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    Volcanism - Schmincke (2004)

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    jaa) Y OC 3 = 5 © Nn > cS [a4 i i YN a a rr Py Sets f Hans-Ulrich Schmincke With 401 Figures, 396 in Color Springer Author Professor Hans-Ulrich Schymincke Dept. of Volcanology and Petrology GEOMAR Research Center University of Kiel (Germany) E-mail; hschinincke@geomarde All phorographs by the author unles otherwise no Covcillstrations by Nagasaki Photo Stadio (ont covers LU, Scumice dM, Sunt (back over) ISBN 3-540-43650-2 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Library of Congress Cataloging in-Publistion Data applied for iblograhic information published by Di Deutsche Bibliothek. Die Deutsche Bibliothek ists this publication inthe Deutsche Natonalbibliogratc detailed bib lographic data is avilable in the Internet at chp. de>. This works subject o copyright Al rights are esrvd, wheter the whole part ofthe material is concerned, specially the rights of translation, reprinting, us of illustrations, recitation, beondcastng, reproduction on microfilm or in an other way; and sore in dats banks. Doph ‘ation of ths publication o parts threo is permitted only under the provins of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, ints current version, and permison fr use must aay tne ataned from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyeight Law. Springer Vera Helin Heidelberg New York Springer-Verlag is a part of Springer Scence +Business Media springeooline de © Spinger-Velg erin Heidelberg 2008 Printed in Germany The ws of general descriptive names, elstered names, tademars, tin this publication does ot imply even nthe absence of «specific statement, hat sich names ae exempt from the re "vant protstve ws an regions and therefore fee for general se Typesctngsbreber VIS, Seheion, Germany hstrations: worwachreivervsde in cooperation with le Gopfert, Mérlenbach Weir, Marion Mayer, Dasma Dr. Mari Sumit, Ascheberg Hl Cover design: E. Kitchin elberg Printed on acid-fee paper 32140/AT 54321 he reason why I wrote a book on voleanism TT scant) rather than in English, the ingua franca of science, was simple. The intended users of this book were not only scientists and beginning stu- dents in the Earth sciences, but also school teach ers and lay people interested in volcanoes, The Updated English translation likewise attempts to strike a balance between providing enough sci- ence and a few up-to-date references for those who want to dig deeper, while at the same time remaining digestible for those who simply want to know more about voleanoes. Translation of the text by the author had the advantage that it allowed rewriting and updating of major sections of several chapters, within the constraints of the publication schedule, ‘The fitst edition of this book appeared at a time (1986) when a certain plateatt had be reached in voleanology, following an almost ex plosive growth phase in the study of volcanic rocks and processes. The basic motivation o study volcanoes is the sustained curiosity about what happens beneath volcanoes at the source of ma ‘mas, during their rise, their vesiculation, their ‘many ways to erupt explosively or quietly and the transport of hot and cold materials along, the Earth's surface or through the atmosphere. Th book attempts to point out some ofthe major eur- rent issues in volcanology. Two fundamental goals for motivating research have recently been rein forced in national and international research pro- grams. One goal is that of mitigating volcanic dis asters. The other is concerned with the interaction of voleanic processes with the environment in- cluding the solid earth, groundwater and surface ‘waters, as wells the atmosphere. This book shares the fate of all books at- tempting a broad overview of a subject. Experts will nt be content with the superficial account of their specialized fields. Yet there isa great need for broad-brush treatments inthe face of eve ing specialization. I have listed afew more special- ized books below, some of which contain exten- sive lists oF references for those who want to delve deeper into a subject. Te first chapters (Chaps. 