Try tt out You cen be a gencticist tool 1 AS actass, choose ten external human traits, which you are interested Some examples ate proviced below: eye colour | heir colour ability to rol the tongue * weight * gender | 2 Develop 2 questionnaire 20 survey people about the traits your class has chosen. You should ail use the same Questionnaire. Why? 3. Each person in the Class should now ask ten different people to complete the Guestionnaire. The ten People need not be from ‘your own class, 4. You will use this data later for an exercise in section 19.5. 19.1 Heredity ee height and your skin colour eyes, your or The eral that are passed on to you by your Parents, met | coer neroditary tralts because they can be PaRsed ota refer : from one generation to another. hair: PS Wavy or cu eyelid (Single or double) | ear | (lobed or attached) Skin colour ark, ete)" tongue (roller, non-oll chin in | (vith of without clett) + Figure 19.1 Some human traits that can be inherited For many centuries, it was understood that traits could be inh: 4 However, scientists were unable to explain how such traits were inh d Until the middle of the 19° century! Geneti hae the scientific study of heredity. Scientists who study he’) are called geneticists. Geneticists are interested in how traits are pa 4 on from parents to their offspring, In the 49° century, an Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel, first explained how heredity ‘might work. Mendel Carried out breeding experiments on garden pea plants (Pisum sativum). > Gregor Mendel Scanned with CamScannerWenn ene COMET ‘Aniinheritance Involving only one pair of ndel also us Mer sed pure-bred varieties of pea plants. Pure-bred plants Ow are plants which, when selt fe , fort (progeny) that resemble thelr ilised (selfpollinated), produce offspring tn order for fertilisation ants selffertlise, th Parent. For example, when pure-bred tall tn ode ome pl » they produce only tall offspring. 12 ete once? : i lination. Recall Mendel's monohybrid experiments Bolinger chapter 37. @ In one experiment, Mendel crossed (cross-pollinated) tall pea plants with pollen from dwarf plants and vice versa, x @ Mendel planted the seeds from the cross and observed tall dwarf a the traits of the resulting hybrids, which were all tall. Mendel called these hybrids the F, (first fillal) generation. F, generation only applies to offspring of pure-bred or mn true-breeding parents. Ahybrid s is the offspring from two different varieties or species. @ He allowed the F, hybrids to selffertilise and produce seeds. These seeds gave rise to the F (second fillal) generation. In the F, generation, ratio of about three tall plants to one dwarf plant was observed. tall tall tall dwarf «A Figure 49.2. One of Mendet's experiment involving monchybrid inheritance In all his experiments, Mendel observed that one trait always appeared in the F, hybrids (long stems). Mendel called this trait dominant. The other trait (short stems) seemed to disappear or ‘recede’. Mendel called this trait, recessive. The recessive number of F, offspring. trait reappeared in about one-quarter of the total ‘An organism possessing a dominant trait Is not healthier or stronger than an organism with the recessive trait and vice vores Certain fatal diseases in humans, forexampl, retinoblastoma, which causes (Umowre in the eyes, are due to dominant traits, Similarly there are also fatal disease caused by recessive traits, for ‘example, sickle-cell anaemia, o disorder of the blood. Scanned with CamScannerTable 19.1 Mendel's monotyorid experiments »* Purple flower x Inflated pod x Green pod x ‘Axial flower - Long stem grossos using six other pats of contrast sting Mendel also made 9 crosses are shown in Table 19.1.7 pe, plants, The results of thest Feeney (iraiteppeating || Fadeneretion Guia torecessives ing, jgdominen)) nr @ aoa 5474 round 1850 wrinkled 2.96: 1 winked seed : 6022 yellow 9 bea 2001 green 30:1 Groen seed 708 purple 0. ane 226 wiite BUS: 1 iit lower —— : 882 inflated Sa" Allinated p99 constricted 295:1 Constrcted pod a. 428 green : | al ao 452 yellow ot | Yellow pod | ag st axial . All axial oS eae 3id:1 Terminal tower 787 tong nett 5 a 277 short 4 shor stem io? iifer from expected ra : Fp generation ber of plants Why does observed ratio