WAVES Aly OSCILLATIONSThe Physics of Waves and Oscillations N K Bajaj St Stephen’s College University of Delhi Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited NEW DELHI McGraw-Hill Offices NewDethi NewYork StLouis SanFrancisco Auckland Bogoté Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal SanJuan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo . Torontoia Ss Tata McGraw-Hill &. 1984. TATA McGRAW-HILL PUBLISHING COMPANY LIMITED ‘Twentieth reprint 2006 RXDYCDRKRZZLR No part of this publication can be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the publishers This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited ISBN 0-07-451610-8 Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi !10 008, and printed at na Offset. Delhi 110 032Contents Preface ’ 1 _ Free Oscillations of Systems with One Degree of Freedom: ~ Simple Harmonic Motion -1 1.1__ Introduction 7 1,2 What causes a system to oscillate 2 1.4 Characteristics of SHM_ 1.6 Total energy in SHM_10 1.7 Relation between linear SHM and uniform cij ~~ ‘iotion (the reference isle) 2 T 1.8 Rotating vector representation of SH! 1.9 Representation of SHM by a complex ex i 1.10 Some examples of SHM of systems with one d of freedom 17 et 2 Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations 54 2.1_Introduction _5¢ 2.2. The superposition principle and linearity 54 oscillations 57 2.4 Superposition of two perpendicular harmonic Sa 2.5 Superposition of many harmonic oscillati 3__ Free Damped Oscillations 89 3.1 Introduction 39 32 Damping forces 90 3.3 Damped oscillations of a system baving one degree of —— freedom _ 9) 34 Energy of weakly damped oscillator 100x Contents 3.5 Methods of describing the damping of an oscillator 103 3.6 Important examples of damped _harmoni¢ oscillators 109 4 Forced Oscillations and Resonance AS 4.1 Introduction 1425 ‘orced tions of a one-dimensional damy harmonic oscillator 126 4.3 _ Steady state behaviour of a forced oscillator 129 44 Driven LCR circuit 148 4.5__Other examples of resonance _/57 4.6 Transient behaviour of a forced oscillator 159 5 Coupled Oscillations 177 5.1_Introduction _177 5.2 Two coupled pendulums 178 5.3 The general method of finding normal modes _184 5.4__Beats (energy exchange) in coupled oscillations _/86 5.5 Two coupled masses 191 5.6 Two coupled LC circuits 196 5.7__Energy relations in coupled oscillations 200 5.8 Forced oscillations of two coupled oscillators 2/3 5,9 Many coupled oscillators 220 6 Normal Modes of Continuous Systems: Fourier Method 241 6.1__Introduction _241 6.2_ Transverse vibration of a string 242 6.4 Vibrations of air columns 263 Some comments on normal modes 268 Fourier method : general motion of a continuous system 269 Motion 291 7.1_Introduction 291 7.3__Mathematical description of harmonic wave : the wave equation 297 1.4 Wave velocities in continuous systems 302 7.5__Energy transport in travelling waves 3167.6 Waves in an absorbing medium 323 7.7 Waves in two dimensions 325 7.8 Waves in three dimensions 329 8 Reflection and Standing Waves 8.1 Introduction 344 82. Refi 4 ission of boundary between two strings 344 8.3 Reflection and transmission of longitudinal (sound) waves at a boundary between two media 354 8.4 Reflection and transmission in electrical transmission lines 360 8.5 Reflection and transmission of electromagnetic waves at a boundary 363 8.6 Suppression of reflection: impedance matching 366 9 Modulations, Wave Groups and Pulses 9.1 Introduction 384 9.2 Group and phase velocities 385 9.3 Wave pulses 395 9.4 Fourier analysis of pulses 403 9.5 Travelling pulses of constant shape 4/3 Contents ee. -)1 Free Oscillations of Systems with One Degree of Freedom: Simple Harmonic Motion 1.1 INTRODUCTION In everyday life we come across various things that move. The motion of physical systems can be classified into two broad categories : translational and vibrational motion. If the position of a body varies linearly with time its motion is translatory, ¢.g. a train moving on a straight track or a ball rolling on the ground. A motion that repeats itself in equal intervals of time is called periodic motion, e.g. the motion of the hands of a clock. If a body in periodic motion moves back and forth over the same path, its motion is called vibratory or oscillatory. Some examples of oscillatory motion are the oscillations of the arms ofa walking person, the balance wheel of a watch, the bob of a pendulum clock, the prongs of a tuning fork, the piston of an automobile engine, beating of the heart, wings of a flying mosquito, etc, Oscillations may be very complex such as those of a piano string or those of the earth during an earthquake. It may be remarked that mechanical systems are not the only ones that can oscillate. The atoms in a solid vibrate. The electrons in a radiating or receiving antenna are in oscillation. A tuned circuit in a radio can oscillate electro-magnetically. Radio waves, microwaves and visible light are just the oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Thus the study of oscillations is essential for the understanding of various systems —mechanical, acoustical, electrical and atomic. In this chapter we shall study the simplest and smoothest type of oscillatory motion, namely, simple harmonic moticn (usually designated as SHM) of systems having one degree of freedom. A system is said to have fone degree of freedom if it is completely specified by a single physical quantity. Some simple examples are a pendulum oscillating in a plane, a tnass attached to a spring and an clectrieal circuit involving a capacitance2° The Physics of Waves and Oscillations and an inductance (Fig. 1.1). A simple pendulum oscillting in a plane can be described by angle « that the string makes with the vertical, an oscillating mass attached to a spring by the displacement x from an average (or mean) position and an LC circuit by the charge Q un the capacitor or current Jin the inductance Let the symbol } cenote the physcial quantity that characterises a system with one degree of freedom. Fig. 1.1 Systems with one degree of freedom Among the various varieties of oscillatory motions, SHM is of central importance for three basic reasons : (i) ‘The oscillation of all physical systems is simple harmonic or a close approximation to it, if the oscillation is not too violent, (ji) We shall learn Iater that co:nplex oscillations, e.g. those of a piano string, can be expressed asa superposition of harmonic motions and (iii) The study of SHM is essential for the understanding of wave motion. 1.2. WHAT CAUSES A SYSTEM TO OSCILLATE The oscillation of a physical system results from two basic properties of the system, namely, elasticity and inertia, Consider a body in equilibrium so that forces on it balance. Let us displace it from its position of equilibrium (by doing work on it, i.c. applying a force) by a distance }. When it is released, a restoring force comes into play whose tendency is to ‘restore’ -¥ to its original value, which is zero, by imparting to it an appropriate nogative velocity d¥fdt. The magnitude of the restoring force is determined by the elastic properties of the system. Inertia, on the other hand, tries to ‘oppose any change in velocity. When the body reaches its equilibrium position (} ~ 0), the negative velocity is maximum which produces a negative displacement. The body then overshoots its position of equilibrium. The restoring force now becomes positive (i.e. it helps increase 4) and it must now overcome the inertia of the negative velocity. Consequently the velocity keeps on decreasing until it is zero but by that time the dispiace- ment has become large and negative and the process is reversed. This process of the restoring force trying to bring to zero by imparting aFree Oscillations of Systems’ 3 velocity and inertia preserving the velocity and making ¢ to overshoot, repeats itself and the body oscillates. 1.3 DESCRIPTION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION We shall first discuss the general dynamics of SHM and later analyse a few specific examples of oscillation of systems with one degree of freedom. We know that work has to be done on a system to displace it from its position of equilibrium, The restoring force F obviously depends on the work done to give a displacement }. Thus, F is some general function of Y. For systems oscillating violently (large ¥) the dependence of Fon ¢ is very complex. We shall not deal with such systems but focus our attention on systems in which the moving part always stays close to its mean position (small }). This is called sma'l oscillation approximation. For such systems, the restoring force is proportional to the displacement and opposes its increase. In other words, Fo—Ky (1) The negative sign indicates that F opposes increase in }. The constant of proportionality K is called the furce constant. In the SI system Kis measured in newton per meter abbreviated as Nm. The magnitude of K depends on the elastic properties of the system under study. In the specific examples of SHM w- shall compute the value of K in each case. Equation (1.1) is a statement of Hooke's law for elastic forces. The general definition of SHM is the motion in which the restoring force is proportional to the displacement from the mean position and opposes its increuse. We shall see that in such a motion the displacement varies harmonically with time. Equation of Motion Under the influence of a restoring force F(=—K¥) a body acquires avelocity doldt and an acceleration d*¥fdt2, If m is the mass of the body, then from Newton’s law (force == massx acceleration), the acceleration of the body is given by : #y Ky “ae =m (1.2) Equation (1 2) is the equation ef simple harmonic motion. The physical statement corresponding to this equation is thet the acceleration of the body in SHM jis proporticnal ‘and opposite in sign) to the displacement. In order to determine what typ: of motion is represented by Eq. (1.2) we need to solve this differential equation, i.c. obtain an expression of displace meat } as a function of time ft.4 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations General Solution ‘The equation of motion is a homogeneous second-order ordinary differen- tial equation with constant coefficients. Its solution is well known, but since we shall come across more difficult ones in the course of our study of oscillations, it is instructive to examine the methods of obtaining the solution. Thé usual procedure to solve any differential equation is 10 guess a solution and see if it works. First Guess (Trignometric solution) Equation (1.2) relates a function ¢(¢) (not yet known) to its second derivative d?}Jdt?, To satisfy Eq. (1.2) we must look for a function (1) whose second derivative d?¥/di?, except for a negative constant factor (—Kim), is the same as the function ¢ (¢) itself Our knowledge of calculus tells us that sine and cosine functions have just this property, since, 4 (sin 6) = cos 9 2 & (in @2) = — sing & (cos 03 = — siné Fos 6) = -- cos 6 ‘One can immediately verify that functions a sin @ and b cos @, where a and 6 are constants, also obey this property. Since angle 6, measured in radians, must depend on time f, we set @ = wf, where w is a constant to be measured in radians per second (rad s“!), Thus, let us try, as a solution of Eq. (1.2) ¥@ = asin ot Differentiating twice with respect to t we get, ey ae at = ae sin wt Substitution in Eq. (1.2) gives ~ao? sin ot = — X gain ot. m Therefore, if we choose constant w such that o= (= (13)Free Oscillations of Systems $ then } (1) = @ sin a is, indeed, a solution of Eq, (1.2). We can similarly verify that 4(1) = 5 cos w? is also a solution of Eq. (1.2). We can go a step further and say that _ ¥@ = asin wt-+b cos wt 4) is the general solution of Eq, (1.2) because dy Ge 4 08 wt—be sin wt and Ae = a (asin wt-+b cos wt) = — wh (1) which is indeed Eq. (1.2) with the constant w given by Eq. (1.3). Second Guess (Power series solution) We shall now make a much more general guess. We assume that (¢)is a power series in ¢ and see whether some choice of the coefficients in the series will satisfy Eq. (1.2). Let Wt) = ag tart-bart? +4303 -at*+ seen Differentiating twice w.r.t time ¢ we get LY wm raat Gast + Dau? 2001 which on substitution in Eq. (1.2) gives (Qaa+aqu*) + (6as-+are? t+ (12a6+a20)2+......= 0 For this equation to hold for every value of , the coefficient of each power of t must be zero, giving = a2 3 o oat ay a 0 12 24 Therefore, the series that satisfies Eq. (1.2) is W) =a ( petty a ott... na(H Seat.)6 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations or 4G) = ap 008 ott sin of since Here x = wt. Setting a = c1/w (w being constant) and b - ay we recover our earlier solution (1.4). Third Guess (Exponential solution) Power series is not always the best guess for te solution of differential equations. The guess that is most often made to solve any differential equation is to assume an exponential solution, i.e. ¥Oa=ce Where Cand « are constants. Differentiating twice with respect to # we get Bacar ao Substitution in Eq. (1.2) yields 2 von wy? or a=jia where i= V—1. Thus} (1) = Cie™ and (1) = Cre“? are the two possible solutions of Eq. (1.2). The general solution is Yet) Cr elt Cr eo One can immediately check that Eq. (1.5) satisfies Eq (1 2). (1.5) solutions, we have used a very i iple called tie superposition principle whieh holds oaly for linene differential equations (see See. 2 1), Equations (1.4) and (1.5. are completely equivalent but alternative ways of writing the same solution since we can always express the exponential function in terms of trignometric functions by using e* = cos 0+i sind e cos t---i sin & Using these in Eq. (1.5) we get Y(t) = (C1+C2) 008 wt--i (Cr Ca) sin wot If we set Ci-+C2 = band #(Ci—-C2) = 2, we got Eq. (1.4).Free Oscillations of Systems 7 In physics literature, Eq. (1.4) hes been written in various alternative forms, We shall now write it in the more coaventiona: form. Instead of writing (7) in terms oftonstants ¢ and 5 we will write it in terms if other two constants A and 8 which are related to a and b as a= Acos8 b~ Asin’ so that YO = Asin wt cos 8+-A cos wt sind or ¥() = Asin (wt}-8) ao where A and 8 are related to @ and b as A= (@+Eya and tans 2 a Some authors preler to write the cosine solution by setting a=—Asing and b= Acosg ‘00 that ¥( = A cos wt cos g—A sin wt sin ¢ or ¥ (0) = A cos (wt+¢9) an where the constants 4 and ¢ are related to a and b as A= (+b! and tang = — + In conclusion the solution of equation d4)/dt? = —w%) may be expres- sed in any of the fuur forms V0) = asin wt+b cos ot = Celt +Cz ert = Asin (ot+2) = A cos (wt+¢) Each solution contains two arbitrary constunts which are related as a= K(C,—C) = A cos 8 = —A sin ¢ b= CitC, =Asin 3=Acos ¢8 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations The equivalence of the solutions allows us to describe any SHM in any of the four forms. In much of our future analysis, however, we will find it extremely useful to decide in favour of the cosine fornt. 1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM We shall now proceed to learn the physical meaning of the three constants A, and 8 (or ¢) that characterize a SHM. The three characteristics of SHM are as follows. Amplitude ‘The amplitude of an SHIM is the maximum (positive or negative) value of the displacement from the mean position, Since the maximum and mini- mum values of any cosine function are respectively +1 and --1, tho maximum and minimum values of } in Eq. (1.7) are respectively +4 and —A. A is called the amplitude of SHM. Time Period The smallest time interval during which the oscillation repeats itself is called the time period (or simply, period) T of the oscillation, If time tin Eq (1.7) is advanced by 2m], tot’ = 1+27/w the function becomes Ue) = A cos (wt +4) = Aoos{ o (+2 +s} = Acos (wtt+$+2") = Acos (wt +9) =) In other words, the displacement repeats: itself in atime interval of 2nfw. Therefore, the period 7 is given by 2n [om ra NE (1.8) Frequency of SHM, is the number of oscillations completed in a unit time interval. Therefore, by definition, frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, ie. 1. x .=T an (1.9) 2 Thus om many (1.10)Free Oscillations of Systems 9 Quantity w is called the angular frequency of the SHM. In the SI system T is measured in s (second), v in Hz (Hertz) and w in rad s” (radian per second). The period (or frequency) is determined from the elastic and inertial properties namely, the force constant K and the mass m of the system under study. In Sec. 1.10 we shall compute time period of oscilla~ tions of some systems having one degree of freedom. Phase The argument (wt+4) of the cosine function is called the phase of the motion. The constant ¢ of is called the initial phase (i. ¢. phase at t = 0) or the phase constant. The phase of an oscillating system at any instant is its state as regards its position and direction of motion at that instant, The knowledge of the phase constant enables us to find out how far from the mean position the system was at time ¢ = 0. For example, if $ = 0 Ut) = A cost wt which means that the displacement was maximum = A at time t = 0, ie. when the motion was started. On the other hand, if ¢ = 7/2 40 = Acos( ott 2) = A sin ot ie. the displacement was zero at time ¢ = 0. In other words, the counting of time was started the moment the oscillator passed the mean position. ‘Thus phase constant is a measure of how much time had elapsed before the oscillator last passed the mean position. Amplitude 4 and phase constant ¢ are determined from the initial conditions, ie, the way the system is started at time t = 0 (see Sec. 111). 