1-9) are more gen eral in nature and thus do not require detailed references, Most recent studies quoted are the sources of the figures. Henee, the lst of papers quoted is in no way re- presentative. In view of the large amount of lit- erature consulted when writing this volume, 1 have not been able 10 Preface A volcano is not made on purpose to frighten superstitious people into fits of piety and devo- tion; nor to overwhelm devoted cities with destruction; a volcano should be considered as a spiracle to the subterranean furnace, in order to prevent the unnecessaty elevation of land, and trace back some infor mation to its primary source. I apologize to those colleagues whose paper [ have failed to quote. The 2000 German edition was also conceived to summarize some aspects of the research of our group and to repre- sent a symbolic thanks to several research agencies that had generously funded our work for more than four decades. Many figures are sourced in these publications, which are thus greatly overrep- resented in the list of references. The present text has been updated and some parts were rewritten to provide a more logical flow and to make refer ence to important recent eruptions. Some 35 graphs and 85 photos were added to the English language edition or exchanged with previous illustrations About half of the roughly 450 references ~ generally indicated in the text by a number in parenthesis (the number of the chapter in which they are quoted is given in the list of references) but listed alphabetically at the end ~ were pu lished during the past six years. Recent books that treat some aspects of volcanism in more detail include Francis (1993), Wobletz and Heiken (1982), MeGuire (1995), Scarpa and Tilling (1986), Sparks et al (1997), Gilbert and Sparks (1998), Heiken and Wohletz (1998), and Freundt and Rosi (1998), The monumental Encyclopacdia of Volcanology (Sigurdsson et al. 2000), published after the sec- ond German edition of Vulkanismus appeared, will remain the standard source of information for many years. Two older classic textbooks in vol canology, by Macdonald (1972) and Williams and MeBirney (1979), are still informative introduc tions to the subject. Blong (1984) provides a de. tailed and comprehensive overview ofthe effects of volcanic eruptions. There are also many pope: lar accounts of volcanology, particularly readable books being those by Decker and Decker (1994), of which there are several editions. Woods and Kienle (1998) provide a guide to many areas of volcanic interest in the United States. Volcanic letal effects of earthquakes. James Hutton, Theory of the Eart th Codleote, 795 Mi Preface national parks in the United States are succinctly discussed and supplied with illustrative maps by Decker and Decker (2002). Planetary volcanology, 4 subject not treated in this book for simple space reasons, is discussed in several dedicated books as Cattermole (1996). The history of man’s attempt to understand volcanoes is discussed in some detail by Sigurdsson (2000), ‘There are two journals in volcanology: Bul- letin of Volcanology and Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Publications treating various aspects of volcanology also appear in journals in geology, petrology, geophysics, geochemistry and geomorphology. Details of current eruptions can be obtained from the Internet, especially wiew.voleanosi.edu/ {yp, the Global Volcanism Network of the Smith: Sonian Institution (Washington, D.C.) and the US Geological Survey. They contain weekly and monthly activity reports where details of current eruptions and background data are summarized, as well as data on volcanoes of the world and vati ‘us links to other volcano sites. ‘The Internet site of IAVCEL, the International Association of Vol- canology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (www.iavceiorg) also contains much useful infor mation on voleano observatories, current courses and links to various voleano-related sites A list of common abbreviations and physical units is given at the end of this book along with SI units, Leading journals continue to use some of the old units. have followed this practice and still use kb (kilobar) instead of Gpa (giga pascal). For density I mostly use g/cm’ which is easier to visu- ize than kg/m Several colleagues were kind enough to take ‘out time from their busy schedule to critically sean earlier versions of one or more chapters and make helpful suggestions. These include Colin Devey Wendell Duffield, jim Gardner, Martina Halmer, Jason Phipps Morgan, Chris Newhall, Jon Snow, Roland von Huene and, for the German edition, Armin Freundt and Matthias Hort. [am especially grateful to Shane Cronin, a voleanologist as well as native English speaker. He did a trail-blazing re- View