often dl 6 Senay nave noticed from Table 1.1 tat the ratio in the becomes closer to the expected ratio of 3:1 when a larger numt ceeied in the experiment. Ifa smaller Numbet of plant Sbserved ratios for the F, generation are no! accurate. sre often inaccurate when the sample numbers are small. | also based on chance and probabilities Hence, te uld be unlikely to match the exp: ‘The ratio figures are actual number of offspring Wo precisely. Scanned with CamScannerdels model of heredity scientists, Me pie 4g, the observations ee eee esti model to expla mete abouts pea an i gested “ai plain the inheritance of the Gene ie toned — characteristics he ne ret responsible for the transmissi a ay ars re ou toon ss gens ion of characteristics. vee Nr an by a pair of factors in the cells of organs 1 Fe ates oi a of a pea plant is controlled by f al “ot amr. the to ft iffer, only the dominant one will show ortect fa plant contains one factor for taliness and one for erneee go if a Pe 7 Sry the tall factor will show its effect. Segregation of factors wart plant Ore ©8 O28 gametes unite at random tall plant 1. Figure 19.3. Mendel's Law of Segregation arate) during gamete formation: « The two factors in each pair segregate (set ach gamete will contain only one ‘actor. This is known as Mendel’s first jaw — Law of Segregation. he diploid condition in «= The fusion of gametes at fertilisation restores tl the zygote, that is, the zygote contains tw’ parent) for a particular characteristic. « Gametes unite at random so that the ratio of characteristics among the offspring can be predicted. ‘0 factors (one factor from each Hereditary traits are traits (characteristics) that can 7, Fusion of gametes during fertilisation be passed on from one generation to the next. restores the diploid condition in the zygote. 2. Genetics is the scientiic Udy of heredity: Zygotes wil contain two factors (one factor 2 pneritance involving only one Bet ‘of contrasting rae tezch parent) for each tat. free called monohyord inheritance da. Hereditary factors (genes) ate ree tranemission of traits to offSPr0g 5, Adominant factor always shove its effect in the nism has a recessive offspring even when the oraw ve actor only shows its elfect In the ‘Astudent carried out a monohybrid experiment factor. A recessi I absence of ‘dominant fact tors. ‘on 50 pea ple & During gamete formation, the. pai ot actor a He id not ota wen See i eiau ch gamete Z the Fp generation. Why is the Sarimental separates. Thus, 23° factor for each trait. result different? Scanned with CamScanner19.2 ; Basic Knowledge for Studying Heredity Mendel's model of inheritance forms the basis of modern genetics. Scientists now know much more about what is involved in heredity and have developed new scientific terms to explain what is happening: Chromosome Ronee enero MELON See IICi Sone Snes Non Meee CHos aise crush OMe Zi the hereditary information for making DNA in chromosomes carries ry many genes along new organisms. Each chromosome may car! its length. ‘A Figure 19.4 Achromosome ‘with two chromatids, just before How is genetic information organised and packaged intochromosomes? cell division Read more about it in chapter 20. Peers draretpe ny oe gets el es (Getten SIAC nemo Mics ceourl cesmneI) io)\/-Vine Rie peorn ECan Sele elec veloc stotef sel) encensat > gene locus Each gene has a specific function. For example, there is a gene \uhich determines the height of the pea plants, another gene which |_ chromosome determines the colour of their flowers, and a further gene which determines the shape of their seeds. a Figure 19.5 Genelocus ‘The place on the chromosome where the gene is located is called ‘on a chromosome the gene locus (plural: loci). Alleles f) REST ricn omelets Messe NS | SOIR eMac CNC Meouecy Ea 2xample, the gene for the height of the pea plant has two S: short and tall. In modern terms, Mendel's ‘factors’ are the alleles. Le pan ate usually used fo represent alleles. For example, the lele for tallness in pea plants may be represented with T and the recessive allele for dwarfness, t. 4 Figure 19.6 ‘Allee arrangement” J paot homologous chromosomes ) can Scanned with CamScannerHomologous chromosomes They eRISt In pales. One chromoy ee heteeintonne parent and the other trom the fae Ma comos trom the mal . 