1.5 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN SHM It is instructive to learn how velocity and acceleration in a SHM vary with time. We know that displacement }(,) is given by Yt) = A 008 (wi +4) Velocity V and acceleration a are given by v= # = b=—A w sin (wt +4) =F 40(1-$)* (any and am Saha —wtdcos (tte) = oh (1.12) We notice that when the displacement is maximum (+A or —A) the velocity V = 0, because now the oscillator has to return and velocity must10. The Physics of Waves and Oscillations change its direction, But when {is maximum (+-A or ~ A), the dccele- ration is also maximum (--w'd and +-w2A respectively) and is directed opposite to the displacement. When | = 0, i.e. when cos (wt+) = 0, the velocity is maximum (wd or —wA) and the acceleration is zero. In Fig. 1.2) versus s, } versus ¢ and } versus ¢ curves are plotted for a SHM taking, for simplicity, ¢ = 0. Fig. 1.2 Variation with time of displacement, velocity and acceleration in SHM, phase constant is taken as zero, for simplicity 1.6 TOTAL ENERGY IN SHM Consider a system at rest at its position of equilibrium, When it is displaced from this position (by doing work on it) it acquires potential energy. When the system is released, it begins to move with a velocity, thus acquiring kinetic energy. At any instant of time, the kinetic energy 0 a system of mass ” executing SHM is given by [using Eq. (1.11)] Kinetic energy (KE) = $ mV? = Jma2A? sin? (wt-+9) (1.13) The kinetic energy of the oscillator varies periodically. It is maximum (= } ma2A?) when the velocity is maximum (:> J: « A) and displacement is zero. When the displacement is maximum ( = i 4), velocity V = 0 and KE = 0, At theso extreme positions, the energy is all potentiel At intermediate positions (¥ lying between O and 2: A), the energy is partly Kinetic and partly poteniial.Free Oscillations of Systems M1 A closer look at Eq. (1 7) reveals that the total energy of the oscillator must remain constant because the maximum displacement is regained after every half cycle If no energy is dissipated (we have neglected dissipative or non-conservative forces like friction), then all the potential energy becomes kinetic and vice versa. The energy of the oscillator may decrease not only due to friction in the system but also due to radiation. The oscillating body imparts peri- ‘odic motion to the particles of the medium in which it oscillates thus producing waves For example, a tuning fork or a string produces sound waves in the medium which results in a decrease in energy. Let us now compute potential energy at any instant of timer. Let } be the displacement at timo ¢. The potential energy is given by the amount of work required to move the system fromy = 0 to 4, by applying a force The force must be just enough to oppose the restoring force F = —Ky In other words, the force to be applied must be Ki). Work required to give an infinitesimal displacement di) = Ky dy Therefore, the total work done to displace the system from y tod = [xia = ge. Thus Potential energy (PE) = } KY? = $m aA? cos? (wt+-4) (1.14) where we have used Eqs, (1.3) and (1.7). Equations (1.13) and (1.14) give the instantaneous values of kinetic and potential energy. The total energy £ in SHM is, therefore, given by E=KE+PE = bmw Asin? (wt +$)+c0s(ut+4)} or E = }mord? which is constant as we would expect. It is obvious that the maximum values of kinetic and potential energy are equal (both equal to ¢ ma*A?) indicating that the energy exchange is complete. Figure 1.3 shows how the Kinetic and potential energy of the harmonic oscillator vary with time where, for simplicity, we have set ¢ = 0. It is instructive (and sometimes more convenient) to obtain the Eq. (1.2) of SHM using energy considerations. The total energy E of the oscillator is given by12 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations E= im(# yy +E Ky (116 time ¢ ar Sines Hi constant, dE/dt = 0. Differentiating Eq. (1.16) w.r. setting a = 0, we get. which is the Eq. (1.2) we have obtained earlier. Poteniiat Kaveti Zz wetic Fig. 1.3 Energy exchange in SHM 1.7 RELATION BETWEEN LINEAR SHM AND UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION (THE REFERENCE CIRCLE) The expression (1.7) for the displacement in SHM has a very simple interpretation in terms of a relation between a SHM along a line and a uniform motion ina circle. This relation also gives a very simple geo- Consider a particle P moving on a circle of radius A with a uniform speed (Fig. 1.4). Let T be the time period of this circular motion and let @ be the position of the particle at an instant of time [Fig. 1.4 (a)]. At time t= 0 the particle was at P. Ris the foot of the perpendicular drawn from Q on the diameter XX’ of the circle, Let us study the motion of R «ad (b) te Fig. 1.4 The reference circleFree Oscillations of Systems 13 as particle P moves around the circle. The point R moves from X to X’ and back to X as the particle P completes one revolution around the circle. During time rwhen the particle P moves to Q along the circle, the radius OP sweeps an angle 9. The angular velocity of the circular motion is w ~ angleswept _ 8 _ de time taken t T since when t = T, 9 = 2m, or 6 = wt. Now, in AOQR, OR = A cos@ or Y= Acos wt which agrees with Fq. (117) with ¢ = 0. Therefore, the motion of R is simple harmonic. Thus SHM can be described as the projection of a uniform circular moticn on the diameter of the circle. When this descrip- tion is nsed, the body P is called the reference body and the circle along which it move is called the reference circle, The quantity « of a SHM is the same as the angular velocity of the reference body. Using this description of SHM we shall now try to understand the meaning of g. In Fig. 1.4(b) the particle Pis not at X at time = 0. Let the angle POX be ¢. Now 6 == ZQOP, therefore LROQ = 9-¢ = wt ~¢, so that b= A cos (wt — 4) which also satisfies Eq. (1.2) and hence is simple harmonic, If we do not start counting time when the particle is at P but a little later, as in Fig, 1.4(c) we will get, v= Acos (wt+4) Hence phase constant ¢ is a measure of how far P is from X (or R from 0) at tims t = 0. Thus, the knowledge of ¢ helps us to know how much time had elapsed before the oscillator last passed the mean position. We can define SHM in two apparently unrelated but completely equivalent ways as follows @ SHM isa motion in which the acceleration of the moving part of the system is proportional (and opposite in direction) to its displacement Sram the mean position. (i) SHM is the motion of the projection of @ uniform circular motion on the diameter of the reference circle. 1.8 ROTATING VECTOR. REPRESENTATION OF SHM In Section 1.7 we have used circular motion as a purely geometrical basis to describe SHM. We have seen that the projection, on the diameter of the circle (or any straight line in the plane of the circle) of a vector OQ rotat- ing, in the anti-clockwise sense, at an angular frequency w, defines SHM. We can now visualize the relationship between the alternative forms ef the14 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations solution [Eqs. (1.4), (1.6) and (1.7)] more easily using the rotating vector representat'on. Let us represent the two terms a sin wt and b cos wt in Eq. => > (1.4) by the projections on the X-axis of two vectors OP and OQ, rotating at an angular frequency w in the counter-clockwise sense (Fig 1.5). The general solution } must be represented by the sum of the projections of > > OP and OQ. It is quite obvious from Fig. 1.5 that the sum of projections + + of vectors OP and OQ is equal to the projection of a single vector OR Fig 1.5 Rotating vector representation of SHM which isthe resultant of vectors OP and 0. Thus the general solution is represented equally well by the projection of OR on the x-axis. The projection of OR on x-axis given by Y = A cos (wt-+4) Which is solution (1.7). Itis clear from the disgram that ¢ = 3— 5 so that = Acos (wi 3) ne ‘A sit (wt4-8) which i Eq. (1.6). The equivalence of Eqs... (1.6) and (1.7) subject to the Conition shat 4.=,8-7712. allows us to describe any SHM equally well in terms if.a'sine or.a cosine, function. As. stated earlier we would prefer the cotine solution for the reason stated in the next section.Free Oscillations of Systems 18 1.9 REPRESENTATION OF SHM BY A COMPLEX EXPONENTIAL In the preceding section we have shown that the displacement in SHM may be represented by a rotating vector. A particularly useful, systematic and elegent representation of SHM resulis from the use of complex quantities. Consider a complex numberz - x+iy represented by the point R whose rectangular (cartesian) co-ordinates are (x, y) in the com- plex plane (Fig. 1.6). This number can also be represented by the vector Imog, axis Real axis 1.6 Representation of a complex number oR directed from origin O to poir:t R. Let the plane polar Soorinates of vector OR be (A, 0), where 4 is the magnitude of the vector OR and 0 is the angle it makes with the real axis, Now since, x = A cos 0 y= Asin @ We have | z= xtiy = A (cos 041 sin 6) = Ae If A is constant and @ = wt+¢, then Ae” signifies a vector of constant magnitude A rotating at an angular frequency w. Either the real or imagi- nary part represents a quantity varying harmonically with time. We have seen that Ae%*'+#) isa solution of Eq. (1.2) and it can be expressed as a combination of cos wf and sin wt by z= Aeltt#) = A cos (wt+9)+iA sin (wt+4) (1.17) This new solution is a complex quantity. Since the results of measure- ments are, in general, real numbers, this new solution, at first sight, seems to have very little value. The prime merit of this solution is the special property of the exponential function, namely that the function itself16 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations reappears after every operation of differentiation or integration. In sub- sequent chepte's we shall see that in the study of oscillations and waves we often come across equations involving periodic displacements and their —Real axis Fig. 1.7 Rotating vector representation of displacement, velocity and acceleration time derivatives. If we use the trignometric function to describe the motion, we will have to tackle an awkward mixture of sine and cosine terms. The confusion and unnecessary work can be avoided if we use the exponential function z and adopt the convention that we use only the real part of the function when we are required to check physical measure~ ments*. For example, if Y= Acos (wt +4) then b= ~Aosin tt 9) and = 08 A cos (wt +4) On the other hand, if we work with the exponential function z given by 2 = Acos (ot +d)+i A sin (wt+4) ie. = = Aero Y= real part of z (written as Re (z)] toe = jez and F = (iw PA ele = otz re our convention requires that we take only the real part of z, zand F to obtain respectively the displacement 4. velocity §, and acceleration “Y of the motion. © In Chapter 2 we will show that this is valid only for solutions of linear differential equations (i.e. equations that involve only the first power of the unknown function and its derivatives). We will prove that ifa complex function is a solution of a linear differential equation then its real and imaginary parts are separately also solutions of the same equation. We could equally well adopt the convention to use only the imaginary part of the function but the convention is to use the real part,Free Oscillations of Systems 11 *Figure 1.7 shows the vector representations for z, z and z. Since z=lozeezett and, 2s —0% = oz elt the velocity leads the displacement by 7/2 and acceleration leads the displacement by 7. Thus, differentiation involves counter-clockwise rotation of the vector by —- and multiplication by w. 1,10 SOME EXAMPLES OF SHM OF SYSTEMS WITH ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM ‘We'shall now analyse a few physical systems that oscillate with SHM. We shall obtain the expression for the time period of oscillation in each case. ‘It may be remarked that the variable ) in SHM need not always be linear displacement. It could represent angular displacement as in the case of a simple pendulum or charge (or current) as in the case of an electrical system involving a capacitance and an inductance. In torsional oscillations y is the twist and in thermal oscillations it is the heat. ‘The Basic Mass-Spring System ‘When a force is applied to a spring to compress or stretch it, the resulting compression or elongation does not bear a simple relationship with the force applied. Figure 1.8 illustrates the force-displacement relationship for a spring. The relationship is, in general, not linear. Only for small Force —» Compression °_. Etongation Fig. 1.8 Force-displacement relation for a spring18 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations displacements is the relationship linear (portion AB of the curve). The elastic force produced in the linear spring is given by F=—kx where x is the change in the length of the spring when a force F is applied on it The constant k is called the spring constant or stiffness constant and it is defined as the force required to produce a unit extension or compression in the spring. The unit of k in the SU system is Nm~. Let us now analyse two simple examples of a mass oscillating on 8 spring. Horizontal Oscillations Consider a massless spring of constant k, one end of which is fixed rigidly to a wall and the other end is attached to a body of mass m which is free to move on a frictionless horizontal surface (Fig. 1.9). Figure 1.9(a) is Relaxed FeO (a) | F Stretched [.£ Yi, (b) (c) Fig. 19 Horizontal oscillations of a mass the position of static equilibrium, the spring being relaxed and no force acting on it. When the body is pulled to the right [Fig. 1.9(b)] through a small distance x, the force exerted by the spring on the body is directed to the left and is given by F =—kx. This is the restoring fotce. Since the restoring force is proportional to the displacement (true only for small displacements) and is opposite in sign to the displacement, the resulting motion is simple harmonic. The body begins to move’ with a linear acceleration which, from Newton’s laws of motion, is given by dx ke a@ ~~ m* Comparing this equation with the equation of SHM, namely, ay _ gantFree Oscillaiions of Systems 19 We have - angular frequency wy = / a m time period T=2: af 2 and frequency ved ER Nm The displacement x as a function of time is of the form x = A cos (wt+$) Notice that angular frequency « (or period T) is determined for all circum- ‘Statices by (a) the inertia factor, mass m and (b) the elasticity factor, the spring constant k. The other two constants A and ¢, which are required for a complete specification of the state of motion, are determined from the initial conditions (see Sec. 1.11). Vertical Oscillations Let us now consider the vertical oscillations of a loaded spring. Figure 1.10 illustrates the equilibrium position and forct on the spring for two extreme Positions of mass m. In this case, the equilibrium state of the loaded Spring is the state when the spring is stretched by a distance d by the force mg where g is the acceleration due to gravity. No net force acts on the body, since mg = kd E 3 3 ¥NS8 3 33 oe 536 2 kg QB a - P85 Pt 3— é Fig. 110 Vertical oscillations of a loaded spring When the body is pulled through a small distance y from the equilibrium Position and reteased, it starts oscillatiny. with SHIM, since tbe restoring force is given by F =—ky, imparting an acceleration dy/di? given by20 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations which is the equation of SHM whose period is given by Too [™ » 2 which is the same as that for horizontal oscillations. The equation mg = kd determines spring constant k if m, d and g are known.* Mass and Two Springs System Longitudinal Oscillations Consider a body of mass m placed on a horizontal frictionless surface as shown in Fig. 1.11. It is connected to rigid walls by means of two identical massless springs, each of spring constant k and relaxed length ae In the equilibrium position (Fig. 1.11b), each spring is stretched to a larigth a. ‘The tension on each spring is givon by To = k(a—ao). Let the mass be displaced slightly, say to the right and released. It will execute longitudinal oscillation’. Let x be the displacement of the mass at any instant of time (Fig, 1.11c). The left-hand side spring exerts a force equal to k (a-+-x—d0) trying to pull the mass to the left. The right-hand spring pushes the mass to the right with a force equal to k(a—x—a.). Thus, the net force in the: Fig. 1.11. Longitudinal oscillations ‘*Notice that spring constant k will have different values for horizontal and vertical positions, since & is given by the slope of the force-displacement relation (Fig. 1.8) at the position of static equilibrium, which is changed in the vertical position by the addition of the force of gravity.Free Oscillations of Systems 21 direction of increasing x is given by Fe = Ka—x—a.)