, A sgl nsumentation dict fom variow Kind of reas stat at toceagers have desrhed to meas bring ike “the see nets dive ofan orga” ahigh dynamic vel, amanotonos tempo aaaeear configuration was an exclave word of sound forthe teen-ager that sae et Mo spin of rovlt ns dametscal contrast othe tse and baits of his elders. ‘The immense teen-age audience was quickly exploited by every con ceivable entrepreneur and with such success that in a relatively short time beatle music began to affect other segments of society as wll. Soon, dancing in beatle style was the “in” thing to do, The earefree movements of the teen-agers sometimes became clumsy, jerky, and desperately suggestive when the matrons and sexa- 16