4 Bafent and te’ other trom the temp comes wom te mae shape ton chromosomes). PE And size (with the except ee exception of the sex ame order in those gene loci may not be the seein OF dene loci, The alleles me ies Paling up of homologous » Figure 19.7. pair of 1 chromos ron al what you showin te aera sooenal ater have learnt in chapter 16, Phenotype Hema icoOUre ace en injanjorganism, forjexample, theloltward Ey See ENON. ‘Some phenotypes cannot be seen externally, for example, human blood groups and resistance to certain diseases, The phenotype of an organism is the result of its genes and the effects of its environment. Taliness in pea plants is a phenotype. Dominant allele ‘A dominant allele expresses itseif and gives the same phenotype in both the homozygous and heterozygous conditions, For example, tall plants have the TT or Tt genotype. @ science Bites Gones and the environment Genotype nee eke ue cat Cl GIAIGCS eee WEn UE ee Cols helen oie + An organism is said to be homozygous for a trait if the two alleles controlling the trait are identical, for example, TT or tt. + An organism is heterozygous for a trait if the alleles controlling the trait are different, for example, Tt. Recessive allele ‘A recessive allele does not express itself in the heterozygous condition. It expresses zygous condition. Thus, ‘dwarf if they have the itself only in the homo pea plants will only be tt genotype. ‘and tail, This is its phenotype. fur but black feet, ears wults in an animal with these conditions, they do not develop under cool conditions. Thus, the but this is only expressed The Himalayan rabbit has white Crossing two purebred Himalayan rabbits always Fos traits, However, if the rabbits are raised under warm black ears, tails and feet. These traits only develop Himalayan rabbit clearly has an allele for making black fur, in the right environment. > AHimalayan rabbit with white fur and black ears Scanned with CamScannerink At which phase in meiosis do homologous chromosomes Separate? Recall what your have learnt in chapter 16. ww alleles AF PASSed on 1g the offspring (2 geno ‘Mendel’s results,” Genetic diagrams . Geneticists use genetic diagrams t0 XP 4 py an offspring and what traits will Be &xP"S"o,piains cross). The genetic diagram in Figure +9" ous t homozygous for that ti © An organism that is pureed 1% 2 1 Gominant (T) andthe Ca Mendes tal parent plant is one" ; cessive (tt plant is homozygous rect each pair of homologous yieting UP Meiosis separates a pair ofaleles splTegeWes One COPY OF 2H ay fe onl) Chromosomes 50 that each game" {either allele T or t)- ybrids all have e the (Tt) genotyPe- etes by meiosis. Each gamete The F, generation h gives rise to the F ® ir yr te generation of offspring. ) vant to recess .e ratio of domin ive seiterossed: ‘NS “Ty close to the expected ratio ion is US generat ts we number of plants are used inthe er | When F, hybrids are phenotypes in th 1. This Is e5pec breeding experiment. e F, jally so W Homozygous recessive Homozygous dominant ‘Dwarf (pure-bred) Phenotypes of parents “all (purebred) x t Q Genotypes of parents meiosis, meiosis e Gometes fertiisation J 8 F, generation genotypes Tt x Tt F, generation phenotypes Tall Tall meiosis meiosis Gametes © 0 random . Frat ties are e0sj to breed. Unlike pea plants which requires a large garden and plenty of sunlight, fruit fies can be bred in smell indoor spaces. reeding experiments? Test cross The ger ; ‘| genotype ofan organism showing the dominant trait can be determines by crossing it with an organi i Pacer aie) anism that is a homozygous recessive. This © BD sure Scanned with CamScannersider again the height in pea plants, A test - A test eros: ffror T) is shown in Figures 19.20 nna to, vie oo meme Hono ifthe organism Is homozygous dominant, then all th fre dominant trait. offspring should show Homerygous soma Homarus Prenotpes of parents a Genotypes of parents a oa x Gametes offspring genotypes ftspring phenotypes. tall ‘A Figure 19.10 A test cross involving a homozygous dominant genotype organism is heterozygous, then half the total number of offspring iF the thould show the dominant trait. The remaining half should show the recessive trait. Heterozygous oe recessive Phenotypes of parents tall ee Genotypes of