—ka+x—a.) = —2kx From Newton’s law, the equation of motion as ax m 2 = —2kx ax 2k or a oe which describes SHM at angular frequency oa] % ™ id Ta2m,[ and period = |e Transverse Oscillations Consider a mass m suspended between two identical springs, each of spring constant k and relaxed length a. (Fig. 1.12). In the equilibrium position each spring is stretched to length a and exerts a force given by T. = k(a—ae) (lig) o Pir Bary — a aL a — y a Z (out of paper) (c) Fig. 1.12 Transverse oscillations For simplicity, we neglect the effect of gravity which produces a little ‘sag’. The system has three degrees of frevdom. ‘The mass can move along x, y or z direction. Its motion along x-axis results in longitudinal oscillations already discussed above. The system is symmetrical with respect to x, y and z axes. If the mass is constrained to move along one direction, it will have no tendency to move along any other direction. Here we will consider one of the two transverse motions, namely, the onc along the y direction.2 The Physics of Waves and Orcillation: Let the mass be pulled in the fv directive a-d celeated, It will execute vertical oscillations. y be tne S equilibrium position at instant of i spring at this time. In the displac« each spring is given by T =k (l~a) (1.20) The tension is exerted along the asi. of eacli spring. Taking the x and'y components of this force [Fig. 1.12\.'] we sec tar the mass experiences no net force along the x direction but :!ng the y direction each « ing contri= butes a force T sin 8. Thus the res vi Fy=—2T sing ==? From Newton's law, we have ay mae * Using Eq, (1.20) we have dy = “Cin B yy (2p where J = (24-02) Since lis a function of y, Eq. (1.21) Coes not represent SHM because the acceleration d¥y/di? is not linearly pro-vortion.al to the displacement y. We shall corsider two approximations ia order to obtain a livear restoring force. @ Slinky Approximation A slinky is a helical spring which ca. Le sireichec) to a length a that is very large compared to its relaxei! lon 1 day withoue exceeding the elasie limit. In the slinky approximition (oa) we neglect acia compared to unity. Since />a, the tera in Eq. (1.21) can be neglected compare:i to unity. Using this approximation Eq. (1.21) reduces to “at m > (1.22)Free Oscillations of Systems 23 Notice that we can have large oscillations which are perfectly harmonic, Further, the frequency of transverse oscillations (under slinky approxima- tion) is the same as that for longitudinal oscillations. (®) Small Oscillation Approximation Tho slinky approximation does not apply to springs for which ae cannot be neglected compared to 7. In such cases we use the small oscillation appreximation, We assume that the oscillator always stays close to its equilibrium position, so that its displacement is small compared to any characteristic length of the system. In other words, we assume that y angle subtended by the string with the vertical at that instant. The force acting vertically down- wards at P is m g where g is the acceleration due to gravity. This force has a component m g cos « which acts along the string and is balanced by the tension in the string. The tangential component is m g sin « and -is directed opposite to increasing «. Thus, the restoring force is given by F=—mg sina = —mge (1- where « is expressed in radians. Fig. 1.13 The simple pendulum The restoring force is not proportional to x, the angular displacement, hence the oscillation is not harmonic. However, if « is so small that terms of order #* and higher can be neglected compared to unity* we have Fo-mgo= mgt since > = /a, where ) is the displacement OP along the arc, From Newton's law, the equa*ion of motion is ay __ me, meme a gy or ae * ogee ee “The error in replacing sin « by = is nearly 1% for'a = 0°25 radiin (or 14° ‘*). For smaller angles the error is even less.Free Oscillations of Systems 28 which represents SHM at angular frequency given by ont (1.24) and time period given by T= anf (1.25) 8 Notice that the period of oscillations is independent of the mass m of the pendulum, ‘The Compound Pendulum A compound pendulum is a rigid body, of any shape, capable of oscillating about a horizontal axis passing through it. Figure 1.14 shows a vertical section of a rigid body free to rotate about a point P. The distance / bet- ween point P and the centre of gravity Gis called the length of the pendulum. The pendulum is given a small angular displacement 0 and released. It begins to oscillate about point P. In the displaced position, the weight m g of the pendulum acts vertically downwards at G’, the new position of the centre of gravity. The pendulum tends to return under the influence of a reactive couple (or torque). The moment of the restoring couple =—m g/sin @, the negative sign indicating that the couple is directed opposite to displacement. If J is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about the axis of suspension through P, this couple is also equal P { rh \ | | Ly o Displace:, 1 GaP ones Equilibrium Sg position Fig. 1.14 The Compound pendulum Pa ay a tol ap where de 8 the angular acceleration, Thus, 2 128 =—mgisind If @ (expressed in radians) is small, as before, we replace sin 9 & 9, so that26 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Thus, the pendulum executes SHM and its time period is given by T= 20 J I mgl It is sometimes more useful and coavenient to introduce the moment of inertia about a parallel axis through G, the centre of gravity. If this is written as Ip = mk?, where k is the radsus of gyration of the pendulum, then we have, from the theorem of parallel axes, T= Io+ml? = mK? +1) Se & The time period is the same as that of a simple pendulum of length L= 2-41 This tength Z is called the length of the equivalent simple pendulum. The Torsional Pendulum A torsional pendulum consists of a massive body, such as a disc or cylinder, attached at its mid-point to a shaft or a wire suspended from a rigid support (Fig. 1.15). If the disc is turned in the horizontal plane (so as to twist the shaft) and then released, it executes torsional oscillations about the shaft as the If the disc is turned through an angle 6, the shaft is also twisted through the same angle 6. A restoring torsional couple =—+@ is called into play, which Fig. 1.15 The torsional pendulum tends to bring the pendulum back to its original position. Here = is the trsional couple per unit twist. If Tis the moment of inertia of the disc a about the shaft as the axis and -44., its angular acceleration, the couple ‘Shaft or wire Disc or cylinder due to the acceleration is given by ti In the dynamic equilibrium, both these couples must balance, giving 178, =x FOL v ae 7éFree Oscillations of Systems 21 Thus the disc executes SHM and its time period is given by reson ft cs From mechanics of materials, =, ia case of shaft is given by and 320 where d is the diameter of the shaft, / its length and 1 is the modulus of rigidity of its material. In the case of a wire of radius r, length / and modulus of rigidity 1, we have ‘Tart a t= —~_ .= Liquid Column in a U-tube A mass oscillating in SHM need not bea particle or a rigid body The body of a fluid as a whole can also ovcillaze One such example is the oscillttioa of the liquid column in a U-tube (Fig 1.16), The column of Static Displaced equilibrium column Fig. 1.16 Oscillations of a liquid column the liquid is displaced through y by gently b!owing into the tube. The columns exhibit vertical oscillations. Let Z, A and p be respectively, the lengta of the liquid column, area of cross-section of the tube and density of the liquid We shall neglect viscous effects. Since the right-hand side column is higher by 2y, with respect to the column on the left-hand side, the mass of this column of liquid ism = 2dey. The restoring force (which is a gravitational force) is given by F= -mg =—2Apgy =—Ky where the force constent K = 24pg. The angular frequency of the har- monic oscillation is = {= M28 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations where M = AL is the total mass of the liquid in oscillation. Thus o= J “TAC ew | 2 pAL The time period of oscillation is Tea fk i 2g It is interesting to note that the period of oscillation does not depend on the density of the liquid or the area of cross-section of the tube. Floating Objects Consider a pole of cross-sectional area A and mass M floating in a vertical position in a liquid of density p (Fig. 1.17). This is the static equilibrium Liquid evel Static equilibrium Fig. 1.17 Vertical oscillations of a floating pole state, because the weight of the pole is balanced by the weight of the liquid it displaces If we displace the pole by a distance y (by dipping it further in the liquid), the buoyant force on the pole increases by pAgy because pdy is the mass of the liquid displaced by this further dipping ; g being the acceleration due to gravity. We have neglected viscous effects. ‘The restoring force F on the pole is given by F =—pAgy =—ky where K = edg is the force constant. The angular frequency of the resulting harmonic oscillations is given by “VB T =2n Vz and periodFree Oscillations of Systems 29 ‘The Electrical System We have so far restricted ourselves only to mechanical systems. We shall now discuss harmonic oscillations of an electrical circuit consisting of a capacitor Cand an inductor L (Fig. 1,18). “The equilibrium state is the a Qu c ~~ Tell on = ¢ Fig, 1.18 The oscillatory circuit state when the capacitor is uncharged and no current is. flowing in the circuit, This state is disturbed by pressing the key, thus charging the capacitor. Letg be the charge on the capacitor so that V = q/C is the voltago across the capacitor plates. When the key is released, the capa- citor starts discharging through the inductor, i.e. the charge changes with time and a current 1 = 42 is established in the inductor. In this circuit the restoring force is due to the force of repulsion between electrons. This force tends to distribute electrons equally on the capacitor plates so that there is no net charge. Inductance, on the other hand, tends to oppose this redistribution, i.e. it opposes the increase of current. At any instant of time, the voltage across the inductor is di a VoL =-L GF The minus sign indicates that the voltage opposes the increase of current. From Kirchhoff’s law this voltage must equal the voltage g/C across the capacitor plates, giving, 1h o or with Thus, inan electrical circuit consisting of an inductance L and a capaci- tance C, the charge oscillates harmonically with an angular frequency w= 1/yZC and period T= 27 VTC, At any instant of time, the charge ¢ is given by30 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations q = Go 008 (wt-+$) where qo is the maximum value of the charge and ¢ is the phase of electron oscillations. The current in the circuit is given by t= vs — ge sin (wt +4) or where io = «go, is the maximum value of the current. If Vo is the applied voltage, tol since go = CVoand » = IVC Energy Considerations The LC circuit resembles a mass-spring system in the sense that each has a characteristic frequency. To understand how an LC circuit oscillates, let us assume that initially the capacitor C carries a charge g and the current in inductor Lis zero, At this instant, the electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor is and that in the inductance is zero, since / = 0 initially. As time passes, the capacitor starts discharging through the inductance and a current i = dgidt is established in the inductor. As g decreases, Ee decreases and i increases, so that the energy now appears around induc- tance as the current is building up. When the capacitor is completely discharged, the magnetic energy, =p En = Li associated with inductance is maximum because the current is maximum and Fe» O since q = 0. Thus, although at this time g = 0, 4 is not zero; it is, in fact, maximum. The large current in the inductor starts transporting charge across the capacitor plates and the capacitor is charged again. It storts discharging again and the current now flows in the opposite direction. Eventually the current returns to its initial value and the process continues. The energy exchange occurs between the electric field of the capacitance and the magnetic field of the inductance. The total energy of the system is conserved, since the system considered here does not contain any resistive component, so that there is no dissipation of energy. ThusFree Oscillations of Systems 31 E=E+En = + £44 12 & constant Differentiating and setting FO, yields (using s = -42-) 7440 ’ Lapten 1.26) which is the force equation obtained earlier. A comparison between Eqs (1.2) and (1.26) indicates that mass ir mechanical systems and magnetic field inertia in electrical systems play analogous role. The mass controls the velocity change for a given force and the magnetic field controls the rate of change of current for a given voltage. 1.11 INITIAL CONDITIONS In Sec. 1.10 we have computed the frequency (and period) of the harmonic oscillations of a few systems having one degree of freedom. We noticed that the frequency was determined solely by the clastic and inertial properties of the system under study and is not dependent on the way the system was set into oscillation initially. The system, once disturbed (in any arbitrary way) and released, oscillates with its own characteristic frequency called the natural frequency. Let us now learn-what determines the other two constants, namely amplitude A and phase constant ¢, of the oscillator. These constants are determined from the way the system is started. Consider the example of a simple pendulum. The pendulum can be set into oscillation by a variety of ways. We can displace it (say, to the right) and let go, so that it has a finite initial displacement and no initial velocity or we can give it a kick when it is at its equilibrium position, in which case, it has a finite initial volocity but no initial displacement or we can start with some initial displacement and then push it when we let it go, in which case, it has a finite initial'displacement and a finite initial velocity, The way a system is set into oscillation is called the initial conditions. Suppose at timet =0 (i.e. when the system is released) we give an initial displacement Yo and an initial velocity Vo which are both specified. This is the most general way in which a motion can be started. The values of do and Vo will determine the constants 4 and ¢. The displacement and velocity of a system in SHM at any time f are respectively given by Ut) = A cos (wt+¢) and V0) = Bt =A o sinlort s)32 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Setting ¢ = 0 in these equations, we have bo = Acosd and which give va VEV2 and A= ( e+ ot ) Knowing w, Ye and Vo; A and ¢ can be determined. ‘Thus only the initial values of } and 4 are required to completely predict the motion of the oscillator at any later time ft. In fact, once the initial conditions are specified, it is not even necessary to solve Eq. (1.2) of motioa in order to determine the future motion of the system. This can, quite generally, be shown as follows : We know that any fanetion {(1) is completely specified by its Taylor's series expansion uo = +t ( SE) F a ECF aot (Ge be 20 where ((¢) satisfies the equation £Y aod (1.28) dy , In expansion (1.27) (0) = Yo and (4 ) =V,are specified by the "0 initial conditions stated above. Eq. (1.28) then determines ( i ) Which to» is given by = ~ ar, ™ (a The next time derivative of Eq. (1.28) determines (3) which is give mo by (B).n-» (Bae di Substituting for 4(>), (4); ( e) ete, in Eq. (1.27) we have 2 2 MO) = bobo Fp OMe Ee et Po acneFree Oscillations of Systems 33 -) +2( ot on +) sin or = ¥(I- = Yo cos wt-+ Vo which indeed is the solution [sce Eq. (1.4)] we have obtained earlier with Yo = aand ¥ = b, This equation determines {(s) at any later timo t, as w, Yo and Vo are known. ‘Thus, we conclude that once the initial conditions, namely and di/dt at t=0 are specified, the values of all the higher derivatives at t= 0 are determined and hence the future motion of the oscillator is known. One can generalize and state that the motion of an oscillator, acted upon by any force that depends upon 4, will be determined completely just by giving specific values to its initial displacoment and its initial velocity. In mathematical language, this implies that the solution of any second-order differential equation has just two arbitrary constants. SOLVED EXAMPLES Example 1.1 A particle oscillates with SHM of amplitude 4 cm and a frequency of 5 Hz. At time ¢ = 0 the particle is at its equilibrium position (Y = 0). (a) Write down the equation describing the position of the particle as a function of time in the form %= A cos (wi+¢), giving the numerical values of A, « and ¢. a dt’ a 10 and Oh att = =z 8? (b) What are the values of ¥, 3 Solution (a) The equation of motion is } = A cos (wt+¢), where amplitude A = 4 cm frequency v = 5 Hz .", angular frequency w => 2nv = 2m X5 = 10m rads Now, at. = 0, = 0. Substituting in ¥ = A cos (wt+ 4) we have cos ¢ = 0, giving $ = + 2/2 Thus A = 4 om, w = 10m rad st and ¢ = + m/2 (b) For $ = +-3- we have y= Aco ( ott) =-Asin wt34° The Physics of Waves and Oscillations “ zi =—Aw cos wf \ = © sacin Att= 10. 