of first drafts ofall chapters chopping long Germanic sentences and making the text eas cer to follow. Kathy Cashman did a final review of several chapters pointing out logical flaws and other inconsistencies. I owe much to Tad Ui, my host at Hokkaido University where the final drafts of the translation were prepared, He also looked cover several chapters and made many useful sug: gestions. Several colleagues kindly provided me \with files of figures fom their publications. I was lucky to have been associated with many able students and some of our joint work is quoted throughout the book. 1 was advised on geaphics by Conny Park, Much of the book owes its appear- ance to the graphic skills of Mari Sumita who pre- pared preliminary versions of many graphs and graciously helped completing the book in many ‘other ways, Joachim Schreiber and colleagues pre pared the final figures and mastered the layout. 1 am very geateful to Wolfgang Engel (Springer Ver: Jag) who patiently paved the way for the English edition, Luisa Tonarelli (Springer Verlag) took care of the manuscript during the final stages and saw the book to the press. Many thanks to all of you. All the faults remai se my own responsibility, and there are undoubtedly many. I encourage readers to point these out and also suggest more appropriate references of figures for future revi- Lisch, March 2003 Hans-Ulvich Schnincke Introdu Early Perception of Volcanoes and Voleanic Actions Neptunists, Voleanists and Plutonists How and Why Do Volcanoes Work? The Volcano-Magma System The Global Framework of Voleanism Nature ~ Nurture How Do Volcanologists Work and Why Do They Work on Volcanoes? The Impact of Volcanic Activity on the Environment and on Society Plate Tectonics ‘The Conveyor Belt of the Mid-Ocean Ridges The Layered Earth Dynamic Subdivision of the Earth Disteibution of Volcanoes fon the Earth’s Surface Hybrid Tectonic Settings Summary Magma What Is Magna? c Where Are Magmas Generated? ification of Igneous Rocks How Are Magmas Generated? Why Do Magmas Rise? Magmatic Differentiation Cooling and Crystallization of Lava Lakes 2 21 2B 24 26 26 Magma Chambers Zoning in Phenocryst Minerals Compositionally Zoned Magma Reservoirs Summary Rheology Melt Structure Viscosity Magmatic Gases Volatile Budget of Kilauea Volcano Formation of Bubbles Explosive Eruptions External and Internal Forcing Mechanisms or Why Do Volcanoes Erupt? “Triggering of Volcanic Eruptions Internal Forcing Mechanisms Internal/ External Forcing Mechanisms Extrinsic Far Field Lithosphere Atmospher The 864 A.D. and 1707 A.D. Eruptions of Mt. Fuji Chassification of Pyroctastic Eruptions Summary nd Climate Mid-Ocean Ridges The Revolution in the Earth Sciences Geophysical Studies of the Ocean Crust Ridge Morphology and Tectonics Pillow Lavas and Pillow Voleanoes 28 29 30 4 59 39 oo ol 64 Contents Vill Contents Sheet Lavas Pyroclastic Eruptions in the Deep Sea? How Common Are Submarine Eruptions? The Roots of Mid-Ocean Ridge Magma Chambers Summary ‘Seamounts and Volcanic Islands Seamounts Guyots Volcanic Islands Destructive Stag and Lateral Apron Growth. How Representative Are the Evolutionary Stages of the Hawaiian Islands? Speculations on the Cause of Contrasting Evolution of Oceanic Islands Large Igneous Provinces and Oceanic Plateaus Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes Continental Intraplate Volcanoes Rift Zones and Rift Shoulders Scotia Cones ‘The Quaternary Volcanic Fields of the Eifel The Yellowstone Plume Flood Basalts Generation of Flood Basalts Summary Subduc mn Zone Volcanoes Subduction Zones Volcanic Ares Above Subduction Zones 6 66 oa 9 n 2 83 0 31 2 96 7 97 a 101 106 107 uw m1 13 i Island Ares ‘Convergent Continental Margins Voleanic Fronts Subduction Zone Magmas Source Materials The Role of Water Summary Volcanic Edifices and Volcanic Deposits Lava Flows Pahochoe Lava Basalt Columns Aalava Block Lava Domes Tephra and Pyroclastic Deposits Scoria Cones Stratovoleanoes Flank Collapses and Debris Flows Debris Avalanches, Calderas and Caldera Volcanoes Calderas on Basaltic Volcanoes and the 2000 Eruption ‘of Miyakejima Volcano Ash-Flow Calderas Summary ‘Strombolian, Hawaiian and Plinian Eruptions and the ‘Mount St. Helens Eruption 1980 Pyroclastic Fragmentation Eruption Columns ‘Strombolian and Hawaiian Eruptions Plinian Eruptions ‘The Eruption of Mount st. Helens on 18 May 1980 Analysis ofthe Eruption Dynamics Summary 115 7 Ls 22 122 124 125 9 151 154 155 61 163 166 172 176 Pyroclastic