parents Gametes Offspring genotypes \ |# (e] f Ratio of offspring phenotypes ‘tall: 1 dwar 1a Figure 19.14. A test cross involving a heterozygous eenobP> Heredity. Scanned with CamScanner——=—_———_—S—— (eee Worked Example | ) with @ purebred In a bre ediny White one. ‘A experiment, a purebred black guinea gig was crosses (crossred) (a) Expicin oe F, offspring were black. : information by means of a genetic diagra™- 44 proportion ofthe F, generation | (b) If th e F, offspring were allowed to breed among themse'v°s wi 5 pea be expected to be heterozygous? were given a black guinea pig, how would. or homozygous? Solution black is dominant. sparen, D1 ; resemols he Hel goose alee fOr WS itis heterozygous | (a) _F, offspring is heterozygous. Since it Let B represent the dominant allele for bla write rents (el | Genotypes of parents Fygenoypes | BD All black F, phenotypes (b) 50% of the F, offspring are heterozygous. F, phenotypes Block Black F, genotypes Bb Bb Gamotes F, genotypes | Bb F, phenotypes Bleck Black «Black = White —~Y~—— homozygous DB owns a Scanned with CamScannerwith a Ith a homozygous white one. ) yest cross the black guinea pig <) 4 - if the black guinea pig is homozygous {B6), all the offspzing wil be blac +I it is heterozygous (Bb), half of the offspring will be white and the other half will be black ! porontal Black a White Black prontyPes rarental BB ~OOO® CS Bb [ Bb Bb Bb fen ofsoing al black Block Black = White White prenotypes patio block «= 4 White worked €xample 2 ‘re dagram below shows the inheritance of halr colour in humans. a Q Biacknaired female Key: J Blackhaired male O Redhaired female [L Rearaired mate ur answer. ion for yo! an explanation for y i black hai? ich i Give (a) Which is the dominant phenotype? B (b) What is the chance of a third child from parents 3 and 4 havi Scanned with CamScannerSolution (a) Black hair, Parents 6 and 7 have black hair but th that parents 6 and 7 are heterozygous. They in them. The recessive allele for red hair is only @ recessive. (b)_ Since parents 3 and 4 have a child (B) wit that parent 3 is a homozygous recessive WI Let 8 represent the Prenctypes of parents Genotynes of parents Hence, the a~- F, geronpes F, phenotypes. chance of a third child from parents 3 and 4 having blac halt. This ston prs (20) with red sham ne esho Cote which is NOt oxoresseg ne recess i ay Mosse in end 20+ Wo is. a homozygous ecessive, we can conclude us d halt, & homozy£o! val 4isa neterozygore- ile parent alfele for red halt. alee for black hair and b represent (Me Red Ganetes Kk hair is 50%. Co-dominance In Mendel's monohybrid Inherltance experiments, one allele was 32/5 dominant over the other. In the heterozygote, only the dominant alle © expressed. However, there are exceptions to the pea plants used by Mendel. in some animals and plants, the heterozygote form shows the effect o alleles. Neither allele is completely dominant over the other. PME cuts thats (Peta Me MENACE Oe ou eMMareh iis Codominance ts exhibited in short-horn a :horned cattle. When a homozygous red rat er a ‘a homozygous white cow, the offspring in the F, generation ae ‘oan, wit oats consisting of @ mixture of red and white hai. In this case aan emer air and the allele for white hair express themseh®* Scanned with CamScannera pater exam Ie of codominance is seen in four o'clock plants. The plants Ay be niomozygous for red flowers or homozygous for wiite flowers. A cross een both varieties of plants produces an F, generation of plants with pink payers. Both alleles have expressed themselves so that the F, hybrid has a fate ts ntermedate between tht ound in spate face Note ne equal expression of two alleles can result in a blending effect (e.g. pink flowers in the TTo'eock plants) oF a mibture of the two traits (e.g. roan coat — mixture of red and white jgis—-in shorthorned cattle). Sometimes, to distinguish the former from the later, the regia inthe former CBSe are Said to bein incomplete dominance whi te fatter, in acorinence. The term incomplete dominance will not be used inthis book, 4 shorthomed cate ‘exhibit codominance in their colour cost. Worked Example 3 Wo pure-bred flowering plants of the same species, one with red flower and another with white flower, ‘Were crossed, All the F, generation plants