5, we have 3 b= —4sin ( torx 2 ) = 4 sin (292) = 4sin (3374-3) =+4sin F = 42\/F om ay nonem st Ge 7 207 0m s , and eo =~ 200 7V3 cms? ng 4 Ty , i. For $ =—5-; 4, “Gand -fiy- are respectively —2y Fem, —207 cm sand 200 my3cm s?. Example 1.2. A particle vibrates with SHM of amplitude 5 omanda period of 6s. How long does it take to move from one end of its path to a position 2.5 cm from the equilibrium position on the same side ? Solution The equation for the displacement of the particle in SHM is ¥ = A 008 (wt +9) z = 7 ot 3 rads Let us suppose that at ¢ = 0, the particle is at one end of its path, ic. at 1 = 0,0 = Aso that A~Acos(0+d) or cos $ = Setting ¢ = 0 we have Y= Acos of where A= Sem and w= 1 or ¢=0 The value of # for which } = 2.5 cm is given by 2.5 = 5 cos wt 1 or cos of = > ot = or 3 7 t= Bots(von Fite)Free Oscillations of Sysiems 38 Example 1.3 Show that the values of 7, the period of the three simple harmonic oscillations (a), (b) and (c) in Fig. 1.19 are in the ratio of l:v2: aS All springs are identical, each of spring constant k and of mass that is negligible compared to mass m. a (b) Fig. 1.19 Solution Case (a): Let us suppose that an elongation y is produced in the spring when a force mg is applied to it. The equilibrium position is given by Fomg=ky @ If tho system is displaced and released, it will execute SHM of period given by Toon 5fB « Case (b): As the length of the spring is doubled, a given force mg will produce double the extension in this case. Let »’ be the extension produced and k’, the spring constan: of the combined system. In the equilibrium position (‘." y’ = 2y) Fomgoky =2ky (ii) Comparing (i) and (iii) we get k= 2k ork’ = k/2 The period 7; of SHM in this case is Ta as] eon J = yin (iv) Case (c) : In this case, the extension y” produced in each spring by a force mg is half that produced in case (a), ie. y” = y/2. If k’ is the spring constant of the combined system, we have Fom=Kwy aE y o‘36 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Comparing (i) and (v) we get K" om 2k The period 73 of SHIM in this case is nam fm k From (ii), (iv) and (vi) we have (vi) TiT,:Ts = Example 1.4 A massless spring with no mass attached to it hangs from arigid stpport. A mass m is now hung on the lower end of the spring. ‘The mass is supported on a platform so that the spring remains relaxed. The supporting platform is suddenly removed. The mass begins to oscillate. The lowest position of the mass during the oscillation is 5 cm below the place where it was resting on the platform. (a) What is the frequency of oscillation ? (b) What is the velocity when the mass is 2.5 cm below its original resting place? Take g = 10 ms. Solution It is clear from Fig. 1.20 that the separation between the two extreme positions of the oscillating mass is S5cm. Therefore, the equilibrium position is 2.5cm below the supporting platform. In other words, the force mg produces an extension of» = 2.5cm in the spring. If k is the constant of the spring, we have =—— Relaxed spring Platform 1 | 25¢m Sem | <—Equilibruim position 1 frl——u t positi uy owest position Fig. 1.20Free Oscillations of Systems 37 mg = ky Substituting for y and g we get A. & = dd ems? < 4yg 52 m y 2.5 cm ‘When the mass is 2.5m below the platform, it is passing through the equilibrium position and hence has maximum velocity given by Venax = As = 2.5%20 = 50cm 5 since A, the amplitude of oscillation is 2.5 cm. Example 1.5 Two massless springs of force constants ki and kz are connected to mass m placed on a horizontal frictionless surface as shown in Fig. 1.21 (a) and (b). Obtain the cxpression for the time“period of horizontal oscillations in each caso. | ky ky | Ky ke | (0) (b) h Fig. 1.21 Solution Case (a): Let the mass be displaced through a distance x, say, to the right. Let x; and x2 be the extensions produced in the springs of constants ky and ka respectively, so that x = x1+2x2. Since, the restoring force F exerted on the mass by each spring is the same, we have Fe—hix =—kex2 giving %1 =—Fiki and x2 =—Flk2 . 1 1 ‘ xentn=-F(42) whence F=—kx, where k = ZA is tho effective force constant of the combination. Hence the time period 7’ of the oscillation is ™ = on (|e) kikz T= om 238 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Case (6): In this case, if the mass is displaced through a distance x, say to the right, the spring k1 is extended by x and spring k2 is compressed by x; 80 that the restoring force exerted by each spring on mass m is in same direction, tending to bring it to its original position. If Fi and F2 are the restoring forces due to ki and ke respectively, we have Total restoring force F = Fi-+F2 =—kix —kax =--(ki-+ka) x =—kx where k = ki+k, is the effective force constant of the combined system. Hence To 2m,f™ = 2 fm k J kitke Example 1.6 A small spherical steel ball is placed a little away from the centre of a concave mirror whose radius of curvature is 2.5m. When the ball is released, it begins to oscillate about the centre. What is the period of the oscillations ? Neglect friction and take g = 10 ms. Fig, 1.22 Solution Place a small steel ball at A, a little away from the centre O of a concave mirror of radius of curvature R (= OC = AC) as shown in Fig. 1.22. Let ZAOC=6. If m is the mass of thé ball, its weight mg acts vertically down- wards at A. This force is resolved into two rectangular components : mg cos @ (which is balanced by the reaction of the mirror) and mg sin (which provides the restoring force F). Thus F=—mg sing = —mg6 (since gy R is small, R being very large) Y = RA; being the arc OA) = KyFree Oscillations of Systems 39 where force constant K = mg/R. Thus the motion is harmonic and the angular frequency is given by YEU oe T=2n dl 8 25 = 2x3,142x = J 10 3.148 Example 1.7 A simple pendulum is dis- < placed from its mean position O to a position P until the height of P above O is 0.05 m (see Fig. 1.23). It is then released. Calculate its velocity when it passes the mean position O, Take g = 10 ms? and neglect the friction offered by the medium. Solution The potential energy of the pendulum at P = work done (against gravity) in raising the bob of mass m to a vertical height h=mgh. Fig. 123 ‘When the pendulum is released, it oscillates. The energy when it passes O is entirely kinetic and is equal to }mV? where V is the velocity at the instant of time the pendulum passes O. Since frictional losses are neglected, the entire potential energy at P must be converted into kinetic energy at O, giving @ 5 -c05m mV? = mgh or vo veh = ¥2x10X0.05 =1mst Notice that the velocity depends only on g aad / and is independent of the length and mass of the pendulum. Example 1.8 A uniform spring of constant k and a finite mass m is loaded with amass M. Ifm is not negligible compared to M, show that the period of vertical oscillations is T= 2x ,{ Omi) Solution Consider a uniform spring of length /and mass m suspended from a rigid support, carrying a mass M at its lower free end, as shown in40 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Fig. 1.24. Consider an element (of the spring) of length ds at a distance s from the fixed end. Since mass per unit length of the spring is m/l, tho inas$ dm of this element is dm =F ds @ Fig. 1.24 Let us assume that the various parts of the spring undergo displacements Proportional to their distance from the fixed end, as indicated in the diagram. We can now compute the total kinetic energy of the spring at an instant when the mass M has a displacement }. Now the displacement per unit length of the spring is ¥//. Therefore, the displacement of the element located at sis 4° and its velocity ris at . Tod (ii) From Eqs. (i) and (ji) the kinetic energy of the spring at any instant of time can be obtained by integrating the above expression, treating dlat as constant. Hence, we have (KE)oriss = The kinetic energy of the mass M is KE)mn = > (HYFree Oscillations of Systems 41 The total KE of the spring-mass system 1 m\f ap : - ot( tr 4\(4 y (i) If kis the spring constant, the restoring force F when a displacement } is given to the system is —ky. Therefore, the potential energy of the system. is given by ¥ Pe = [kia = Je ) 0 From Eqs. (iii) and (iv) the total energy £ of the system is 1 m\ dv yt, Bap (a gr yag “ Since, the total energy of the system must remain constant, we have gE ‘ a= 0 Ditforentiating Eq. (v) and setting 4F = 6, we get oy ky det (MF mf) indicating that the system executes SHM of period p= 20, [OCF k The above calculation is not exact because we have assumed that the extension of an element of the spring is proportional to the distance from the fixed end and that the velocity di/dt is the same for all elements of the spring. In fact, different clements undergo vifferent accelerations. The expression for time period’ will hold if m < M, in which case, the stretching force does not vary appreciably with distance along the spring and can be treated as roughly constant. Thus,'the expression for time period 7 is only approximate and the factor m/3 can, at best, be regarded as.a small correction factor that increases the period slightly. Hence, if m < M but not negligible compared to M, the finite mass of the spring effectively slows down the oscillations, Example 1.9 Compute the frequency of an electrical circuit consisting of a coil of inductance, 0.1 mH and ‘a capacitor of 1.0 uF. What is the maximum current in the circuit if the capacitor is charged to5V? ‘Neglect the resistance of the coil. ws ew °2 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Solution £=01 mH = 10H C= 10uF = 10%F Frequency ‘" EVE - 1 ""2x9.042x(10-4x10-912 = 1.59 10° Hz Maximum current = V ie = 106 x fT = O54 Example 1.10 A string of length L = 100 em is stretched with a tension T = 10N between two fixed points 4 and Bas shown in Fig. 1.25 (a). A mass m = 10 g is fixed at @ distance ¢ = 25 cm from point A. Deter mine the frequency of the vertical oscillations of the mass, assuming that the tension remains constant for small displacements, Solution Figure 1.25 (b) shows the displaced position of the mass, The nct restoring force acting on the mass js fe 0 —reg—- (LG) —ol (bv) Fig. 0.35 F=—T sin 0; —T sin 62 If the displacement } is small ¥ sin 0) % tan 1 = a ¥ sin 3 & tana = 7 TL ‘aL—a) * Fe-T (442 Th where Ko aia)Free Oscillations of Systems 43 Hence on Vs Th ma (L~-a) =1,/—7 and Y= oR mE ay Sabousting for 7 = 10.N, m = 105107 kg, L=1m and a=0.25m ‘we get’ y= 11.6 Hz Example 1.1] A hass m is attached to a spring of spring constant k via a friction-less pulley of radius r and mass M as shown in Fig. 1.26. Determine the frequency of vertical oscillations of the mass using (a) Newton’s laws of motion and (b) energy considerations. Solution Figure 1.26(c) shows the displaced stato of the system. (bY Equistrium state (€)Drspluced stote Fig. 1.26 (a). Newtons Laws of Motion The force equation for mass m is ex m “gaa me—T @ ‘The torque equation for the pulley of mass M is 2 1S = Tr—he? (0400) Gi) _ where J = } Mr? is the moment of inertia of the pulley about an axis passing through the centre O and perpendicular to the plane of the pulley. But, in tho static equilibrium, we have [see Fig. 1.26(b)] mg = kro Eliminating 7’ between (i) and (ii) and using mg = krdo, we get Po Px d maa t 4 Maa =—kro44. The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Bu x=re and VN Hence we get (nti a) SS ks or be} eax with ° (waam)" , (b) Energy Considerations The total energy E of the system is the sum of the kinetic energy of the mass, the rotational kinetic onerey of the pulley and the potential energy of the mass. ational KE at dx P Translational KE of mass m =~} m( a ) day_4 oy Rotational KE of pulley = 1( ; ey = time (4) —ta( ey PE of mass m = } kx? Hence E = KE of mass+KE of pulley+PE of mass oem a (me ENG) + ae Now the total energy i of the system remains constant, i.e. dE. an? This gives dx dx de (mf \e tke, Zao dk, Since & is not always zero, we have ox ke dt (m+M)2) giving «= (uzun)?Free Oscillations of Systems 45 Example 1.12 A simple pendulum consists of a rod of mass m and length / which is pivoted at O and carries a mass M at the other end as shown in Fig, 1.27. Using energy considerations, determine the frequency of the pendulum, if (a) 3n* ‘Thus py 3m Example 1.13 A rectangular pan of base length 2 L is partly filled with water up to a height 4 as shown in Fig. 1.29 (a). When the pan is pushed alittle, the water begins to stosh. Assuming that the water surfaco temains practically flat during sloshing, show that the time period of the sloshing mode is given by ~ on rem ih where g is the acceleration due to gravity.4% The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Solution Figure 1.29 (a) shows the static equilibrium and Fig. 1.29 (b) shows one extreme position of the surface (assumed flat) of the sloshing liquid. Let us obtain the equation of motion of the centre of mass of the liquid as it sloshes. The motion is obviously two dimensional. Let (t, 7) be the coordinates of the centre of mass of the liquid while it is sloshing and let (%, ijo) be the coordinates of the centre of mass of the liquid when it is in equilibrium. It is clear from Fig. 1.29 (a) that o, 3 Figure 1.29 (b) consists of two portions of the liquid; rectangular portion ABCD and triangular portion A DE. The centre of mass (7, 9) of the entire portion A BC E can be determined as follows : Let G1, fi) be the coordinates of the centre of mass of the portion A BC D and (%2, 92) be the coordinates of the centre of mass of portion A D E. Then . le TF LHe) bg (nw os . 7 a b-——- 21 ——-| ——| fms (a) Equirbaum state {b) Displaced state 4 Fig. 1.29 &, fi) = (2 bey where 4 is the vertical displacement of liquid surface. The centre of mass"* of triangle A D Eis at the centroid. Therefore & = CASS, (49+ b Oo » (4. 54) If b is the width of the pan and p the density of liquid, then ‘Mi ( = mass of rectangular portion A-B C D of the liquid) = pb(2L) (hy) | = 2pbL(h—¥)Free Oscillations of Systems 49 Ma ( = mass of triangular portion ADE of the liquid) = $ebx2Lx 2p = 2pbLp The coordinates (#, 7) of the sloshing liquid are given by ge Mit Me Mi+M2 = 2ebUh—WL+ 29bLIAL/3 2ebL(h—y) + 2pbLy or z= Lint Similarly y= Mita Mi+Ma = 20bL(h— VM h~ W) +266 LUSh— YI 2pbL(h—Y)+2pbLY or gta F Gna (ut5t. $48) The coordinates of the centre of mass at equilibrium are G, 90) = (2, 4-) If the entire mass is assumed to be concentrated at the centre of mass of the system, then the increase in potential energy is Mg (j—Jo), where M is the mass of the liquid. Now Aik e I= 3+ -2 a y= Ly and Ema Lt FP Ok = we find that g. 3h 9—Yo = 573 FH)? i 3h .*. Increase of potential energy = Mg (4 )e -2)2 If tho origin is shifted to (Xo, Jo) and the potential energy at (0, Zo) is taken to be zero, then potential energy at X = (?—30) is given by s Mgh PE = = ir50 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations In other words. the potential energy of the centre of mass is propor- tional to the square of the displacement X = (#~%) of the centre of mass. Hence the motion of the centre of mass is simple harmonic. For a ic oscil: withe = = harmonic oscillator JE wo have PE = } KX? Thus, in our case, = 3Mgh K-72 giving w= eh T=2 JE * Sah The sloshing water in lakes is called a seiche. The kinetic energy is almost entirely due to horizontal flow (along x) and potential energy is due to a change in the vertical level of water. Ina lake of depth 150m and length 60 km, the sciches of period of 1 hour have been observed. QUESTIONS 1, Define SHM. Give two examples of SHM not mentioned in the text. Why is SHM of central importance in the study of oscillations and waves ? 2. Name the three physical parameters that characterize a SHM. Give the meaning of each. 3. ‘Al ple harmonic motions are periodi simple harmonic.” Comment. 4. Show, by the sppropriate choice of constants @ and 6 in equation yWsas but all periodic motions are not er+b cos ot that equally valid solutions for ¢ (1) are Y(t) = A cos (cot +4) = Asin (of +8) cos (or) = Asin (ot—8) and check that they satisfy the equationFree Oscillations of Systems $1 5. Show that the fellowing solutions of equation 4 4u2y = 0 are equi- valent. ¥@ = asin ot+b cos of = Asin (ot+8) = A cos (wi—$) = Cr exp (iot)+C2 exp (—iot) 6. Show that the equation y(t) = 4 sin (2=1/T+8) of a particle executing SHM implies that the energy of the oscillating particle does not change with time. 7. Show that the equation 4 () = Acos (w'—¢) of a particle executing SHM_ indicates that the time period of motion is 2=/«. 8. Deduce an expression for the energy of a harmonic oscillator of mass m, amplitude A and frequency y. At what displacement is the energy half- kinetic and half-potential ? 9, Explain clearly how a harmonically varying quantity can be represented by (@ a rotating vector and (ii) a complex exponential. 10. A mass m is attached to two identical rubber bands, each of stiffness constant # and of mass that is ncgligible compared to m. Obtain the expression for the frequency of the small amplitude transverse and longitu- dinal oscillations of the mass. Hence, show, that the longitudinal oscillations are more rapid than the transverse oscillations. 11, Oneend of a uniform spring of constant k and a finite mass m is attached toa rigid wall. The other end of the spring is attached to a body of mass M(>ni) placed on a horizontal frictionless surface. Show that the angular frequency of the horizontal harmonic oscillations is [&/(M-+m/3)]}/2 (Hint. See Example 1.8.) 12, Using energy considerations, deduce the expression for the frequency of the small-amplitude oscillations of a simple pendulum and show that it is inde- pendent of the mass of the pendulum bob. 13. A hollow metal sphere is filled with water and hung from a rigid support by along thread. When the sphere is made to oscillate in a plane, the period of its oscillations is found to be 2s. A small hole is then made at the bottom of the sphere. As the water flows out, it is observed that the period of oscillations first increases and then decreases ; eventually regaining the value of 2 seconds, when the sphere has become empty. Explain. (Hint : As water flows out, the centre of gravity of the sphere is lowered till the sphere is half empty, resulting inan increase in the effective length of the pendulum. Beyond this state, the centre of gravity starts rising.) 14. Deduce an expression for the time period of vertical oscillations of a liquid column in a uniform U-tube. Neglect viscous effects Check the equation for dimensional consistency. 15. Using energy considerations, deduce the expression for the frequency of a oscillatory electrical circuit consisting of an inductance and a capacitance. Neglect the resistance of the coil.152. The Physics of Waves and Oscillations PROBLEMS 1. A simple harmonic motion of amplitude 0.01m has a time period of 2 s. Calculate the velocity and ation when the displacement is half the amplitude. 2. A particle executing SHM has an amplitude of $cm and a period of 2s. Find the velocity of the particle at a point where its acceleration is half the maximum value. 3. A body moves with a SHM of frequency 0.5 Hz and amplitude 4.0 cm. Starting at a time when the displacement is +4.0 cm, find its displacement, velocity and acceleration 1.25 s later. 4. A particle vibrates with SHM of amplitude 5 cm and period 6 s. How long will it take to move from one end of its path on one side of the equilibrium position to a position 2.5 em on the other side of the equilibrium position? ‘What is the magnitude of its velocity at this point ? 