Flows, Block and Ash Flows, Surges and the Laacher See Eruption Some Historical Notes ‘Terminology Ignimbrites Pyroclastic Block Flows Pyreclstic Bock Flows Surges, Blasts, Umbrella Clouds and Debris Jets ‘The Eruption of Laacher See Volcano 12900 Years Ago Summary Fire and Water The Discovery Rapid Cooling The High Explosivty of ‘Magia Water Interactions ‘Open Water Conditions The Initial and ‘Terminal Phases of Eruptions Phreatic Eruptions Rainwater Fire and Ice Summary Volcanic Hazards, Volcanic Catastrophes, and Disaster Mitigation ‘Terminology Volcanic Harards. The Volcano Explosivity Index (VED, Can Volcanic Catastrophes be Avoided? Monitoring Lessons Learned From Two Large Volcanic Eruptions a7 180 184 187 198 195 196 29 230 239 239 242 251 Nevado del Ruiz Pinatubo Volcanic Eruptions and the Media Summary Volcanoes and climate ‘The Scientific Revolution Input of Volcanic Gases into the Atmosphere Sulfar Formation of the Aerosol Veil Gas-Particle Conversion ‘The Effects of Stratospheric Aerosol Veils on Global and Regional Temperatures and Ozone Depletion Which Volcanic Eruptions Load the Atmosphere Most? Back Forthe Future The Chicken and the Egg ‘Are Mass Extinctions Due to Mega-eruptions? Summary Man and Voleanoes: The Benefits Heat From the Interior of the Earth Geothermal Energy Hot Water Valves ‘on the Ocean Floor and the Formation of Ore Deposits Volcanic Soils Voleanoes as Source for Raw Materials The Attraction of Volcanoes and Volcanic Landscapes, Summary Epilogue 259 260 261 262 263 273 282 287 289 Contents IX X_ Contents Physical Unit ‘and Abbreviations 291 Subject Index 311 Glossary 293 Index of Geographical Names 319 References 299 Index of Names 325 Introduction cesses and evolution of volcano-magma systems and major methods employed by volcanologists in their work, This discussion introduces the way the book is organized. n 14 November 1964, a new volcanic sland Cee ee oath Tecland. Its complex volcanic evolution, with major changes in eruptive mechanisms and constant erosion by the waves (which continuous Iy threatened to destroy the entre island) came to an end in June 1967. The island was ealled Surtsey by Icelandic volcanologists in reference t0 the mythical fee giant Surtur. The development ofthe island Surtsey has been well-documented (376), ‘often under harsh conditions. The nature, however, ‘of the physical processes that take place when water and magma meet below the water surface a well as in the interface between water and land were not of major interest o scientists in the 1960s The object of the following essay is to throw ‘some light on those phenomena which consist in ‘the development of subterranean activity in the form of Volcanoes and Earthquakes, the investi gation of which appears to me of primary impor- Lance to the progress of Geological science, .Poulet Srope, Considerations on Volcanoes, the pro able causes of ther phenomena, ther ows which deter ‘mine thelr marc, the description of their products, ond thee connection with the present state and post history Early Perception of Volcanoes and Volcanic Actions Volcanic eruptions have always. filled human- kind with fear and anx- iety. Questions as to the nature and the roots of these natural phenom: ena have been asked Tragic was the death of 31 scientists and crew members when the research vessel No.5 Kaiyo: ‘maru approached the emerging submarine dacitic volcano Myojinsho, located some 420km south of. Tokyo, during an apparent lull in activity. During, the 1952-1953 370-day-long eruptive phase, the volcano had breached sea level repeatedly, form- ing temporary islands each time followed by their own explosive destruction. An answer for the dis: appearance of the ship was found when wooden planks were inspected, the only remains of the research boat. Pumice forcefully implanted into the wood left no doubt that a powerful explosive blast spreading laterally from the hot lava dome interacting with seawater had sunk the ship. In contrast to Surtsey; Myojinsho did not succeed in becoming an island. The fact that a voleano can grow from below the waves to become an island, is, in mythological terms, a victory of the element fire over water. In deed, questions concerning the nature of fire and water have been asked for thousands of years. Fire and water have been traditional symbols for funda- mentally different powers of nature from the occi- dent and orient, as in Chinese medicine. The antagonism between fire and water, however, has