had white flowers with red spots. (a) Explain the results of the cross. a What would be the result of self-pollinating the plants from the F, generation jou expect (©) 13600 seeds were obtained from the cross in (b), how many of these seeds would you Sx! ‘0 give rise to plants with red flowers? Scanned with CamScannerSolution (a) The alleles for bot exhibit co-dominar plants had white flowers wit represent the allel allele for red flower, W! codominant. Phenotypes of parents Genotypes of parents Gametes F, genotypes F, phenotypes a X chromosomes vwnite sit waits (oy ,qnonanon fod nett a white and red flowers 5 = th the white and red forte _ : ree. Hence, Heterozv8OUs \y oo [wa] zs cr red spots. Let a | lowers mite ower, and Re Me . - nere Wand Rare _ ® te é 6 | VOX | fed : ( es. ae x —— Gidea | a swnite « 2 ite wth \ sRanoypes * wit tg | Id give red f Number of seeds that woul ners sd = + x 3600 = 900 Sex deter" In an organis' chromosomes) in males and femal four pairs of homol sex chromosomes. However, each body e chromosomes (sex ism may be differer, ogaster (fruit fly) ha Females have one pait of rote ‘to as the X chromosomes re the sexes are separate, th sex of the organi les. For example, logous chromosomes. ‘They are usually referred tell in the male has only one X chromosome. The othe peng orl ap hia” called the Y chromosome (Figure 19.12). Therefore, the female has ‘the XX genotype and the male X vyessther three pairs of homologous chromosomes are called autosomes or autosomal chromosomes. Autosomes are chromosomes in a cell otter than the sex chromosomes. apa of homologous three pairs chromosomes, autosomes 0 @ Y chromosor XX female 4 Figure 19,12 112 Chros mosomes of a Drosophila melanogast er XY male Scanned with CamScannerimitar way, human a simi males have an ave an X eh omosome in each ni romosome and a mu Yertains MOFe genes than the’ deel Ts means the X ehomosome ymosomes in each fomosome). Fe Xonro normal body on ‘males have a pair of sex chromosomes sex emomrosomnes ‘4 Figure 19.14 Chromosomes of a female (numbered and arranged) ‘a Figure 19.13 Chromosomes of a ase {oumbered and arranged) Human cells contain 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes. During gamete production (Figure 19.15), the female eggs contain an X chromosome each. However, males will produce two types of sperm — one containing an X chromosome, the other, the Y chromosome. Male Female eo a x 4 oman 7 i @ y Table 19.3 Sex chromosomes in humans : = Ginsu) a h fe k XY >; 9, : v -— *__* ee ee Female Females 1 male ao 4 female ing male or female. The offspring will have an equal chance of being 19.15 Sex determination jin humans nod a Figure Scanned with CamScanner1 ue Genotype of an organism can be letermined by breeding experiments called test crosses. 2. Atest cross involves organism of unknown genotype with homozygous recessive organism. Codominance results when two atteles controlling a teait express th in the heterozygote. 4, The chromosomes that determi sex of an organism are known a5 chromosomes, Other chromosomes known as autosomes. Can you remember the types of antigens found on the different blood groups? Recall what you have learnt in chapter 8. rot vox enna in ve 2 Bt gnarl ehromanomes, ing an jemselves ine the sex are 2 re only two possible alleles for 2 ony more than two alleles fe ave assumed fa population: So far, we Ni given trait. |! a given trait. Pierce eco example of multiple alleles. i in The occurrence of blood groups in humans is 20 There are four blood groups in human. populations, namely A, B, AB and 0 blood groups. designated I", |° and © group are t over 1°, but I* and 1° exhibit and | will have AB pes are shown in The alleles for A group, B group and 1° respectively. It and FP are dominan todominance. Therefore, individuals with blood group. The blood groups and their resp Table 19.4. ective genoty! y Table 19.4 Human blood groups and their corresponding genotypes Genotype Eien) A BP or BP 8 PP or PP AB 0 pp Scanned with CamScannerSe worked Example 4 j—— ne human blood groups, A, B, at gan have any two of the alleles by B and O, are determined by three alleles, It, P and 1°. A person ut not all three. aleles I and I exhibit codominance, Allele 1° is recessive to both It and P. woman whose blood group was 0 marri in how it is tied a man of blood group A. (a) Explal Possible for the couple to e . hay fo} What s the chance of their st child nao ne os th Blood group ©. father is heterozygous? 