5. A particle executes SHM with amplitude A. If its starting point from rest is (@) y = +4, (©) Y=—A, (©) ¥ = 4/2 and (4) } = 0, find the different values of the phase constant (¢ or 8) for the solutions ¥@) & Acos (ot+$) 4() = Asin (or+3) 6. A particle executes SHM with amplitude 4. If its starting point from rest is @) ¥ = +4, (0) y =—A, (©) } = A/2 and (@) y = Al4/7, find the different values of the phase constant ($ or 8) for the solutions YG) = A cos (wt—$) ¥@) = Asin (or—8) 7. The amplitude of the SHM of a particle is 5.0 cm. When its displacement is +3.0 cm, its velocity has a magnitude of 0.5ms~1, Find the period of its motion. If the mass of the particle is 10 g, what will be its total energy 2 8. A particle is vibrating in SHM with an amplitude of 10 cm. What fraction of the total energy is kinetic when the displacement of the particle from the mean position is 5 em? At what displacement is the energy half kinetic and half potential? 9. Compare the displacement-time graphs of the two motions given by 1 = 0.01 sin xe and 42 = 0.01 sin (nt-+n) where the physical quantities are measured in SI system of units. State the amplitude and period of each motion and the phase difference between them 10. A load of mass 0.5 keg hangs from a spring of force constant 10 Nm-1, ‘The mass is pulled down 0.05 m from its equilibrium position and then released, (a) What is the distance between the two most widely separated positions ofthe mass? (b) How long does it take to traverse this distance ? “In the following problems, take ¢ = 9.8 ms~2, wherever necessary) 11. When a mass is hung from the lower end of a spring of negligible extension of 10 cm is produced in the spring. The mass is set into vertical oscillations, Calculate the period of oscillation. 12. A heavy object, placed on a shock absorber such as a rubber pad, come Presses it by Jem. If the object is given a vertical tap, it will oscillate Compute the frequency of oscillation, Neglect damping. (Hint : Assume that the pad acts like an elastic spring.)13. Free Oscillations of Systems $3 ‘An uniform spring has certain mass suspended from it. The spring is cut into two equal halves, and the same mass is suspended from one of the halves. Will the frequency of vertical oscillations be the same as before? How is the frequency in the second case related to the first ? A.uniform spring of force constant & is cut into two pieces whose lengths ‘are in the ratio of 1:2, What is the force constant of each piece in terms of k? ‘Two identical spriags, cach of force constant &, are connected as shown in Fig. 1.30. In each case, find the value of the effective force constant of the system in terms of k, for the oscillation of body 4. (0) (b) (c} Fig. 1.30 A pendulum clock shows accurate time. If the length of its pendulum increases by 0.1 per cent, what will be the error in time per day. By what percentage should the length of the pendulum of a clock be changed 20 that it keeps correct time when moved from a place where ¢ = 9.80 ms-2 to a place where g = 9.82 ms2? |. A person normally weighing 60 kg stands on a platform which is oscillating up and down harmonically with a time period of 1.08 and an amplitude of 10 cm. If a weighing machine on the platform gives the person's weight against time, what will be the maximum and minimum readings shown by it? ). A platform is executing SHM in a vertical direction with an amplitude of Sem and an angular frequency of 20rad s-!. A block is placed on the platform at the lowest point of its path. (a) At what point will the block leave the platform 2i(b) How far will the block rise above the highest point reached by the platform? Take g = 10 ms2. ‘Suppose a tunnel is dug through the earth (assumed to be a homogeneous sphere) from one side to the other along a diameter. A body dropped into the tunnel takes atime ¢; to reach the centre of the earth. 1f the accele- ration due to gravity had remained uachanged, the body would have taken atime f2 to traverse this distance. What is the ratio 11:12? Neglect frietion offered to the motion. (in the first case, the motion of the body is simple harmonic with a period Tm 2m 4/ Rig» where Ris the radius of the earth and g is the acceleration due to gravity at its surface.)2 Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations 2.1 INTRODUCTION In Chap. 1 we have discussed the simple harmonic motion of systems having one degree of freedom. In the following chapters we will often come across physical situations which involve the simultaneous application (or super- position) of two or more simple harmonic oscillations on the same system. Such situations are particularly common in acoustics. A microphone diaphragm or a human eardrum is subjected simultaneously to various vibrations. The actual motion or the diaphragm or the eardrum corres- ponds to the resultant effect of the superposition of the various vibrations. In this chapter, we shall consider some specific cases of this superposition process. In order to obtain the resultant of two or more harmonic oscilla- tions, we shall make use of a very important principle called the superposi- tion principle which states that “The resultant of two or more harmonic displacements is simply the algebraic sum of the individual displacements”. In the following section, we shall discuss the validity of this principle. 2.2 THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE AND LINEARITY In Sec. 1 10 we have analysed the oscillations of systems with one degree of freedom, in which the moving part always stays close to the equilibrium position For small oscillations, the restoring force F is proportional to displacement 4 (F =—K%) and the resulting oscillations are harmonic, The equation of motion for the oscillations [see Eq. (1.2)] contains terms ry that depend only on J or a with no terms that depend on higher 4 powers of } or am Such an equation is said to be linear. Thus, a linear differential equation is the one that contains terms that depend only on the first powers of the variable and its derivatives. On the other hand, if. theSuperposition of Harmonic Oscillations 58 moving part of the system oscillates violently, i.e. with a large amplitude, as, for example, in the case of a simple pendulum when sin « cannot be replaced by x (see page 24) the restoring force would contain terms that depend on 4, 4, 43, etc. In other words, the restoring force would not be linear in } and the equation of motion will then be nonlinear. Nonlinear equations are generally difficult to solve. Often one has to take recourse to numerical methods. In this book, we shall deal only with linear differential equations. Fortunately, we come across many interesting physical situations which, to a very good approximation, can be described by linear equations. Further, an equation is said to be homogeneous if it contains no terms independent of the variable }. Linear homogeneous differential equations have a very interesting and important property : The sum of any two solutions is itself a solution. This is also the statement of the superposition principle.’ The superposition princi- ple holds only for linear differentia) equations. It does not apply if the equa~ tions are nonlinear. In other words. the sum of two solutions of a nonlinear equation is not itself a solution of the equation. We shall prove these statements by considering a particularly simple non- linear differential equation. Let us say that the oscillations of a system with one degree of freedom are governed by an equation of the form FY moth ta BP bn en This is the equation of motion of a simple pendulum when sin « cannot be replaced by «. Equation (2.1) is nonlinear because it contains terms like ¥, Pete, Ifthe constants «, B, etc. in Eq. (2.1) are all zero (or can be taken to be zero as a sufficiently gocd approximation), then Eq. (2.1) is linear and homogeneous. Equation (2.1) is not easy to solve? We do not need to solve it either, Let us suppose that we have somehow solved it and that ¢1 (1) and da(t) ‘are the two solutions of Eq.(2.1°. By hypothesis, }: and 42 must each satisfy Eq. (2.1). Thus we have AL a oth tad +B en and 22 = — atta tv BHt +. 03) It is interesting to find out whether or not the superposition of Yi and 2 defined by the sum } = di+2, satisfies the same equation of motion We have already used this principle in Chap 1 without explicitly stating it. While solving Eq, (1.2) we found that (1) =a sin otand + (#) = bcos ot both satisfy Eq. (1.2), We went a step further and showed that ¥(¢) = a sin ot +6 cos wt also satishies the equation and hence was also a solution of the equation. ‘2The nonlinear simple pendulum can be solved exactly. See Berkeley Physics Course Vo! .1 p. 225 McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965 or H.J. Pain, The Physics of Vibra- tions and Waves p. 300, John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 1976.56 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations (2.1). We shall assume that it does and then arrive at a contradiction. If Y = t+ is also a solution of Eq. (2.1) we must have (replacing } by Vty) POH) = tH. 4) Adding Eqs. (2.2) and (2.3), we get YP otal teihte Tt. Qs) If our assumption that }+42 is also a solution of Bq. (2.1), then Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5) must both hold. These equations agree if and. only if all the following conditions are satisfied : @ ae Oth) = e + oi th.) = —0%—wf2 abit? = o(b3 +98) BOhi+42)? = BOE +42) The first two conditions aro true, but the last two conditions are not true, unless « and fi are zero. In other words, our assumption that Ji+}2 is a solution of Eq. (2.1) can be realized if and only if the nonlinear terms (Le. those with constants @, 8, etc.) are absent. Thus we conclude that the superposition of two solutions is itself a solution, if and if the equation is linear. The superposition principle does not hold for nonlinear equations. The Importance of the Superposition Principle To illustrate the application of the superposition principle, let us consider the example of the motion of a simple pendulum. For small oscillation the equation of motion, namely, Saas is linear. Under a given set of initial conditions (ie. displacement and velocity at t=0), let the solution be 41, given by t=A1 008 (wt+¢1) where Ai and ¢1 are determined from the given initial conditions (Geo Sec. 1.11). Remember that angular frequency « does not depend upon the initial conditions. Under another set of initial conditions, the displacement ais given by U2 = Ay 008 (wt-+¢2) where 42 and 2 are determined from the new set of initial conditions. Now suppose we prescribe a third set of initial conditions as follows. We‘Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations $7 superpose the initial conditions corresponding to 41, and ¢2. In other words, we give an initial displacement equal to the sum of the initial displacement corresponding to $1 and that corresponding to 42 and give an initial velocity equal to the sum of the initial velocities correspon- ding to}: and 42, Then, from the superposition principle, the now motion described by 43 is simply given by the superposition of 1 and Y2, i.e. d= Ath There is no need to solve the equation of motion to find the new motion. Thus, the resultant of two or more harmonic displacements is given by the algebraic sum of the individual displacements. Remember, this result holds only if the equation of motion is linear. We shall now apply this principle to deduce the resultant of various kinds of superpositions of two or more harmonic displacements. 2.3 SUPERPOSITION OF TWO COLLINEAR HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS Oscillations Having Equal Frequencies Suppose we have two SHMS of equal frequencies but of different amplitudes and phase constants acting on a particle (or a system) in the x direction, The displacements x1 and x2 of the two harmonic motions, of the same angular frequency w, are given by 1 = At Cos (wt-+41) (2.6) and 32 = A2 008 (wt +42) an where di and A2 are the amplitudes and ¢1 and ¢2 are the phase constants of the two motions. The resultant motion of the system, which moves in the x direction under the simultaneous effect of the two harmonic oscillations, can be found by the following methods. (a) Analytical Method We use the superposition principle which states that the resultant displacement x is equal to the sum of the individual displacements x: and 32, 1.6. x= ate = Ai 008 (wt +$1)-+A2 cos (wt-+¢2) Using the trignometric identity cos (+8) = cos « cos B—sin « sin 8, this equation can be rewritten as X = (Ai cos $1-++A2 COS $2) COS wt— (A: sin $1 + 42 sin $2) sin wt (2.8) Now let (see also Fig. 2.1) A: sin $1-+-A2 sin $2 = Asin 3 (2.9) and 1 008 $1-+42 608 $2 = A cos 8 (2.10)58 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations where 4 and 3 are constants to be determined. Using the transformations (2.9) and (2.10) in Eq. (2.8) we have x = A cos (wt+8) (2.11) A (Ay sin Q, 4A) sin (Ay cos 9) + 82 c05 92) Fig.2.1 Transformation into Aand 5. . Equation (2.11) shows that the resulting motion is simple harmonic with an angular frequency w, the same as that of the individual SHMs. The resulting motion has an amplitude A and a phase constant 8, A and3 can be evaluated from Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10). Squaring these equations and adding, we find that the resultant amplitude A is given by A = Ai +A3+2A1A2 COs ($2— $1) (2.12) Dividing Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10) we find that the phase constant of the result- ing motion is given by At sin $1+ A2 sin $2 Ai cos $1+-A2 cos $2 Thus we conclude that the resultant effect of two collinear SHMs of equal frequencies is a simple harmonic motion of the same frequency but having amplitude and phase constant given respectively by Eqs. (2.12) and (2.13). (b) Vector Addition of Amplitudes (Geometrical Method) ‘The rotating vector representation of SHM (see Sec. 1.8) provides a very simple geometrical method of obtaining the resultant of two SHMs of. equal frequencies, In Fig. 2.2 (a) let OP; be a rotating vector of length Ai (the amplitude of the first oscillation) making an angle (wt+¢1) with the a-axis at time , where w is the angular frequency of the oscillation and ¢1 its phase constant. The projection ON: of OP; on the x-axis is the displace- ‘ment x; of this motion at time 1. Let OP2 be a rotating vector of lenth Az at an angle (wt +¢z). Its projection ON2 on the x-axis is the second SHM of the same frequency «, amplitude A2 and phase constant ¢2. The superposi- tion (veotor sum) of these two motions is then represented by the vector OP as defined by the parallelogram law of vector addition. As OP; and OP, rotate at the same angular frequency, we can imagine the parallelogram OP; PP: rotating at the same angular frequency. The resultant vector OP can be obtained as the vector sum of OP; and P1P as shown in Fig. 2.2 (b), tan 3 = (2.13)Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations 59 the vector P:P being equal to vector OP2. Since ZPOM=at+¢1 and ZP:0N2=«t-+$2 the angle between OP: and P:P is just ¢2—gi=4. Hence , we have & = (A1+A2 cos g? + (42 sin 4)? or AP = AE+AR+2A1A2 Cos $ which is the same as obtained earlier [see Eq. (2 12)]. Fig. 2.2. (a) Superposition of two rotating vectors of the same frequency (b) Vector triangle for obtaining the resultant vector The total phase of the resultant motion is given by ZPON. Let this be (wt+8), where 3 is the phase constant of the resultant motion. It is evident from Fig. 2.2 (b) that s=B+dr = = —tan B-+tan gi tan B= tan B+) = — Tian 8 tan gi Now tan B = 42 sin $/(4:+A2 cos ¢) with = $= $2—$1 Substituting for tan 6 in the above equation and simplifying, we get = Aisin $142 sin go tam 8 08 Girt da COs os which agrees with Eq. (2.13) obtained earlier. (c) Use of Complex Exponential Representation The use of complex exponential representation of SHM (see Sec. 1.9 ‘Chap. 1) leads us directly to the results obtained above. In the complex exponen: tial repretentation, the rotating vectors OP; and OP: are described by the following equations : Zi = Avexp lot+¢1) and Za = Az exp i(wt-+¢n)60 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations The displacements x1 and x2 are respectively the real parts of Z1 and Z2. From the superposition principle, the resultant complex displacement Z is given by Z=Z4h = Ai exp itt gi) +42 exp (wt+¢2) This equation may be recast in the form Z = {Ait Aa) exp i($2—gu)} exp (wt + $1) (2.14) Notice the advantage of using the exponential representation which permits us to take out the common factor exp i(wt+¢i). Now, we know that Re'® signifies a vector of constant magnitude R rotated in the positive (counter-clockwise) direction through an angle 9. Thus the com- bination of terms Ai+ AyrAge Fig. 2.3 Meaning of (4y-+42 exp i(¢a—#:)} exp lot + $1)Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations 61 It is evident from Eq. (2.12) that the amplitude of the resulting oscillations is maximum given by Anax = Artz if cos (J2—di) = +1 or $:~¢1 = 2mz, whore mis an integer with values m = 0, I, 2, 3,-... On the other hand, the resultant amplitude is minimum given by Amin = Ai—A2 if cos (42— $1) =~ 1 or g2—gi = (2m+1) =, For other values of the phase difference (¢2—¢1) the resultant amplitude 4 lies between Amex and Armin. Oscillations Having Differeat Frequencies : Beats In the subsequent chapters we shall come across many physical phenomena in which the moving part of a system is subjected simultaneously to two harmonic oscillations of different frequencies. To analyse the resulting motion of the system, let us consider two harmonic oscillations of different amplitudes 41 and Az and different angular frequencies 1 and «2. For simplicity, we assume that the two oscillations have the same phase constant which we take to be zero’. The two harmonic oscillations can be written as 1 = At 008 ant (2.15) x2 = A2 008 wrt (2.16 From superposition principle, the resulting oscillation is given by x = x1-bx2 = A cos wit-+-A2 Cos wat (2.17) We shall now recast Eq. (2.17) into a particularly simple form. Let us define on