(A Brief) Introduction To Continuum Mechanics

(A brief) Introduction to Continuum Mechanics
Iñigo Arregui, José M. Rodrı́guez Seijo

(arregui@udc.es, jose.rodriguez.seijo@udc.es)
Department of Mathematics
University of A Coruña, Spain
June, 2018
ROMSOC Project
Bibliography
M. E. G URTIN, An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics. Academic

Press, 1981.
O. L ÓPEZ P OUSO, “An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics”, de

M.E. Gurtin. Ejercicios resueltos. Publicaciones docentes del
Departamento de Matemática Aplicada. Universidad de Santiago de
Compostela, 2002.
A. B ERM ÚDEZ DE C ASTRO, Continuum Thermomechanics.

Birkhäuser, 2005.
1 Introduction
2 Kinematics
3 Conservation laws
1 Introduction
Points, vectors and tensors
Spectral, Cayley–Hamilton and polar decomposition theorems
Tensor differentiation
Gradient. Divergence. Curl
Divergence and Stokes theorems
2 Kinematics
3 Conservation laws
Introduction
We will work in the three–dimensional Euclidean point space, E

Associated vector space: (IR3 , +, ·) ≡ V
Cartesian system of coordinates: orthonormal basis
{ei } = {e1 , e2 , e3 } and a point o called origin.
Other (non cartesian) systems of coordinates are also possible: polar,
cylindrical and spherical coordinates, for example
Inner product in V : (·, ·) : V ×V −→ IR
(u, v) = u · v = (u · v) = |u| |v| cos(u, v) , |u| = (u · u)1/2
Components of a vector: ui = u · ei
3
Thus, u · v = ∑ ui vi = ui vi (Euler notation)
i=1
Coordinates of a point x: xi = (x − o) · ei
Introduction
Recall that every linear application f : IRn −→ IRm has an associated matrix
A ∈ Mm×n , such that f (u) = Au
Definition
We call span of vectors {u, v, . . . , w} the subspace of V consisting of all
possible linear combinations of those vectors:
sp{u, v, . . . , w} = {αu + β v + · · · + γw / α, β , . . . , γ ∈ IR}
Definition
For a given vector v, we call {v}⊥ = {u ∈ V / u · v = 0} the subspace in V
of all vectors perpendicular to v
Example
Given v = (1 1 0)T and w = (1 2 1)T ,
{v}⊥ = {u ∈ V / u1 = −u2 }
{w}⊥ = {u ∈ V / u2 = −(u1 + u3 )/2}
Introduction
Definition
A tensor is any linear transformation from V into V .
For example,
S:  V  −→ V
   
v1 w1 v1 + v2 − v3
 v2  −→  w2  =  v1 − v2 − v3 
v3 w3 v1 + v2 + v3
If we consider the sum of tensors and the product of a scalar by a tensor:
(S + T)v = Sv + Tv (αS)v = α(Sv)
then the set of tensors is a vector space

Null tensor: 0v = 0, ∀v ∈ V
Identity tensor: Iv = v, ∀v ∈ V
Introduction
Components of a tensor: Sij = ei · Sej

3
Thus, v = Su ⇐⇒ vi = ∑ Sij uj
j=1
We call [S] the matrix:
 
S11 S12 S13
[S] =  S21 S22 S23  ;
S31 S32 S33
and it is the matrix associated to the linear application S

In particular,
   
1 0 0 0 0 0
[I] =  0 1 0 , [0] =  0 0 0 
0 0 1 0 0 0
Introduction
Definition
We define the product of two tensors S and T as ST = S ◦ T, i.e.,
(ST)v = S(Tv) , ∀v ∈ V
Standard notation: S2 = SS, S3 = SSS, etc.