also been a major topic in the early decades when the scientific discipline of volcanology came of age, but then was largely neglected until quite recently. Below, I will briefly review early ideas on the causes of volcanism ending in the early nineteenth century when the field of volcanology became firmly established. The subsequent section on how volcanoes work and how they are studied is intend. ced to provide a snapshot of current views of pro. the Globe London, 12 for thousands of years. i 2! Myths about demons and gods in the interior of the Earth have devel: ‘oped in many countries from the Pacific to the ancient cultures of the Mediterranean (27, 399). ‘The oriental traditions of a cleansing fire at depth are also reflected in the Christian view of purgato- ry in the Middle Ages. However, the beneficial sides of volcanic powers have also been the subject fof some classic myths. According to Greek mythology, Prometheus provided the basis for human existence by presenting the fire he had stolen from the god Hephaistos from inside the Earth (a deed for which he was punished cruelly). Religious worship of voleanoes is still widespread, even in technically highly advanced societies as in Japan, where itis based on the Shintoist percep- tion of animated natural objects (Fig. 1-1). The interior of mighty Mt, Shasta in northern Califor: nia is believed by some to be the home of exotic ‘comimunities and bizarre creatures. Volcanoes, the ‘most dramatic natural phenomenon, appeal to all four senses, They always fascinate man, and emo- tions also come into play when analyzing volea- noes to understand their origins and workings. When ancient Greek natural philosophers started to look rationally into nature, they under- standably included volcanoes in their curiosity the two most active ones in Europe being Etna voleano on Sicily where some of the pre-Socratic philosophers livedand nearly permanently active Stromboli Island in the Mediterranean. Etna, the ‘most active large voleano in Europe, so fascinated the Greek philosopher Empedocles that he is said to have ended his life by jumping into one of its 2 Introduction > Fig 1. Pilgrims tells and stations on the flanks of sacred Mt Ful Fig.12.€ary ideas on the causes of yleanie activity: heat panned by winds and sulfur or organic substances as fue for the fire. These ideas developed by the ely Greek naturalist Pillosophers remained popular through the ate ath century. The back {round portrait shows Piiny the Elder based on anetching by & Thenet (1684) reproduced in (339) (06), ofl pom PPescartes : 10 8 ae ; ae a pe MB boca aol Bristote “ Lee Nes 600 |g) rhs eus craters. Early ideas and perceptions developed and Roman philosophers tists, survived until the of volcanic processe: by Gree and sci seventeenth and, in part, late teenth century (Fig. 1.2). The main elements of these long-held views of the underworld include winds panning the flames thought to be raging beneath the volcanic valves ind suffuras the burning substance. Various materials invoked later included coal or other bituminous substances, These views peaked in two masterly cross sections of the Earth by Athanasius Kircher, one of which is shown in Fig. 1.3 ‘Another milestone illustration reflecting early perceptions was the fF basaltic columns at Stolpen near Dresden (Saxony) (Fig. 14), picturing the most widely por trayed and debated lava columns in the history of earth science. The columns from this locality were mentioned as early as the first half of the sixteenth century by Agricola in his famous volume on mining. Stol- tsa pivotal locality drawis pen also repres for the Neptunist’s views (see be- Neptunists, Volcanists and Plutonists 3 >» Fig.13.Cross section through the Earth by Athanasius Kircher (1664) Water in the chambers (hydrophylaca, Tight Bue) i panned bythe central re (ight red) and shal fre hearths (yrophyloca), is heated evaporates and recondenses in spings (176) Jow). The rendition of the columns was masterly in objectivity in several respects. The columns were shown to not only be bordered by six, but also five or seven sies— as is common in nature. Secondly, the horizontal stripes of the columns may not be purely ornamental. Such ledges com- monly surround basalt columns and are now known to be caused by the episodic advance of cooling fractures from the cooler brite into th hotter ductile part of cooling lava flows (Fig. 1.5) This was excellent descriptive science. The other side of the coin and