average frequency wa and a modulation frequency wm as : =e (wito2) and = wm = $ (w2—a1) where w2>1, so that 1 = we—wom a2 = wetom Substituting for w1 and w2 in Eq. (2.17) we get 1X = Ay COS (We—dm) t+-A2 COS(wa-+ Om) t or x = (At-+A2) 608 wm f COS wat—(A1—A2) Sin wnt Sin wat (2.18) ‘Now, as before, let (Ar-+-A2) C08 comt = Am COS Bx (2.19) and (A1—Aa) sin mt = Am Sin Bre (2.20) ‘3We could take the initial phases to be different and non-zero. It turns out that a finite initial phase difference only adds to the mathematical complexity and is, in general, not of major significance in this case.62 The Physies of Waves and Oscillations Using these transformations in Eq. (2.18) gives X = Am COS (wet +5n) (2.21) where Am and 3n are given by [use Eqs. (2.19) and (2.20)] and A A= Af+Ai+241A2 cos (2omt) (2.22) = (41-42) sin omt tan Be = -(41-$A2) 008 ant (2.23) The formal resemblance of Eq. (2.21) with the equation of SHM is misleading. In fact, the oscillation described by Eq. (2.21) is not harmonic since its amplitude Am and phase constant 8, both vary with time according to Eqs. (2.22) and (2.23) respectively. This oscillation can, at best, be described as periodic with an angular frequency w., the average of the two component frequencies. Beats. Recasting of the superposition (2.17) in the form of Eq. (2.21) becomes useful if «1 and w2 are nearly equal, i.e. 2 & wr so that Om < wa In that case, the ‘modulated’ amplitude 4m and ‘modulated’ phase 8n vary only slightly with time and may be treated as sensibly constant during the time scale of interest, which in our case, is the period (21/wa) of the fast oscillation. Therefore, Eq. (2.21) will represent an ‘almost’ harmonic oscillation at an angular frequency w.. The resulting oscillation, in the case when the two frequencies of the SHMs are nearly equal, exhibits what are called beats, The amplitude 4m of the resulting motion is maxinum (= 4:+42) when [see Eq. (2.22)] 08 (mt) = +1 or emt = 0,27, 47... or (@2—a1) t = 0, 2a, 4m, or Im(va—vi) 1 = 0, 2, 4m, or when 12 OS aw” Here v1 ( = ws/2n) and v2 ( = «2/2) are the frequencies of the two SHMS expressed in hertz. Hence the time interval between two consecutive maxima = ——. The ao frequency vs of the maxima = v2—vi. The amplitude dm of the resulting motion is minimum (= 42~ 4,) when 608 (Zeomt) = —1 3 5 or when 1 = 55 > oGscuy? Fpscup et: Hence the frequency of the minima is also v, = v2 -v1. Between any two maxima, there is aSuperposition of Harmonic Oscillations 63 minimum. The periodic variation of the amplitude of the motion, resulting from the superposition of SHMs of slightly different. frequencies, is known as the phenomenon of beats. One maximum of amplitude followed by a minimum is technically called a beat. The time period t between the successive beats is called the beat period given by bo vv and the beat frequency vs is given by wean Hence the beat frequency is equal to the difference between the frequencies of the component oscillations. (a) Harmonic oscill (b) Harmonic oscillation at frequency v.: (¥: (©) Superposition of (a) and (b) and anharmonic oscillation with period = UQ2—vi) Figure 2.4 displays graphically the result of superposing two harmonic oscillations of different frequencies. Notice that Figs 2.4a and 2.4b are harmonic oscillations but their superposition shown in Fig. 2.4c is periodic but not harmonic. Beats in Sound. Place two tuning forks of the same frequency on a resonance box and sound them. A continuous sound will bz heard. The intensity of sound does not increase or decrease with time. Now stick a little wax to the prong of one of them so as to reduce its frequency. We will now actually hear beats. The intensity of the resulting sound will increase and decrease periodically with time. By counting the number64 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations of beats heard in a given interval of time, we can calculate the beat frequency and hence dete:mine the difference between the frequencies of the two forks. To take a specific caso, if two tuning forks are vibrating side by side at 480 and 486 Hz, their combined effect would be a vibration at 483 Hz (average of 480 and 486 Hz) passing through a maximum of amplitude 6 times ( = 486—480) every second. Applications of Beats The phenomenon of beats is of great practical importance. Beats can be used to determine the small difference between frequencies of two sources of sound. Musicians often make use of beats in tuning their instruments. A piano tuner uses beats to tell whether his standard tuning fork has the same frequency as the string of his instrument. If the two differ in frequency, i.e. are out of tune, he will hear beats. He adjusts the tension in the string and thus changes the frequency of the note emitted by the string and matches it with his fork. Sometimes beats are deliberately produced in a particular section of an orchestra to give a pleasing tone to the resulting sound. A more complex beat phenomenon, resulting from the superposition of many harmonic oscillations of different frequencies, is employed to transmit a signal from one place to another. The beats called wave groups or packets propagate in space. We shall deal with them in Chap. 9. We shall come across beats in chapter 4 where we shall discuss the motion of a harmonically driven oscillator, We shall again encounter beats while discussing the motion of coupled oscillators (see Chap. 5). Thus, there are many physical phenomena which involve beats. 2.4 SUPERPOSITION OF TWO PERPENDICULAR HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS Oscillations Having Equal Frequencies Suppose a particle moves under the simultaneous influence of two per- pendiculer harmonic oscillations of equal frequency, one along the x-axis, the other along the y-axis. Let A: and A2 respectively be the amplitudes of the x and y oscillations. For simplicity. let us assume that the phase constant of the x oscillation is zero and that of the y oscillation is 3, so that 8 is the phase difference between them. There is no loss of generality in doing so. Thus, the two rectangular SHMs can be written as 4It may be remarked that the knowledge of the phase constant of a simple harmonic motion does not furnish any useful information about that motion, for the simple reason that the phase constant can have any value depending on how we start the oscil- ation at time ¢ = 0. In the case of two or more SHMs, the relevant and much more meaningful quantity is the phase difference 8 between them. We small sce that the subsequent motion of the particle depends on and not on the individual phase constants.‘Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations 68 x = A\ 008 wt (2.24) y = A2cos (wt+8) (2.25) where x and y are the displacements along two mutually perpendicular directions. The resulting motion of the particle can be obtained as follows: (@) Analytical Method The path followed by the particle can be traced by eliminating time ¢ from Eqs (2.24) and (2.25) so that we are left with an expression involving only xandyand the constant 8. Expanding the argument of the cosine in Eq. (2.24), we have % = cos wt cos & sin wt sin 8 Aa 2 \tI2 But from Eq. (2.24), cos wt = x/Ai and, therefore, sin ot = ( -- ) ft Therefore, for(i ar)” sina “a” A or ( Sy o08 8-2 =(-4 :)" sin 3 Sein bt we Set Ft — BE cos 8 = sin? 8 (2.26) This is the general equation of an ellipse whose axes are inclined to the coordinate axes. Hence, the path followed by the particle, which is subjected to two rectangular SHMs of equal frequencies, is, in general, an ellipse. Let us consider a few special cases : (i) 8=0. In this case, Eq. (2.26) reduces to 244 Att aE aa = ° = (rfteyes This represents a pair of coincident stright lines, y= 42 x, having a positive slope 42/41 and passing through the origin, The resultant mation is rectilinear and takes place along a diagonal of a rectangle of sides 2A: and 242 such that x and y always have the same sign, both positive or both negative (Fig 2.5). The direction of motion can be easily determined from the defining Eqs. (2.24) and (2.25) by setting 3 == 0, x = Aj COS wt y = A2 008 wt which immediately give » = 4s, the equation of the straight line of6 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations slope 4. At time ¢ = 0, we have, x = At, ¥ = Az $0 that the particle is at P at t= 0 (see Fig. 2.5). As time passes the cosines begin to Fig. 2.5 Superposition of two perpendicular SHMs of the same frequency for phase difference 8 = 0 decrease until x and y become zero when wf = a/2. The particle moves from P to O, After this time, x and y become negative and at time when wt = 7, x becomes —Ai and y is—A2. The particle moves from Oto P’. After this the particle retraces its path. The particle continues to vibrate along the straight line PO P’. This represents what in optics is called a linearly polarized vibration. (i) 3= + In this case, Eq. (2.26) reduces to Bye a tap! which is the equation of an ellipse whose principal axes lie along the x and y axes, as shown in Fig. 2.6. The particle moves in an elliptical path. The direction of its motion can be determined from the defining equations (2.24) and (2.25) with 8 = 7/2. X= Aj 008 wt *\ ee ym trees or = Ae sino From these equations, the equation of the ellipse, obtained above, immediately follows. At time 1=0, x= Ai and y=0, So that the particle is at point P at 1 = 0 (see Fig. 2.6). As time ¢ begins to increase from zero, x begins to decrease from its maximum positive value 4: and y immediately begins to go negative. Ata time when wt = 7/2, x becomes zero and y equals 42. The particle moves from P to Q during this time.‘Superposition of Harmonie Oscillations 67 The subsequent motion of the particle is indicated by arrows in the diagram. The particle traces out an ellipse in the clockwise sense. This Fig. 2,6 Superposition of two perpendicular SHMs of the same frequency and phase differences 8 =1/2 represents what in optics is called the right-handed elliptically polarized vibration. The rotating electric field vector of the electromagnetic wave is always confined in one plane, with its tip tracing out an ellipse in the clockwise direction. If, in addition, 41 = Az < A, the ellipse degenerates into a circle atyp—# Fig. 27 Superposition of two perpendicular SHMs of the same frequency and phase difference 3 = © Thus, two harmonic oscillations, at right angles to each other, of equal amplitudes and equal frequencies but with phases differing by 7/2 are ‘equivalent to a uniform circular motion, the radius of the circle being equal to the amplitude of either oscillation. Conversely, a uniform circular motion can be resolved into two SHMs, at right angles to each other, their ampli- tudes being equal while their phases differ by 7/2 (see also Sec, 1.9, Ch. 1).68 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations (iii) 8 = 7, In this case, Eq. (2.26) becomes yh, 2 yee This represents a pair of coincident straight lines, y =— 4 x, having a negative slope —A2/Ai and passing through the origin. The ellipse degenerates into a straight line, as shown in Fig. 2.7. or Gv) 8 = 32. In this case, we have x = A; cos wt y= Arcos ( ort 32 = Asinw t which give arte We have an ellipse of the same, form &s in case (ii), but the motion is now counter-clockwise. In optics, such a vibration is called the left-handed elliptically polarized vibration. The sequence of motions for a few values of 3 in the range 0 to 27 is illustrated in Fig. 2.8. Notice that the resulting motion is the same for 8 = 0 or 2a. This is expected since for 8 = 0 or 27 y = Az cos (wt-+0) = Aa cos (wt-+-27) = A2 cos wt Fig. 2.8 Superposition of two perpendicular SHMs of the same frequency for various phase differences (6) Graphical Method The above results can also be obtained graphically by a double application of the rotating-vector technique. This is done as shown in Fig 2.9. Draw two circles of radii Ai and Az, the amplitudes of the two perpendicular SHMs. The circle of radius Ai defines the SHM along the x-axis. Let O:P1 be the position of the rotating vector at a certain instact of time 1, The projection of O1P: on the x-axis (O1Ni = OX = x) gives the instantaneous displacement,‘Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations 69 x = Ai 008 wt The circle of radius Az defines the SHM along the y-axis. Let 0:P2 be the position of the rotating vector at time ¢. The projection of O2P2 on the y-axis (0,V2 = OY = y) gives the instantaneous perpendicular dis- Placement y = £2008 (wt +2) y-axis +——m x-axis Ar Wig. 2.9 Geometrical representation of the superposition of two SHMs at right angles to each other If the particle has SHM only along the x-axis, its displacement at time ¢ would be x = OX where ¥ is the projection of Pi on the x-axis. On theether hand, if the particle has SHM only along the y-axis, its displacement would be y = OY, where Y is the projection of P2 on the yaxis. Consequently, if the particle was subjected to both the SHMs simultaneously, its resultant displacement at time f would be OP. Point P is the intersection of perpendiculars drawn from P, and P2 on the x and y axes respectively. The two displacements together describe the instantaneous position of the point P with respect to the origin O that lies at the centre of a rectangle of sides 2A: and 242, The path followed by point P, as time passes, gives the resultant motion. We shall now construct the resultant motion for a few special values of the phase difference 3. (i) 8 = 0: In this case, the two perpendicular motions are % = At 008 wt Y= Aa COS wt70 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations The application of the above method to this particular case is shown in Fig. 2.10. Each reference circle is divided into the same number of equal parts, say, cight. Since the frequency of the two SHMs is the same, Fig. 2.10 Superposition of two perpendicular SHMs of the same frequency and zero phase difference each of these parts of the reference circles will be described by each rotating vector in the same time which is one eighth of a period (i.e. 7/4). The positions of the points 1, P2, on the reference circles, are shown at a number of instants separated by one-eighth of a period. The points are numbered 0, 1, 2.8, beginning with 1 = 0, when O;Py (see Fig. 2.9) is parallel to the x-axis and O2P2 parallel to the y-axis, so that the phase difference 8 is zero. The projections from these corresponding positions of P; and P: then give us a set of intersections, as shown in Fig. 2.10, representing the instanteneous positions of the point P (see Fig. 2.9) as it moves within the rectangle. The locus defined by these points is a straight line AOB with a positive slope. Gi) 8= z The application of the rotating vector method to this particular case is shown in Fig. 2.!1. The positions of the points P: and P2, on the two reference circles, are shown at a number of instants separated by one-eighth of the period of each component motion, The points are numbered 0, 1, 2, ...,8 in sequence, starting with t = 0 when OP: (see Fig. 2.9) is parallel to the x-axis, and O2P2 is at angle3 = 7 or 45° measured in counterclockwise sense, from the y-axis, so that the phase difference 3is 7/4. The projections of these corresponding positions ofSuperposition of Harmonie Oscillations 71 Pi and Pz give us a set of points of intersection, as shown in Fig. 2-11. These intersections represent the instantaneous positions of the point P as it moves within the rectangle of sides 241 and 242. The locus of these points is an inclined ellipse, described in the clockwise sense as shown. The exact shape of the curve can be ascertained by dividing the reference circles into 16, 32 ... etc. parts instead of 8. 4 Fig. 2.11 Superposition of two perpendicular SMSs of the same frequency and a phase difference of r/4. The resulting motion for other values of the phase difference can be similarly constructed. The sequence of motions is shown in Fig. 2.8. Oscillations Having nearly Equal Frequencies. When the frequencies of the perpendicular oscillations are exactly equal, the curve traced out by the particle will remain perfectly steady. But, if the frequencies are nearly (but not quite) equal, the shape of the curve will change slowly on account of a gradual change in the phase difference between the two component oscillations and all forms of curves corresponding to the various values of the phase difference will be traced out. For instance, when 3 = 0, the path traced out is a pair of coincident straight lines. As 8 increases from 0 to 7/2. the straight lines open out into an oblique ellipse, which, passing through its various intermediate forms, becomes a symmetrical ellipse when 8 = 5 (see Fig. 2.8). As 8 increases further from 7/2 to 7, the symmetrical ellipse changes to an oblique ellipse which degenerates into coincident straight lines when 3 = 7, As Bchanges from 7 to 27, the reverse process takes place until at 8 = 2m, the original coincident straight lines are recovered. The whole cycle of figures is then repeated.72 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Itis evident that the cycle of figures will be repeated only after one component motion has gained (or lost) one complete vibration over the other, Hence, if vi and v2 are the frequencies of the two rectangular oscillations and f. is the time for one complete cycle of figures, we have Vitewvite = EL or nme tt = ave where ve is the frequency of the repetition of the cycle. Thus, the frequency of repetition of a complete cycle of figures is equal to the difference of the frequencies of the component oscillations. 