[ST] = [S][T]
In general, ST 6= TS.
If ST = TS, we say that S and T conmute. For example,
   
1 0 2 1 0 3
[S] =  0 1 0  [T] =  0 1 0 
2 0 1 3 0 1
[ST] = [TS]
Introduction
Definition
We call transpose of S, ST , the unique tensor such that:
(Su) · v = u · (ST v) , ∀u, v ∈ V
It stands:
(S + T)T = ST + TT , (S T)T = TT ST , (α S)T = α ST ,

(ST )T = S , [ST ] = [S]T , (ST )ij = Sji
A tensor is symmetric if S = ST
A tensor is skew if S = −ST
If S is symmetric, Su · v = u · Sv = Sv · u
For every tensor, S = E + W where E is symmetric and W is skew
E is the symmetric part of S
W is the skew part of S
Introduction
Definition
The tensor product of two vectors a and b is the tensor a ⊗ b such that:
(a ⊗ b)v = (b · v)a
In terms of components,
    
(b1 v1 + b2 v2 + b3 v3 )a1 b1 a1 b2 a1 b3 a1 v1
(a⊗b)v =  (b1 v1 + b2 v2 + b3 v3 )a2  =  b1 a2 b2 a2 b3 a2   v2 
(b1 v1 + b2 v2 + b3 v3 )a3 b1 a3 b2 a3 b3 a3 v3
so that the components of the tensor product are: [a ⊗ b]ij = ai bj

(a ⊗ b)T = b ⊗ a
(a ⊗ b)(c ⊗ d) = (b · c) a ⊗ d
3
∑ ei ⊗ ei = I
i=1
3
S = ∑ Sij ei ⊗ ej
i,j=1
Introduction
Let e be a unit vector. Then,

the projection of v in the direction of e is:
(e ⊗ e)v = (v · e)e
The projection of v on the orthogonal plane to e is:
(I − e ⊗ e)v = v − (v · e)e
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Definition
We call trace the linear application such that the image of a tensor S is the
scalar Tr S and, in particular,
Tr (u ⊗ v) = u · v , ∀u, v ∈ V
Tr :  Lin  −→ IR
u1 v1 u1 v2 u1 v3
 u2 v1 u2 v2 u2 v3  −→ u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
u3 v1 u3 v2 u3 v3
From the linearity of the trace, we deduce:

" #
3 3 3 3
Tr S = Tr ∑ Sij ei ⊗ ej = ∑ Sij Tr (ei ⊗ ej ) = ∑ Sij ei · ej = ∑ Sii
i,j=1 i,j=1 i,j=1 i=1
Tr ST = Tr S
Tr (ST) = Tr (TS)
Introduction
Definition
We define the inner product of two tensors as:
S · T = Tr (ST T)
In terms of the components,

  
S11 S21 S31 T11 T12 T13 3
S · T = Tr  S12 S22 S32   T21 T22 T23  = ∑ Sij Tij
S13 S23 S33 T31 T32 T33 i,j=1
S·T = T·S
I · S = Tr S
R · (ST) = (ST R) · T = (RTT ) · S
u · Sv = S · (u ⊗ v)
(a ⊗ b) · (u ⊗ v) = (a · u)(b · v)
Introduction
Definition
We define the determinant of a tensor S as the determinant of matrix [S]:
det S = det [S]
Definition
A tensor S is invertible if it exists another tensor S−1 , called the inverse of
S, such that:
SS−1 = S−1 S = I
S is invertible if and only if det S 6= 0

Moreover,
det (ST) = (det S)(det T) (ST)−1 = T−1 S−1

det ST = det S det (S−1 ) = (det S)−1 (S−1 )T = (ST )−1
Notation: S−T = (S−1 )T

Introduction
Definition
A tensor Q is orthogonal if it preserves inner products:
(Qu) · (Qv) = u · v , ∀u, v ∈ V
A necessary and sufficient condition for Q to be orthogonal is:

QQT = QT Q = I ⇐⇒ QT = Q−1
An orthogonal tensor with positive determinant is called a rotation
An orthogonal tensor is either a rotation, either a rotation multiplied by
−I
If R 6= I is a rotation, then the set of all vectors v such that Rv = v is a
one-dimensional vector subspace, called the axis of R
Definition
A tensor S is positive definite if
v · (Sv) > 0 , ∀v 6= 0
Introduction
Notations:
Lin: set of all tensors
Lin+ = {S / det (S) > 0}
Sym: set of symmetric tensors
Skw: set of skew tensors
Psym: set of symmetric and definite positive tensors
Orth: set of orthogonal tensors
Orth+ : set of rotations
Introduction
There are two cross products in IR3 . We consider the one with the positive
orientation
If the basis {ei } is positive oriented, we have e3 = e1 × e2 and:

e1 e2 e3

u × v = u1 u2 u3 = (u2 v3 −u3 v2 )e1 +(u3 v1 −u1 v3 )e2 +(u1 v2 −u2 v1 )e3
v1 v2 v3
Thus, u × v = −v × u , u×u = 0
u · (v × w) = w · (u × v) = v · (w × u)
If u, v and w are linearly independent, the magnitude of the scalar u · (v×w)
(i.e., |u · (v×w)|) represents the volume of the parallelepiped P determined
by u, v and w.
Moreover,
Su · (Sv × Sw) vol (S(P))
det S = , |det S| =
u · (v × w) vol (P)
Introduction
Introduction
Given a skew tensor W, there exists a unique vector w such that
Wv = w × v , ∀v ∈ V (1)
and viceversa. w is called the axial vector of W.

If tensor W is given by:
 
0 −γ β
[W] =  γ 0 −α 
−β α 0
then
w1 = α , w2 = β , w3 = γ
The ker of W (the vectors v ∈ V such that Wv = 0) is a one
dimensional subspace generated by w, and it is called the axis of W
Introduction
Let us introduce:
the Kronecker delta,
(
1, if i = j
δij =
0, if i 6= j
the skew tensor


1 ,
 if (i, j, k) is an even permutation of {1, 2, 3}
εijk = −1 , if (i, j, k) is an odd permutation of {1, 2, 3}

0, otherwise

Thus,
det A = εijk ai1 aj2 ak3 =
= ε123 a11 a22 a33 + ε132 a11 a32 a23 + ε213 a21 a12 a33 +
+ ε231 a21 a32 a13 + ε312 a31 a12 a23 + ε321 a31 a22 a13
(u×v)i = εijk uj vk
Introduction
Summary on vectors and tensors
Vector space, V
inner product
cross product
Tensor: linear transformation from V onto V
associated matrix, components, sum, product by a scalar
tensor product (ST), transpose (ST ), tensor product of two vectors (a ⊗ b),
inner product (S · T)
determinant
projection on a vector, trace
orthogonal tensors, positive definite tensors
Introduction
Spectral, Cayley–Hamilton and polar decomposition

theorems
Definition
A scalar ω is an eigenvalue of a tensor S if it exists a (unit) vector e such
that Se = ωe. In this case, e is an eigenvector of S.
The characteristic space of S relative to ω is the subspace of V

consisting of all vectors in v such that Sv = ωv. If this subspace is
n-dimensional, we say that ω has multiplicity n
The spectrum of S is the sequence {ω1 , ω2 , . . . }, where ω1 ≤ ω2 ≤ · · ·
are the sorted eigenvalues of S and repeated as many times as indicated
by their respective multiplicity.
The eigenvalues of a positive definite tensor are strictly positive.
The characteristic spaces of a symmetric tensor are orthogonal to each
other.
Introduction
Theorem (spectral)
Let S be a symmetric tensor. Then, there exists an orthonormal basis of V
consisting of eigenvectors of S. Moreover, for each orthonormal basis
{e1 , e2 , e3 } of eigenvectors of S, the corresponding eigenvalues (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 )
form, when ordered, the spectrum of S and
3
S = ∑ ωi ei ⊗ ei (2.1)
i=1
Reciprocally, if S has the form (2.1), {e1 , e2 , e3 } being an orthonormal basis,

then ω1 , ω2 , ω3 are the eigenvalues of S and e1 , e2 , e3 are the corresponding
eigenvectors.
(2.1) is the spectral decomposition of S

Introduction
Moreover:
(a) S has exactly three different eigenvalues if and only if its characteristic
spaces are three lines orthogonal to each other
(b) S has exactly two different eigenvalues if it admits the following
representation:
S = ω1 e ⊗ e + ω2 (I − e ⊗ e), |e| = 1, ω1 6= ω2 (2.2)
Then, ω2 and ω2 are two different eigenvalues and the characteristic

spaces are sp{e} and {e}⊥ , respectively. Reciprocally, if sp{e} and
{e}⊥ (|e| = 1) are the characteristic spaces, then S has the form (2.2)
(c) S has an only eigenvector if and only if: S = ωI.
In this case, ω is the aigenvector and V is the corresponding
characteristic space.
Introduction
The matrix of S relative to the basis of autovectors {ei } is:

 
ω1 0 0
[S] =  0 ω2 0 
0 0 ω3
Theorem (of the square root)

2
√ C ∈ Psym. There exists an only tensor U ∈ Psym such that U = C, and we write
Let
C = U.
Theorem (polar decomposition)

Let F ∈ Lin+ . There exist U, V ∈ Psym and R ∈ Orth+ such that:
F = RU = VR . (2.5)
Moreover, each of those decompositions is unique; in fact,

√ √
U = FT F , V = FFT (2.6)
We call the representation F = RU (resp. F = VR) the right polar

decomposition (resp. left polar decomposition) of F.
Introduction
Proposition
Given a tensor S,
det (S − ωI) = −ω 3 + ı1 (S)ω 2 − ı2 (S)ω + ı3 (S) , ∀ω ∈ IR (2.7)
where:
ı1 (S) = Tr S
1h i
ı2 (S) = (Tr S)2 − Tr (S2 )
2
ı3 (S) = det S
Definition
The sequence
IS = {ı1 (S), ı2 (S), ı3 (S)}
is called the relation of principal invariants of S
Introduction
Proposition
If S ∈ Sym, then IS is completely determined by the spectrum {ω1 , ω2 , ω3 }
of S. Actually,
ı1 (S) = ω1 + ω2 + ω3
ı2 (S) = ω1 ω2 + ω2 ω3 + ω1 ω3
ı3 (S) = ω1 ω2 ω3
Corollary
Let S, T ∈ Sym and assume IS = IT . Then S and T have the same
spectrum.
Theorem (Cayley–Hamilton)
Every tensor S satisfies its own characteristic equation:
S3 − ı1 (S)S2 + ı2 (S)S − ı3 (S)I = 0 (2.12)

Introduction
Summary
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors, characteristic spaces

Spectral theorem (for symmetric tensors)
Square root theorem: if C ∈ Psym,
∃U ∈ Psym s.t. U2 = C
Polar decomposition theorem: if F ∈ Lin+ ,
∃U, V ∈ Psym, R ∈ Orth+ s.t. F = RU = VR
Principal invariants of a tensor, Cayley–Hamilton theorem

Introduction
Let V be a vector space.
Definition
A norm in V is an application k·k : V −→ IR+ verifying:
1 kvk = 0 ⇐⇒ v = 0
2 kλ vk = |λ | kvk, ∀v ∈ V , ∀λ ∈ IR
3 kv + wk ≤ kvk + kwk, ∀v, w ∈ V
Thus, V is a normed vector space
The most usual norms:

n
kvk1 = ∑ |vi |
i=1
1/2 1/p
n n
2 p
kvk2 = ∑ vi kvkp = ∑ |vi |
i=1 i=1
kvk∞ = max |vi |
i=1,...,n
Introduction
Let U and W be normed vector spaces, and let f be defined in a

neighborhood of zero in U and have values in V
Definition
We say that f(u) approaches zero faster than u (and we write f(u) = o(u))
if
kf(u)kW
lim =0
u→0
u6=0
kukU
Similarly, f(u) = g(u) + o(u) means f(u) − g(u) = o(u)

For example, let f : IR3 → IR3 be given by:
 
u1 u2
f(u) =  u1 u3 
−u22
Then, by a simple change to spherical coordinates,
q
u21 u22 + u21 u23 + u42 √
ρ2 . . .
lim q = lim =0
u→0 ρ
u2 + u2 + u2
1 2 3
ρ→0
Introduction
Let g be a scalar, vector, tensor or point valued function defined on an open

interval D ∈ IR
Definition
We call derivative of g in t the following limit, if it exists:
d 1
ġ(t) = g(t) ≡ lim [g(t + α) − g(t)] (1)
dt α→0 α
in which case we say that g is differentiable in t.
If g is point valued, then g(t + α) − g(t) is a vector and, thus, ġ(t) is a

vector
The derivative of a vector function is a vector
The derivative of a tensor function is a tensor
Definition
We say that g is smooth in D if ġ(t) exists for all t ∈ D and function ġ is
continuous in D
Introduction
If g is differentiable in t, then (1) implies:

1
lim [g(t + α) − g(t) − α ġ(t)] = 0
α→0 α
or, in an equivalent way,
g(t + α) = g(t) + α ġ(t) + o(α) (3.2)
Clearly, α ġ(t) is linear on α; thus, g(t + α) − g(t) equals a linear term on α

plus a term that approaches zero faster than α
Introduction
Let U and W finite dimension, normed vector spaces. Let D ⊂ U be open

and let g : D −→ W .
Definition
We say that g is differentiable in x ∈ D if it exists a linear application
Dg(x) : U −→ W such that:
g(x + u) = g(x) + Dg(x)[u] + o(u)
when u → 0.
Proposition
If Dg(x) exists, then it is unique and for every u

g(x + αu) − g(x) d
Dg(x)[u] = lim = g(x + αu)
α→0
α∈IR
α dα α=0
Introduction
Definition
The linear application (tensor) Dg(x) is called differential of g at x
Definition
We say that g is of class C 1 (or smooth) if g is differentiable at each point of
D and Dg is continuous. Similarly, we say that g is of class C 2 if g and Dg
are of class C 1 , . . .
Introduction
Examples:
Let ϕ : V → IR be defined by ϕ(v) = v · v. Then,
ϕ(v + u) = (v + u) · (v + u) = v · v + 2v · u + u · u = ϕ(v) + 2v · u + o(u)
and: Dϕ(v)[u] = 2v · u
We could also have computed the jacobian matrix and deduce:
 
u1
Dϕ(v)[u] = Jϕ (v)u = (2v1 2v2 2v3 )  u2  = 2v · u
u3
Let G : Lin → Lin be defined by G(A) = A2 . Then,
G(A + U) = (A + U)2 = A2 + AU + UA + U2 =
= G(A) + AU + UA + o(U)
thus: DG(A)[U] = AU + UA
Introduction
Theorem (Smooth-inverse)
Let D be an open subset of a finite-dimensional normed vector space U . Let
g : D −→ U be a C n (n ≥ 1) bijection, and let us assume that the linear
transformation Dg(x) : U −→ U is invertible for all x ∈ D. Then, g−1 is of
class C n .
If g : D ⊂ E −→ E , the theorem remains with Dg(x) : V −→ V .
Theorem
Let ϕ the scalar function defined on the set of all invertible tensors A by:
ϕ(A) = det A .
Then, ϕ is regular and
Dϕ(A)[U] = (det A) Tr (UA−1 ) , ∀U ∈ Lin (3.8)

Introduction
Theorem
The function H : Psym → Psym defined by:
√
H(C) = C
is smooth.
Introduction
Proposition (Product rule)

Let f and g be differentiable in x ∈ D. Then, their product h = π(f, g) is
differentiable in x and
Dh(x)[u] = π(f(x), Dg(x)[u]) + π(Df(x)[u], g(x)) (3.9)
for every u ∈ U .
Proposition
Let ϕ, v, w, S and T smooth functions defined in an open subset of IR. Let us
assume that ϕ is scalar valued, v and w are vector valued, and S and T are
tensor valued. Then:
(ϕv)˙= ϕ v̇ + ϕ̇v
(v · w)˙= v · ẇ + v̇ · w
(TS)˙= TṠ + ṪS
(T · S)˙= T · Ṡ + Ṫ · S
(Sv)˙= Sv̇ + Ṡv
Introduction
Let U , G and F be finte-dimensional normed vector spaces (or euclidean

point spaces). Let C and D be open subsets of G and U , respectively, and
g : D ⊂ U −→ G , f : C ⊂ G −→ F
such that Im(g) ⊂ C .
Proposition (Chain rule)