indeed typi cal of scientific endeavor in general~ as the interpretation. This illustration manifested the ‘ld idea that basalt columns actually represent ‘exystas grown from a solution an idea that was to play a decisive role in the Neptunist-Voleanist debate. The philosopher Gesner— or his drafts- ‘man Kentmann-~ expressed this interpretation by the imaginary pyramids added to the top of the columns in the otherwise naturalistic drawing from the field. To make his point, the artist also shoved a garnet erystl atthe base ofthe group of columns, pethaps to drive the idea home of columns actually being crystals. Neptunists, Volcanists and Plutonists In the scientific discipline of geology, two major debates have raged over decades. The fundamen- tal topic of discussion, when earth science came of age at the end of the eighteenth century, was the question whether or not columnar basalt had crystallized at low temperature out of water or hhad formed from hot molten rock welled out onto, the surface from the interior of the Earth. The focus ofthis debate was the true nature of the roots of volcanoes. The protago- nists and followers were named after the Roman gods, under- standable in view of the clas. sicist culture ofthe times In the outgoing eighteenth century, the Neptunists strictly adhered to the idea of basalt columns as having crystallized from water at ig.15.Columnac basalt low temperature, Their most promi- fom the erdedowerpart nent defender was Abraham Gottlob | of2Tettayvokana nest Werner, teaching at the mining aca- | f2Menco scree Cae demy of Freiberg (Saxony). Werner’ | ererasing cova dominating influence was based on his | vance of fates ur fame as the most inspiring geology | imgcouing professor of his time and in having ‘veloped the frst system of minerals based on their external characteristics (416). The Neptunists also believed > Fig.1.4 Drawing by Kent mann (4565) n (117) of basalt «columns at Stolpen (Saxony) topped by imaginary prisms fonmost columns Tao garnet odecahedra justin front of theeolurmne| 4 Introduction Fig.16.Geowth stages Inthe central enter of Vesuvius between uly to (October 29,1767 originally published by Hamilton (138) and redrawn in an 29" century engraving lauthors collection) ‘granite to represent the primeval rock type form. ing the basement on which all other rocks of the Earth's crust were deposited. Werner's dogmatic approach in explaining the nature of volcanoes contrasted strongly with the empirical deductive methodology applied by his contemporary Sir William Hamilton (1730— 1803), then the British ambassador in Naples (138). Vesuvius, which is sleeping at present, tow ering over the Bay of Naples, was unusually active during the second half of the eighteenth century. Hamilton was fascinated by the explosions in the crater and lava flows emitted from the volcano. He provided careful documentation of frequent changes in the crater region of Vesuvius (Fig. 1.6), as well as balanced and well-reasoned deductions as to the age of volcanism in this Campanian vol- canic field of Italy. Hamilton became the father of ‘modern volcanological scientific analysis and his. beautifully illustrated masterpiece, Campi Phe graci, is an impressive monument of early vol- canological studies (138). Hamilton is better known to the general public on account of the famous love affair between his wife Emma and Lord Nelson (350) ‘The Volcanists were more pragmatic by deriv ing their interpretation from actual field observa. tions. In 1765, Nicolas Desmarest, one of the pio- ners, found that columnar prismatic basalt in the Auvergne (France) not only graded into the scori aceous top of a lava flow but also noted baked soil beneath (Fig. 7.2). He therefore interpreted basalt as having formed by solidification of lava erupted oon the Earth’s surface and not by crystallization out of water (81, 416). His countryman, Jean-Eti- enne Guettard, had earlier (132) identified the youthful conical mountains near Volvic in central Prance as actual voleanic edi ices associated with 1.7). It is often overlooked that these two discoveries were made at a time when A.G. Werner (1749-1817) was still a young boy, The Neptunists’ view of the world, that had along. history and was based on empirical evidence by Guettard and Desmarest, began to be doubted, Werner merely being by far the most influential protagonist. Both Neptunists and Volcanists, how- ever, explained the fire (i¢., the high temperature of volcanoes) by