2. Oscillations Having Different Frequencies (Lissajous Figures) When the frequencies of the two perpendicular SHMs are not equal, the resulting motion becomes more complicated. The patterns, that are traced by a particle which is subjected simultaneously to two perpendicular SHMs of different frequencies, aro known as Lissajous figures, after J.A. Lissajous (1822-1880) who made an extensive study of these motions. We shall now give a few examples to illustrate the shape of the Lissajous figure for some special cases. () Frequencies in the ratio of 1: 2 Let us first consider the case when the frequency w2 of the oscillation is twice the frequency w1 the x oscillation, i.e. o1= w and w2 = 2w. The two SHMs are then given by x = A 008 wt 2.27 Y = Aa008 (2at-+8) (2.28) where Ai and A2 are their respective amplitudes and 8 is the phaso difference between them. The shape of the Lissajous figure can be obtained either by analytical or graphical method. In the analytical method, we find the locus of the instantaneous particle positions by eliminating time 1 from the above equations. Expanding the argument of the cosine in Eq. (2.28), we have Fi = 008 ut cos 3—sin 2 wt sin 8 = (2 cos? wt—1) cos 3—2 sin wt cos wt sin 8 1 But from Eq. (2.27), cost = *- and sin at = ( I- =) ” Therefore, 2 J = (2F-1 ) c0s 2 1—=)) sind Rearranging we have (Z te0s 8) 28 2x pcos b= — 7Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations 73 which, on squaring and upon simplification, reduces to 2 Py 48 (ye = (Z + cos3 y+ a (4r-1 3; e088) 0 (229) ‘This is an equation of the fourth degree which, in general, represents a closed curve having two loops. For a given value of 8, the curve corres- ponding to Eq. (2.29) can be traced using the knowledge of coordinate geometry. Equation (2.29) reduces to a particularly simple form for 3= 0. Sotting cos 3 = 1 in this equation, we have (42) +9 (S1-2)-6 = (eri BY 8 This represents two coincident parabolas with their vertices at (0, —A2) as shown in Fig. 2.12, the equation of each parabola being yi Bee “4 1} a o Al or B= 4 tA) Fig. 2.12 Superposition of two perpendicular SHMs with frequencies in the ratio 1; 2 and phase difference equal to zero The analytical method becomes very cumbersome for values of 8 other than zero. In such cases, the resultant motion can be constructed quite conveniently by the graphical method. Figure 2.13 shows how the rotating vector technique is used to obtain the shape of the Lissajous figure when 8 = 7/4 and w2 = 201. The rotating vector O2P2 subtends an angle 7/4 at time ¢ = 0 with the »-axis so that the y oscillation has an initial phase of 7/4, but the rotating vector 01? is along the x-axis at this instant of timo, so that the x oscillation has no initial phase ; the‘14 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations phase difference between them is thus 7/4. The y oscillation is twice as fast as the x oscillation. Therefore, we choose to divide the pe 2 Fig. 2.13 Superposition of two perpendicular SHMs with frequencies in the ratlo 1:2 and phase difference equal to x/4. circle of radius 42 into 8 equal parts and the circle of radius 1 into 16 equal parts, During the time the vector O2P2 describes one-eighth of its A DOANE AVA IN U4) sO t FO aR 4 2 . Fig. 2.14 Lissajous figures : #;=2w, with various initial phase differences circle, the vector O1P1 describes only one-sixteenth of its circle. During one complete cycle of «2 we go through only half a cycle of «1 and the points on the reference circles are marked accordingly. One must, of course, go through a complete cycle of #2 in order to obtain one complete period of the combined motion. The combined motion corresponding to other phase differences can be similarly constructed. Figure 2.14 shows the sequence of these motions for values of 8 in the range 0 to 7. Frequencies in any commensurate ratio The analytical and graphical methods described above are, in general, applicable to perpendicular oscillations with frequencies in any commen-Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations 75 surate ratio m : n, reduced to lowest terms. The analytical method becomes very cumbersome when the frequency ratio exceeds 3. In such cases, the Frequency guttio 3:2 Fig. 2.15 Lissajous figures for various initial phase differences; frequency ratios 3: 1 and 3:2 graphical method is more suitable. Figure 2.15 shows the shapes of Lissajous figures for various values of initial phase difference when tho frequencies are in the ratio 3:1 and 3:2. If the frequencies of the two perpendicular oscillations are not commensurate, the resulting motion is not periodic. Itdoes not repeat itself, In such cases, the particle will describe an endless curve, A study of Figs. 2.8, 2.14 and 2.15 reveals some very interesting features of Lissajous figures when the frequencies of the two perpendicular oscilla- tions are in a commensurate ratio. (@) The resultant curve is inscribed ina rectangle of sides 241 and 242, where A: and A2 are the amplitudes of the component oscillations. (b) The resulting motion is periodic since the curve returns to itself. (©) The sides of the rectangle are tangential to the curve at a number of points and the ratio of the numbers of these tangential points along the x-axis to those along the y-axis is the inverse of the ratio of the corres- ponding frequencies. Demonstration of Lissajous Figures. A visual record of Lissajous figures can be obtained be means of a cathode-ray oscillograph (see Fig. 2.16). Two rectangular oscillations are simultaneously imposed upon a beam of cathode rays by connecting two sources of electrical oscillations to hori- zontal plates XX and vertical plates YY of the oscillograph. Thus the beam of cathode rays is subjected simultaneously to two perpendicular deflections. The beam falls on a fluorescent screen on which the Lissajous figure corresponding to the resultant motion can be seen. If the frequen- cies of the electrical oscillations are not exactly ina simple ratio, the figure will be seen to change its form slowly. For more complicated frequency ratios, very beautiful patterns are obtained. Uses of Lissajous Figures. Lissajous figures can be used to determine the ratio of two exactly commensurate frequencies. The Lissajous figure is steady and, by inspection, we can find the ratio of the frequencies of tho component oscillations. Let vi and v2 be the frequencies of the oscillations16 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations along x and y axes respectively and let fe be tho time during which a complete cycle of the figures is described. Then, during one cycle, the number of oscillations made by the particle parallel to the x-axis will be vite and that of the oscillations parallel to the y-axis will be vate. Hence Collimator Fluorescent screen Filament x Deflecting system Fig. 2.16 The cathode-ray oscillograph ue we In other words, the ratio ofthe frequencies of the x and y cecilations will be equal to the inverse ratio of the maximum number of intersections of the Lissajous figure on the two lines parallel to the x and y axes respectively. Lissajous figures may also be used to compare two nearly equal frequen- ecies. If tho frequencies of the two component oscillations are not exactly equal, the Lissajous figure will change gradually, as discussed earlier. We have seen that, if v1 and v2 are nearly equal frequencies and te is the time for a complete cycle of change of Lissajous figure, wow et The sign may be determined by observing the direction of change of the pattern to find out which of the two oscillations gains over the other. 2.5 SUPERPOSITION OF MANY HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS The methods of combining two harmonic oscillations, outlined in Sec. 2.3, can readily be extended to.an arbitrarily large number of oscillations. The general case, in which the amplitudes, frequencies and initial phases of the component oscillations are all different, is of no great importance, as it does not find applications in physics. Two situations, in particular, are of great interest and wide application. These are as follows : (a) Superposition of a number of harmonic oscillations, all of the same frequency and amplitude and with equal successive initial phase differences. (b) Superposition of a number of harmonic oscillations, all of the same amplitude and initial phase difference and with equal successive fre- quency differences.Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations 77 ‘The former finds application in the analysis of multiple-source inter- ference effects in optics (such as multiple-beam interferometry and diffraction), while the latter has special relevance to the problem of wave groups or packets (as discussed in Chap. 9). We shall deal with the two cases separately. 1, Oscillations of Equal Amplitudes, Equal Frequencies and Equal Successive Initial Phase Differences Consider a superposition of N harmonic oscillations cach of amplitude Ao, angular frequency @ and differing in initial phase from its neighbouring oscillation by an angle ¢. Let the first of these component oscillations be described, for simplicity, by the equation x1 = Ao cos of The other oscillations are then given by 22 = Ap 008 (wt +4) x3 = Ao cos (wt +24) xn = Ap cos {wt +(N—1)9} From the superposition principle, the resultant motion is given by x — Ao Cos wt +-Ao COS (wit 2g) + oe.0 +o costat-+(N-1)$} (2.30) ‘The resultant motion can be obtained by either of the following methods : (@) Vector Addition of Amplitudes Figure 2.17 is the geometrical representation of tho mathematical expression (2.30). Vectors OP1, PiP2......Pw-1PN respectively represent the first, the second,......, the Nth harmonic oscillation. Vector OPy represents the resultant vector and its length A is the resultant amplitude. The combining vectors form successive sides of a regular polygon. We know that any regular polygon can be inscribed in a circle (not shown in the diagram) having some radius Rand with its centre at a point C. All the corners O, Pi, P2,...,Pw lie on the circle and the angle subtended at C by any individual vector (such as OP:) is equal to the angle ¢ between adjacent vectors. Hence, the total angle OCPw subtended at C by the resultant vector is equal to Ng. Now, ina circle, the perpendicular (not shown in the diagram) drawn from its centre on any chord (such as OP or OP) bisects the chord as well as the angle the chord subtends at the centre, Hence,‘78 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations A=2Rsin (%) $ do = 2 Rein ($ ) Therefore sin (N4/2) A= do ‘in GF 231) It is evident from Fig. 2.17 that the Projection of OPw on the x-axis gives the resultant displacement, i.c. ¥ = A008 (at +8) 2.32) where A [given by Eq. (2.31)]is the amplitude and 8 is the phase constant of the resulting oscillation. From the geometry of Fig. 2.17 we have 8= LCOP\—ZCOPy ° x Onis Fig. 2.17 Superposition of N harmonic oscillations of equal amplitude 4p, equal angular frequency w and constant incremental phase difference $. Now £C0P: = 3 —$ and ZcOPy = F—M Therefore, = (w—1) 2 b= W-)4 (2.33) Hence, the resultant oscillation is described by the equation x = Ay SING) 0, {ora ov} sin (¢/2) (2.34)‘Superposition of Harmonie Oscillations 19 (b) Use of Complex Exponential Representation The use of complex exponentials simplities the algebra considerably. The superposition Eq. (2.30) is the real. part of the complex function f(t), where (0) = Ao [elt ellort9 4 eltort2p 4,4 elf eorHiN-16}) = Aneliteltt 2+... elN-D4] = Ave™ (1+a+a+...Fa¥-3) = oes where a = e'* and S is the geometric series stated below S = ltate+..+0% Then aS = ata*+..,ta%-!4 aN 2 GDS = aX a1 a1 Ne] = elf1 ene ene emep = sin NE) or S = eon ED Thus A(t) = Aaelntedn—922 oe $/2) a) = to 8 ED exp Hot +(N—D4) Finally, x in Bq. (2.30) is the real part of f (#). Hence = $12) _ % = Ao in fay’ 008 (ort 1) 9} which is Eq. (2.34) obtained earlier. The amplitude of the resultant oscillation is given by 4, sn (nsp2) A= 4 “(ein (22) This expression is used in the analysis of the diffraction pattern by a plane optical diffraction grating. When W becomes very large, ¢ becomes very small and the polygon (see Fig. 2.17) becomes an afc of the circle with centre C, the length of the arc then becomes N do, with A as the chord, For large N, N—1 e N, so that, from Eq. (2.33) we have 3=(W—-1) $ = ¥% or S= (oa = elt)80 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Now, for small 4, sin ¢ & ¢ Hence, in this limit, Ae wn ik In the limit 340,808 +1, so that AN isthe value of A when 3-+0. Let us call it A(0). Thus sin 8 Oa This expression is used in the study of diffraction of light by a single slit. Now, let us check to see whether Eq. (2.34) reduces to the expression we have already obtained when only two terms are present in Eq. (2.30). Setting N = 2 in Eq, (2.34) we have v= twn() (af) or % = Acs (wt+8) where A= 2 docos (4) ana ant ‘This agrees with Eq. (2.11) with A and 8 given by Eqs. (2.12) and (2.13) if woset Ai = Az = do and $i = 0, $2 = $, Equation (2.13) reduces to tn = Zrrceg 7 aer~a ~ (4) giving sed Equation (2.12) becomes A = 2A3 (1-408 $) = 443 cos? ($) Aw 2d col $) 2. Oscillations of Equal Amplitudes, Equal Phase Constants, and Equal Successive frequency differencés. Consider a superposition of N different harmonic oscillations having equal amplitudes Ao, equal phase constants (assumed zero, for simplicity) and angular frequencies distributed uniformly between the lowest frequency, co, and the highest frequency, «2. Such a situation finds application in the propagation of pulses and wave packets. We shall deal with this problem, in details, in Chap. 9.‘Superposition of Harmonie Oscillations 81 For the moment, we shall only obtain the resultant motion correspond- ing to the above superposition, which is given by % = Ao COs wit+-Ao COs (w; + 8w)t-+Ao COs (coi + 28w)t+... . +Ao cos wit (2.35) where 8w is the frequency spacing between neighbouring components, i.e. oe TM Aw N-1 N-1 (2.36) where Aw = w2—o1 is called the bandwidth. As before, the superposition (2.35) is the real part of the function f(t) where S(t) = Ao [elt peters Fore g piletareere 4. = Ao ell {1+-a+a?+...+a%!} saab el{ers-nbe}ry = do emus where a= ete and Se ltatatt.. tant Multiplication by a gives aS = ata+... +aNttaN Subtracting, we have (a—1) S = a1 =@rl or $= i eiNborit ~ Sean or = exp {Sete } sin ay Sat) Thus f(t) is given by $l0) = do exp i fot+d (v— ne} Ge) From Eq. (2.36) art}(N—1) 80 = witHw2—w1), = (1 tar) = we where «is the average of the two extreme frequencies. Thus we have S(t) = Ao eine? sin (} N det) sin (} 81)82. The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Now x in Eq (2°35) is the real part of f(s). Hence x is given by rato BATT cosomt 037 or % = Am COS wat (2.38) where Am, the modulation amplitude, is given by dn Ae (GN Bot) ; ™ ° sin (f3wt) Since Am is time-dependent, the resulting oscillation is not harm Let us check to see whether it reduces to the familiar form for beats there are just two terms present. Setting N= 2 in Eq. (2.39), we have sin Gat). sin (3 81) = 2 Ao 608 (4 Boot) This agrees with Eq. (2.22) if we set Ai= 42— do and om = Am = Ao Hor—oi) =22 5 since Ea, (2.22) then reduces to Ay? = 2 AE (+2 cos Bot) = 4 AS cos? (4 But) or Am = 2 Ao cos (4 But) Equation (2.23) reduces to tan Bn = 0 Bn = 0 ‘Thus. Eq. (2.38) reduces to the familiar Eq. (2.21) for beats when N is sot equal to 2. : We shall use Eq. (2.37) in Chap. 9 while discussing the propagation of pulses and wave packets. or SOLVED EXAMPLES Fcomple 2-12 A particle is simultaneously subjected to two simple harmo- nic motions in the same direction, cach of trequency 5 Hz. If the ampli- tudes are 0.005 m and 0,002 m respectively, and phase difference between them is 45°, find the amplitude of the resultant displacement and its phase relative to the first component. Write down the expression for the resul- tant displacement as a function of time, Solution Let the phase constant d1 of the first cv constant + of the second component is dr = 0, ew A? onent be zero. then the phaseSuperposition of Harmonic Oscillations $3 Now Ai = amplitude of first motion = 0,005 m and Az = amplitude of second motion = 0,002 m The amplitude A of the resultant motion is given by Eq. (2.12) A? = A} +A}+2A1A2 cos ($2- $1) = (0.005)*+-(0.002)?-+-2 x 0,005 x 0,002 x cos 45° = 43.14 10-6 m? Thus A = 657X103 m The phase constant 5 of the resultant motion is given by Eq. (2.13), which gives, 0.005 sin 0°-+0°002 sin 45° tan 8 = 0.005 cos 0°«}-0°002 cos 45° = 0.2205 Now frequency of each motion is, v = 5 Hz Angular frequency = 2ey = 10 x rads"! With these values of A, 3 and w, the expression (2.11) for the resultani displacement becomes x = 657X109 cos ( 10xt+ aa) where x is expressed in metres and ¢ in seconds. Example 22 Two vibrations along tho same line are described by the equations x1 = 0.03 cos 10 xt X2 == 0.03 cos 12 xt where x1, x2 are measured in metres and f in seconds. Obtain the equation describing the resultant motion and hence find the beat period, Solution Using the superposition principle, the resultant motion is given by xibx2 = 0.03 (cos 10 =f-+cos 12 mr) x Using tho trignometric identity, 0s «+008 B = 2 cos ( oye) . 60s ( “5h ) we have4 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations x = 0.06 cos.