1g blood group A, assuming the a neem tae that their first two children will have blood group A? mother, EFOUp O. The father conch yo ood BFouP B. The father was of group B and the | heterozygous, half his children that he must be homozygous, IPi®, because if he were | ‘would be of group 0. Do you think his conclusion is justifiable? Solution | (a) The man must be heterozygous I4° 3 in order to have a child wi allele I? is recessive to dominant It eI eta am tie Parente nui bee |n order to have blood group 0, each allele that comes \ | (b) eee (ster os | Pomona Gt, | | | Parental genotypes wel x | | — OO XY / | ZA Offspring genotypes re} | Be | Pe | Fe \ Offspring prenotypes x A 0 0 \ —_— so —— Ratio of offspring blood grouns 1 1 The genetic diagram shows that the chance of the first child having blood group A is 50%. (c) The probability of both the first two children having blood group A =$xF= 45 25%, (d) No. The couple had only two children. Genetic ratios are unreliable with small numbers. When there are more than two alleles for 2 characteristic, the gene has multiple ieee. Blood groups in humans are controle by eee sine hoe multiple alleles. Heredity Scanned with CamScannerly identical individuals (twins), exhibit variation in their phenotypes? © Practiceal Book Link Experiment 15.14 and 15.18 id continuous Variations Pr cmscAul 19.5 Discontinuous an ) kinds of So far, you have read about the fonowr sith rio) intermediane fore, betweon * Traits that show clear-cut phenotyPe® + wendel’s P Raw Weoense cence imei Sane assoee traits: s these traits. For example, the seed oe ese ensornena af Free ere easly distinguishable and 275 no Here 3O bd Bune, = Trait sand litions. Example of such tre ‘oll tongue- ea or single-eyelidS and the ae ‘pigure ee te) which is controlieg variation, These traits show: discontinuous by one or a few genes. urbe of ence individuals in indo n weve population | gouble-eyelids singleeyeiss y Fair sin Daceninos ation ce ‘a Figure 19.17 Graph showing a Figure 19.46, Graph showing continuous variation discontinuous variation However, not all traits show discontinuous variation. Humans are not just dark or fair, tall or short. There are many intermediate skin colours and heights. Such traits show a continuous variation (Figure 19.17) from one extreme to the other. Continuous variation is brought about by the combined or additive effect of many genes. There are genes for dark skin and genes for fair skin. The more ‘datk- skin’ genes a person has, the darker the skin colour will be and vice versa. Continuous variation is also affected by environmental conditions. For example, a greater exposure to sunlight may cause a person to have a darker skin colour. Other examples include the human hei igh and intelligence, Se Scanned with CamScannerContinuous variation. Discontinuouslvariatl Deals with a range of phenotypes Deals with a few clearcut phenory, | (e.g. human skin colour) Dip pen oryelowr nance : @) warbler finch . fying insects aa {slender beak for feeding on small Insects which it catches in mid-air) |» ¢ > sppcal maintand = spe cancestal : ( insectivorous tree finch (parrotsike beak to feed on insects) targa neeas | _» ae? ‘vegetarian tree finch (curved parrotlike beak to. buds and fruit feed on buds and fruits) Se joodpecker (tool using) finch (large, straight beak to bore holes in tree trunk; insect larvae Uses a stick to poke insects out of holes in ‘woody tree trunk) UL» e we -s Figure 19.20 The different varieties of inches on Galapagos Islands ‘The island finches reproduced rapidly and competition arose _ i? Once separated, the island finches began to evolve along different lines from the mainland finches. Darwin's explanation is that ancestral finches from the mainland managed to get to the islands. Variations occurred among the finches. Natural selection began to take place. Those finches with beaks suited to a particular diet on the islands survived and reproduced. Eventually six major types Of finches evolved, each of which is adapted to a particular food source such as seeds, fruits and insects. species of finches, , ifferent ‘One common ancestor has evolved inte several differer ig called adaptive radiation. each adapted to a particular diet- uch a process is calle terest Scanned with CamScannerAs food is abundant and conditions 3° Sultable initially, the rabbits reproduce rap The rabbits may migrate to two different environments: for example, the dense forest and the open plain. open plain dense forest ye 7 Spontaneous mutation takes place. 