oxidizing sulfide deposits, or burning coal seams, located not far below the sur face of the Earth (Fig. 1.8). Volcanoes were also commonly regarded as rather superficial features, having developed very late during Farth’s history. The breakthrough in global understanding of magma emplacement came with James Hutton (1795, “no beginning, no end”) who proposed a steady-state model of the Earth (164, 165). He thought that, in contrast to the prevailing dogma (favoring the unidirectional evolution of the Farth), basaltic magmas owed their origin to heat in the interior of the Earth and could rise at any time during the evolution of the Earth. This mechanism also held for granites, Hutton would have been delighted to know that granites may be as young as 340000 years and more than 500°C hhot, as recently recovered in a geothermal bore hole at a depth of 2860m in Kakkonda (Japan) (293). Huttons followers were called. Plutonists, alluding to the fact that they placed the roots of volcanoes much deeper in the Earth. Although history proved the plutonist’s position right, their victory generated another dogma. Apart from the fact that Hutton also explained the cementation, lava flows (F ‘Natural Mineral Water From 1.5L of sediments by heat, the explosivity of volcanic eruptions was henceforth thought to be due en- tirely to endogenic magmatic processes, especially degassing of magma during its rise to the surface. ‘The Neptunist view of voleanoes and their origin was practically dead by 1810 (save for Robert Jameson and his followers in Edinburgh). Voleanology was firmly established as a sub- discipline of earth science in the first quarter of. the nineteenth century by Leopold von Buch, Alexander von Humboldt and Poulett Scrope who wrote the first textbook on voleanology (319). 1 will return to Scrope’s excellent interpretation of the formation of basalt columns in Chapter9. Here, I present his view of the roots of volcanoes, the role of updoming and fractures to serve as channels for the rising magma (Fig, 1.9). A recent example of drastic updoming was demonstrated bya rising probably dacitic dome during the spec- tacular April 2000 eruptions within the Usu vol canic complex (Hokkaido, Japan), shown in Figs 110a,b. How and Why Do Volcanoes Work? Volcanoes not only exist and erupt to provide jobs for voleanologists. They are the most visible proof that planet Earth is alive and well. This statement seems trivial to a scientist. The sensual appeal of volcanoes and voleanic eruptions to people in general is, however, fundamental to appreciate that we live on a planet that is very hot and dynamic in its interior. This planet constantly feeds material to the Earth’s surface and the atmosphere that was generated by degassing of the Earth in the fist place. Present views of how a volcano works natu- ly depend on our constantly evolving under standing of the processes in the interior of a vol: cano. Beyond this truism, I want to stress three fundamental aspects of volcanism that form the ‘matrix of many chapters in this book. A volcano is merely representing albeit often impressively volvic How and Why Do Volcanoes Work? |. «Fig. 1.7. Quaternary sorta cones and trachyte dome Puy de Dome in the Auvergne (central France) ¥ Fig.19 ab. Cross section through three volcanoes 43) The area ABCD below voleana.e has ost heat during an ‘ruption so that further heat flows into this area (arn). Moreover heat i released for deeper areas (C~D) more rapidly than prir tothe eruption. When the vent is Closed the upper crust expands (4-8) 0 that new lava Can be erupted through the fractures so formed. fa rew vent opens nearby (ef), heat wil be removed fom the ‘older eruptive site. The term heat i used by Scrape sy ‘onymously with magma. b) Cross section through the Earths crust and magma chamber Fractures open ‘upeards at (4) and (8 during doming and tilting of larger custal portions. n between () facts wil open dawn: ‘ward s0 that magma can accurnlate inthe reservol so formed and rie along fractures to the Earths surface After Scope (1825,Figs-9 and 33) redrawn in 306) 4 Fig. 18. Miocene ake sediments, heated by burning coal seams. Some sediments have become partially melted and form porcelianite (Dobreee, Czech Republe) 6 Introduction strato Sphere os ‘cig 1 po = Gasinput \ evap Eruption ‘ : Stagnation ee me ttt Detachment — oe . astheno- rare Sohere meting So Road prior toenpton — vpiited par frond aor “

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