(mt) cos (11 x1) which is of the form X% = Am COS wat with Am = 0.06 cos (=f) and = 11 = It is clear that Am is a slowly yarying modulated amplitude and cos wet is the fast oscillation of angular frequency #. = 11 = rad s' which is the average of the two component frequencies, Now Am is maximum, if cos pe +1 or mt = 0, x, 2n, or £=0,1,2,.. Hence the beat period ist = 1s. This is the time interval between two consecutive maximum values of An”, Example 2.3 Two tuning forks A and B of nearly equal frequencies are employed in an optical experiment to produce Lissajous figures. On slightly loading fork 4, it is observed that the cycle of change of figure slows down from 10 to 20 seconds. If the frequency of fork B is 256 Hz, determine the frequency of fork A before and after loading. Solution + Let v1 be the frequency of fork A and 1. the time for a complete cycle of change of a Lissajous figure before the fork is loaded. Then, if v2 is the frequency of fork B. we have went = 256 45 = 256.1 Hz or 255.9 Hz Thus the frequency vi of fork A is either 255.9 Hz or 256.1 Hz. We know that on loading the frequency of the fork decreases. If v1 is 255.9 Hz, then, on loading it, v; decreases; hence the difference v2—vi must increase, which would decrease the value of f., the time for a complete cycle of change of figure with the loaded fork. But fc is observed to increase from 10 to 20s. Hence the frequency of fork A cannot be 255.9 Hz. It must be 256.1 Hz before loading. After loading, the frequency of fork A ‘becomes , 1 vi’ = 256-+ ry = 256.05 HzSuperposition of Harmonic Oscillations 88 Example 2.4 A particle is simultaneously subjected to three simple harmo- nic motions, all of the same frequency and in the same direction. If the amplitudes are 0.5 mm, 0.4 mm and 0.3 mm respectively, and the phase difference between the first and second is 45°, and between the second and the third is 30°, find the amplitude of the resultant displacement and its phase relative to the first motion of amplitude 0.5 mm. Solution We shall obtain the resultant amplitude by the method of vector addition of amplitudes. Let us assume that the phase constant of the first com- ponent is zero. The vector diagram can then be drawn as shown in Fig. 2.18, Vector OP2 is the resultant of vectors OP: and PiP2 of amplitudes A; = 0.5 mm and 42 = 0.4 mm respectively. The phase difference between them is ¢ = ¢2- $1 = 45°- 0° = 45°, The resultant amplitude A is given A = At+ A= 24142 cos $ = (0.5P-+(0.4)-+2%0.5x0.4xcos 45° = 0.6928 mm? oe A= 0.8324 mm The phase of the resultant of OP: and P:P2 relative to the first component OP. isa. In 4 OP;P2 we have Fig 2.18 sina _ sin £ OPP: PP A sina = sin 45° x Pubs = sin 45° x 04 sin 45° X Oa354 = 0.3398 a = 19° 52° = 19.87°86 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations Now the phase difference between OP2 and P2P3 30°-+(45°- -19.87°) 5.13" Vector OP3 represents, in magnitude and direction, the resultant of vector: OP2 and P2P3, Hence & is the resultant of the three vectors OPi, PiP2, and P2Ps. Ris given by R= 44 A?-+24A3 00s 9” = (0.8324P-+(0,3P-+2 x 0,8324 x 0.3 x cos 55,13° = 1.068 mm? R= 1.03 mm The phase 8 of the resultant vector OP3 relative to the first component OP, is, 8 =: a +2, Now 8 can be obtained as follows < In \0P2Ps, we have sin 8 _, sin ¢ OPPs P2Ps OP; og gt o_ 55.1 4°) P2P3 or sin B = sin (180°—55,13°) OP: «sin 124.87 PB, = 0.2390 B= 13° 50’ = 13.83" Hence Beate 337 Thus, the amplitude of the resultant displacement is 1.03 mm and its phese relative to the first component is 33.7°. QUESTIONS 1, State the principle of superposition and prove that it holds only for linear differential equations, 2. Two collinear simple harmonic motions acting simultaneously on a particle are given by x1 = Ay cos ot 42 = A, cos (at+9) Show that the resultant motion of the particle is simple harmonic. Also obtain the expression for the amplitude and phase constant of the resultant motion in terms of 1, Az and $.o 12 ‘Superposition of Harmonic Oscillations 87 Using the rotating vector representation, obtain the resultant motion of a particle subjected simultaneously to two simple harmonic motions in the same direction having equal amplitudes and equal frequencies and differing in phase by 1/4. What ore beats ? Give an analytical description of the phenomenon of beats and show that the beat frequency is equal to the difference between the frequencies of the component oscillations. Two simple harmonic motions, of equal amplitudes and stightly different frequencies, are in phase at time? = 0. Draw the displacement—time curves of them and construct their superposition to show the existence of eats. What are the uses of beats ? ‘Trace graphically and analytically the motion of a particle that is subjected to two perpendicular simple harmonic motions of equal frequencies, different amplisudes and phases differing by (a) zero and (b) =/2. Show that wo harmonic oscillations, at right angles to exch other, of equal amplitudes and cqual frequencies but with phases differing by 7/2, are equivalent to a uniform circular motion, the radius of the circle being equal to the amplitude of either oscillation. What are Lissajous figures? ‘Trace graphically the form of the Lissajous figure traced out by a particle subjected to two perpendicular simple harmonic motions of unequal amplitudes, time periods in the ratio of 1:2 and phases differing by (a) zero, (b) /4 and (c) 1/2. A particle is subjected to two simple harmonic motions of slightly different frequencies. Explain how the shape of the curve traced out by the particle changes with time and show that the frequency of repetition of a particular curve is equal to the difference of the frequencies of the two component oscillations. What are Lissajous figures? How are they experimentally demonstrated ? Explain how these figures are used to determine the difference between two nearly equal frequ-ncies. ‘A particle is subjected simultaneously to N simple harmonic motions of the same frequency. If the amplitude of cach oscillation is lo and ¢ is the phase differenc: between successive oscillations, show that amplitude of the resultant oscillation is given by sin (N Iz) “sin G22) A particle is subjected simultaneously to NV simple harmonic oscillations having frequencies distributed uniformly between v, and v._ [f the amplitude of cach oscillation is a, initial phase of each is zeto and 8» is the fre.,sency difference between successive components, show that the resu!:unt displace- ment of the particle is given by sin (=NSvt) sin (Bt) A= Ay cos x(t) = do abv) ft] PROBLEMS A particle is subjected simultancously to two simp: harmonic motions of the same frequency and in the’saype direction. If their amplitudes are $ nm. and 3mm_ respectively and tlie phase of the second component relative to88 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations 6 10. the first is 30°, find the amplitude of the resultant displacement and its phase relative to the first component. Two collinear simple harmonic motions, acting simultancously on a pai are given by ¥1 = O.3cos2n¢ 2 = 0.2 sin (251—7/3) where .« is expressed in cm and # in seconds. Write down the expression for the resultant displacement as a function of time, Two vibrations along the same line are described by the equations 41 = 0.05 cos 8 xe 42 = 0.03 cos 10x ¢ where + is expressed in metres and s in seconds. Obtain the equation describing the resultant motion and hence find the beat period. Draw a careful sketch of the resultant displacement over one beat period. Zwo collinear simple harmonic motions, cach of amplitude 1.0 em and frequencies § Hz and 6 Hz respectively, act simultaneously ona article. Assuming that they are initially in phase, draw the displacement—time curves for the two motions. Draw a careful sketch of the resultant displacement ‘over one beat period. What is the beat frequency ? ‘Two parts of a sonometer witc, divided by a movable knife-edge, differ in length by 2 mm and produce 2 beats per second when sounded tomether If the ‘otal length of the wire is 1 metre, find the frequencies of the two Parts of the wire, Find the frequency of the combined motion of each of the following (@) sin (2247/4) +008 (2nt) (b) sin (10n8)+cos (mt+5/4) (©) cos(3t)—sin (<2) () a.cos Qevt)-+b sin 2nve -x/3) Two vibrations, at right angles to cach other, are described by the equations * = 300s Same Y= 2 cos (Smt-+-7/3) Where and y ure expresscd in centimetres and ¢ in seconds, Construct the curve for the combined motion. Two vibrations, at right angles to each other, are described by the equations x= 3 cosdar Y= 3.008 (8nt-4-7/3) where «and y arc expressed in centimetres and ¢ in seccnds, Construct the Lissajous figure of the combined motion, Construct the Lissajous figures for the following motions : () x= a coset y=bsinor (b) & = a cos 207, y = 4 608 [2ot—(77/4)} (©) x = 4008 of, y = bcos ot (Wx = 4c08 2wt, y = asin Que iele ee simple harmonic motions, all of the same frequency and in the same direction, If the amplitudes are 10 cm, 0.5 em 0.25 cm and respectively and the phase of the second relative {0 the frst is 30° and that of tne thitd relative to the Second is 60°, find the amplitude of the resultant displacement and its Dhase relative to the first ‘component.3 Free Damped Oscillations 3.1 INTRODUCTION Inthe preceding chapters we were concerned entirely with free oscil- lations of undamped physical systems. We have seen that the total energy of a harmonic oscillator remains constant. Once started, the oscillations continue for ever with a constant amplitude (which is determined from the initial conditions) and a constant frequency (which is determined by the inertial and elastic properties of the system). Simple harmonic motions which persist indefinitely without loss of amplitude are called free or undamped. However, observation of the free oscillations of a real physical system reveals that the energy of the oscillator gradually decreases with time and the oscillator eventually comes to rest. For example, the ampli- tude of a pendulum oscillating in air decreases with time and it ultimately stops. The vibrations of a tuning fork die away with the passage of time. This happens because, in actual physical systems, the friction (or damping) is always present. Friction resists motion. The presence of resistance to motion implies that frictional or damping force acts on the system. The damping force acts in opposition to the motion, doing negative work on the system, leading toa dissipation of energy. When a body moves through a medium such as air, water, etc. its encrgy is dissipated due to friction ane appears as heat either in the body itsclf or in the surrounding medium or both. There is another mechanism by which an oscillator losses energy. The energy of an oscil- lator may decrease not only due to friction in the system, but also due to radiation. The oscillating body imparts periodic motion to the particles of the medium in which it oscillates, thus producing waves. For example, a tuning fork produces sound waves in the medium which results in a decrease in its energy. All sounding bodies are subject to dissipative forces, or otherwise, there would be no loss of energy by the body and con- sequently no emission of sound energy could occur. Thus sound waves are produced by radiation from machanical oscillatory systems. We shall90 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations learn later that the electromagnetic waves are produced by radiations from oscillating electric and magnetic fields, The effect of radiation by an oscillating system and of the friction Present in the system is that the amplitude of oscillations gradually dimi- nishes with time. Tho reduction in amplitude (ot energy) of an oscillator is called damping and tho oscillations are said to be damped, 3.2 DAMPING FORCES The damping of a real system is a complex phenomenon involving several kinds of damping forces. The damping force of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a moving object is some function of the velocity of the object. The damp- ing force that depends on velocity is referred to as viscous damping force. The magnitude of this force is well described by the equation F=pwt+pr where ris the magnitude of the velocity of the object. The direction of this resistive force is opposite to that of the velocity. If ris small com- pared to the ratio pi/p2, the damping force will be proportional to the first power of v: Thus, for small velocities, Fo—p GB.) where p, the viscous damping coefficient, represents the damping force per unit velocity. The negative sign indicates that the force opposes motion, tending to reduce velocity. In other words, the viscous damping force is a retarding force. Since, the velocity of most oscillating systems is usually small, the damping force exerted by the fluid in contact with the system is likely to be viscous, Viscous forces are generally much smaller than inertial and elastic forces ina system. However, damping devices called dampers are sometimes deliberately introduced in a system for vibration control. The damping force exerted by such devices may be comparable in magnitude to the inertial and elastic forces. In real systems, it is likely that the moving part is in contact with an unlubricated surface, as in the case of horizontal oscillations of a body attached to a spring (see Fig. 1.9). The oscillating body is always in contact with the horizontal surface. The resulting frictional force opposes the motion and can often be idealized as a force of constant magnitude. Such a force is usually referred to as a Coulomb friction force. Ina solid, some part of energy may be lost due to imperfect elasticity or internal friction of the material. It is very difficult to estimate this type of damping. Experiments suggest that a resistive force proportional to the amplitude and independent of the frequency may serve as a satisfactory approximation. This kind of damping in solids is referred to as structural damping.Free Damped Oscillations 91 Thus, the damping of a real system is a complex phenomenon involving several kinds of damping forces such as viscous damping, Coulomb friction and structural damping. Because it is generally very difficult to predict the magnitude of the damping forces, one usually has to rely on experience and experiment so as to make a reasonably good estimate. It is a commun practice to approximate the damping of a system by an equivalent viscous damping, for the simple reason that viscous damping is the most con- venient to handle mathematically. Thus, according to this approximation, the magnitude of the viscous force to be used in a particular problem is chosen to be the one that would produce the same rate of energy dissipa~ tion as the actual damping forces. This usually provides a good estimate. The inclusion of damping forces complicates the analysis considerably. Fortunately, in actual systems, the damping forces are usually small and can often be ignored. In situations, wherc they aro not negligibly small, the viscous damping model is the most convenient mathematically. We shall use this model, under a simplifying assumption, that the velocity of the moving part of the system is small, so that the damping force is lineac in velocity as in Eq. (3.1). If the velocity is not small, the demping force exeried on the system may be represented more closely by a force Proportional to the square of the velocity. We shall not deal with such forces. The effect of the lincar viscous damping force on the free oscilla- tions of simple systems, with onc dogrce of freedom, is considered in the next section. 3.3. DAMPED OSCILLATIONS OF A SYSTEM HAVING ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM ‘We shall investigate the effect of damping on the harmonic oscillations of a simple system having one degree of freedom. Onc such system is shown in Fig. 3.1. When the system is displaced from its equilibrium state and released, it begins to move. The forces acting on the system are :— Elastic torce ev «Ke Ind Winertiol toree — > at paw we a Dumper Damping force Fig. 3.1 Damped oscillator with a damping force pdt acting against the direction of motion (i) a restoring force - Kt, where K is the coefficient of the restoring force and } is the displacement, and92 The Physics of Waves ana Oscillations ‘ i) damping force — p a » where p is the coefficient of the damping force and fis the velocity of the moving part of the system. From Newton's law for a rigid body in translation, these forces must balance 2 With Newton’s force m - 200 or +f S 2 wo respectively. Ia fact, three different kinds of motion are possible, depending on whether y > 2wo, Y = 2wo and y <2. Each condi- tion describes a particular kind of behaviour of the system. We shall now treat each case separately. Case I: y > 2 wo (Large Damping) In this case, the damping term y/2 dominates the stiffness term « and the term (¥7/4—w§)*/? in Eq. (3.5) isa real quantity with a positive value, say, q, i.e. 12 (Faw) =e so that displacement 4 as a function of time is given by y= exp (— +a ) t+ Az exp (— yt9 jt (3.6) The velocity is given by & = (- yta )a exp (-+4 ) t - ($40) sep (-S44): (37.94 The Physics of Waves and Oscillations These equations describe the behaviour of a heavily damped oscillator, as for example, a pendulum in a viscous medium such as a dense oil. As stated earlicr, the constants Ai and A2 are determined from the initial conditions. Let us assume that the oscillator is at its equilibrium position) (Y = 0) at timet = 0. At this instant it is given a kick so that it has a finite velocity, say, Vo at this time, ie. at t= 0. ¥=0 Equations (3.6) and (3.7) then give (setting = 0) = AitAr vom (—fta ar (S40) giving Am Am oe Thus, under the above initial conditions, Eqs. (3.6) and (3.7) become oon Yo o-rf (eat—ew') or ven % e™? sinh (gt) G8) and # = %. eu {er-teny—5* iq (et— eo} or a. Yr e7f cosh a) - J, sinh (a } G9) Figure 3.2 illustrates the behaviour of a heavily damped system when it is disturbed from equilibrium by a sudden impulse at ¢ = 0. It is the dis- placement —time graph of Fq. (3.8). For small values of time 1, the term eis very neatly unity, the displacement. increases with time since sinh (gt) increases as t increases. Very soon, however, the term e-”'?? starts contributing and the displacement decays exponentially with time, even- tually becoming zero. The turning point occurs ata time t= % when dj[dt = 0. Equation (3.9) tells us that this happens at a time t= fy satisfying tanh (gy) = 2 Thus, the displacement increases until time ¢ = fo, after which it slowly returns to zero. Since, displacement }) never becomes negative, there is no oscillation at all. Such a motion is called dead beat. We come across such a motion in the case of a dead beat galvanometer (see Sec. 3.6).