7 See ie Ciaa’ producing varieties of coat colour Cae sen y and size. Competition among Cy Kt the different varieties results in on the survival of the fittest. Nature selects the variations with the favourable genes and features best suited to the environment to survive (natural selection) while the other variations may die or decrease in number due to predation. * Variety A has a dark colour ‘which camouflages it well in the dark forest. © This together with its small size and crouching position makes it less easily detected by predators. + Its small size also allows it to hide in crevices or among logs. Those that survive reproduce and pass on the favourabe alles to their offspring. They bean te predominant specie ‘their environment, =n * Variety 8 develops a light-colourec Coat. Its light-coloured coat is an 1° camouflage for the open plains. <= * Its larger size and long hind legs enat’ to run faster to escape from predator * The long ears give it a keener sens! hearing to detect predators. * Its uoright position allows it to see far! ‘@pproach of predators. Vv ; both for its source of food and for! ‘4 Figure 19.21 A theoret cal exaroe © how evolution cou Q- Scanned with CamScanner_ selection ills of years: humans have been iy nM ur mont and animals by selecting boy a 4 40 er ¥ preeding of plants olive ‘soya bean plants, bre elt yyeedind $0 ‘eeders want seeds that have high not dl ds from diffe i first analyse see iferent 1e04?Frg select plants that produce seeds with pants “content. By doing so, they are actually ace plants and animals with deshayees h NE to produc 0 i. Select @ Improved 1 etlon isa method They allow the ‘good’ seeds to grow into ‘ew plants and seltfertilise. The resulting Seeds with the highest oil content are _ nahi g plants with good gene combinations it | Selected and used again as parents for the |Next generation, ‘y After many generations, pure-breeding || plants that produce seeds with the | desired qualities are obtained. The plants can then be self-pollinated (without the need to select seeds) to ensure the desirable genes are inherited by future generations of Sometimes, breede! ies of ice anewand f plants to produce anew an i rs cross different varieties better variety. ‘Tris ig called hybridisation. For exemple, there is a vatey of . ot hod Alle sich in sugar. However, itis suscep! ible to ee orchids tivated sugarcane in Java that is ee way pe ern Sedu ine avelles tea oon reeds tnt even | voce anew vary \ loweve ed tru, that is, they do not prose tpg | However, hybrids do not Drew Nang that elther Ie nybricisation Kentcal to the pareve reproduction (propagation) os, hybrid seeds | Teproduced via vet 7 rneration. This ma Process has to be repeated every Ee! Heredity Quite expensive. | disease. The wildtype of sugarcane has lon SiGe to disease, Breeders crossed the two varieDir both resistant to disease and rich in suger desirable combination of genes from the Scanned with CamScannergood meat are selected ond useg ilk an unlike plants, animals Cann, vers ith fem eration. ‘rable traits with 2 bully ale parents for the next gener wil de: ely to obtain the desi be selffertilised. So, breeders ati y are more lk y able Selective breeding of animals Inkers of Inbr oe here are dangers oh Cows that produce plenty of mi Continually crossing Closely relat elated animats, inereecing can result has known required traits. This "2 ccumUati ene combi Iota mation of ene combination 1 aitforent breeds of armas, 1€ Population. Tr tised betwee! renty of good milk. But it doe, recone are Hylan i. pe yn 0 Ode pad he Bahan sy are Not expressed te) yn the ot t good milk prod re i yates. o cows are not E lucers, in the hetero not thrive well in warm elim ut their cow ith the Brann zygous m climates D Gow to mate with the Brahman Parents are more lel cattle thrives well in warm ow the JerSe¥ Soe re i 3a ‘two parent 2 pass toe passed conto, Breeders living towarm tn good omits from tne (60 P te ull, so that the the offspring. if the oe Bene codes for a genetic disease, ds of mating mi ; s of homozygous recessive It should be noted that many Leta ‘to select an s must ot at contains t 3d, So, breeders pure bree riety of cattle thé shieved, the ids. i down to the hybric ight be required to obtain a ‘d hybridise their cattle ungy he good qualities of both proved bree, oftsoring wi ster rom the disease. For they produce a new var is is acl example inbreeding the seey and Bratman breeds ONCE TE “nat is, breeding ATONE cosey among horses may of cattle must be maintained by Inbre " cause a lethal intestinal indivi ees related individuals. Brahman bull thrives: ‘well in warm climates, Artificial selection The environment selects for 4 varieties with traits best fitted to the environment. Those organisms that survive will reproduce and pass down their genes over generations. Natural selection is the process which results in the best adapted organisms in a population surviving to reproduce. These organisms pass on more of their genes to the next generation. e describe : BY nic an example of artificial selection in plants or ani Scanned with CamScanner NEWrAIeSeerteay Selection occurs when natural environmental condition change Humans select the varieties © ‘organism that suit their nee Varieties are produced by selective breeding Varieties are produced by mutationscontinuous: variation information is carted by AAS) tomosomes 6 snk Qiencnaus Oseettlt Dominant allele Complete dominance * eg. Mendes tall and dart pants Discontinuous ‘expresses itself and gives the ‘same phenotype i both homozygous ‘and heterozygous conditions } variation Codoninarce . bot alles Recessive alle contribute towards « does notexpress the phenotype of iset inthe the hybrid peteonyg0u8 + tratsare conation | vassredequal «gapresses tse on + eg. ena coleurin inthe nemanyenus ‘short-horned cattle conditions ‘and ABO blood groups caused DY Multiple alleles Magnes ex in Oe te alles «+ eg, 85081008 yours reetisatlon Meiosis Mutation + 0g. albinism anaemia Chromo: + eg-D oe muon o , sickle: cell some mutation rans sys. a @ Scanned with CamScannerAn organism, Tecessive t (a) Possessing a dominant trait is stronger 7 aos = {€) | Co-dominance can oniy occur when multiple alleles a0 Pre (@) | The Sox ofa human baby i determined bythe ma | ————__— {e) | The term mutipe aletes means that a cromosome | alee (9 Mutation is always detrimental to the organism (9) | Natural selection can operate on both continuous ‘Answers are available on page 447. Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions Huntington chorea is a rare lethal brain disease. It is 2 caused by a dominant allele. The allele is normally not expressed until middle age. Once expressed, death will follow within a few years. The diagram below shows a family tree of an affected family. The current age of the family members are shown in brackets. | Oe rot (heterozygous (60) Oso Orme ‘years ego) A raves Dravoa. ra Ho = (28) (20) (25) (31) 7 () 1. What is the probability that T will develop the disease? A 25% B 50% C 75% D 100% 2. Based on the present phenotype of the parents, what is the probability that Vwill develop the disease? © 50% oD 75% Hi Heterozygous parents always produce heterozygous o¥1SP ‘and discontinuous variations. anism with than an org gamete. ‘contains more than one Section B: Structured Questions 4. Coat colour in rabbit is controlled by the folonng alleles: ¢ —allele for normal coat (grey) @—allele for Himalayan coat c? —allele for albino Cis dominant to both o” and c*, while cis donina toc. ‘A rabbit breeder suspects that one of his normal coat rabbits is not homozygous. What would you advise him to do in order to find out the genotge the rabbit? What results would you expect? Expl your answer by means of genetic diagrams. Normal skin pigmentation is caused by a dorinar allele A. Albinism is homozygous recessive (22). What are the chances of getting an albino fron following crosses? (a) Aaxaa (c) aaxaa {b) AaxAa (@) AAxea Section C: Free-Response Q *Explain the role of mutation and natural se! evolution, Scanned with CamScanner