Let g be differentiable in x ∈ D and f differentiable in y = g(x). Then,
h = f ◦ g is differentiable at x, and
Dh(x) = Df(y) ◦ Dg(x)
i.e.,
Dh(x)[u] = Df(g(x)) [Dg(x)[u]] , ∀u ∈ U

Introduction
In the particular case U = IR, g and h are functions of a real variable

and, replacing x by t, we get:
Dh(t)[α] = α ḣ(t), Dg(t)[α] = α ġ(t)
for each α ∈ IR.
As h(t) = f(g(t)), we deduce:

d
f(g(t)) = Df(g(t))[ġ(t)] (3.12)
dt
Example:
t2 y2 + z2
   
g(t) =  2t  f(x, y, z) =  x2 + z2 
5t − 1 x2 + y2
  
0 2y 2z v1
Df(x, y, z)[v] =  2x 0 2z   v2 
2x 2y 0 v3
    
0 4t 10t − 2 2t 58t − 10
Df(g(t))[ġ(t)] =  2t 2 3
0 10t − 2   2  =  4t + 50t − 10 
2t2 4t 0 5 4t3 + 8t
Introduction
Proposition
Let S be a smooth tensor function defined in an open set D ⊂ IR. Then,
(ST )˙= (Ṡ)T ≡ ṠT
If, moreover, S(t) is invertible for every t ∈ D, we have:
(det S)˙= (det S) Tr (ṠS−1 ) (3.14)

Introduction
We will consider functions defined on an open set, R ⊂ E .
Definition
A function on R is called a scalar, vector, tensor o point field if its values
are, respectively, scalars, vectors, tensors or points.
We will usually denote by:

ϕ, a scalar field
u, v, vector fields
S, T, tensor fields
Introduction
Let ϕ be a smooth scalar field defined on R.

For each x ∈ R ⊂ E , Dϕ(x) is a linear application from V into IR and,
thanks to representation theorem for linear forms, there exists an only
vector a(x) such that Dϕ(x)[u] = a(x) · u.
We call gradient of ϕ in x the vector ∇ϕ(x) such that:
Dϕ(x)[u] = ∇ϕ(x) · u
As ϕ(x + u) = ϕ(x) + Dϕ(x)[u] + o(u), we deduce:
ϕ(x + u) = ϕ(x) + ∇ϕ(x) · u + o(u)

Introduction
Let v be a smooth vector field defined on R.

Dv(x) is a linear transformation from V into V and, hence, a tensor
We denote Dv(x) by ∇v(x) and we write
∇v(x) u = Dv(x)[u]
The tensor ∇v(x) is called gradient of v in x.
We call divergence of the vector field v the scalar field
div v = Tr (∇v)
Introduction
Definition
We define the divergence of a smooth tensor field S, div S, as the only vector
field verifying:
(div S) · a = div (ST a) (1)
for every constant vector a.
In general,  
S11 a1 + S21 a2 + S31 a3
ST a =  S12 a1 + S22 a2 + S32 a3  ;
S13 a1 + S23 a2 + S33 a3
the previous definition is valid for every constant vector a, hence:
div (ST a) = S11,1 a1 + S21,1 a2 + S31,1 a3 + S12,2 a1 + S22,2 a2 + S32,2 a3 +
+ S13,3 a1 + S23,3 a2 + S33,3 a3 =
= (S11,1 + S12,2 + S13,3 )a1 + (S21,1 + S22,2 + S23,3 )a2 +
+ (S31,1 + S32,2 + S33,3 )a3 = div S · a
thus:  
S11,1 + S12,2 + S13,3
div S =  S21,1 + S22,2 + S23,3 
S31,1 + S32,2 + S33,3
Introduction
Proposition
Let ϕ, v, w and S be smooth fields, ϕ scalar, v and w vectors, and S tensor.
Then
(a) ∇(ϕv) = ϕ ∇v + v ⊗ ∇ϕ (4.2a )

(b) div (ϕv) = ϕ div v + v · ∇ϕ (4.2b )
(c) ∇(v · w) = (∇w)T v + (∇v)T w (4.2c )
(d) div (v ⊗ w) = (div w) v + (∇v)w (4.2d )
T
(e) div (S v) = S · ∇v + v · div S (4.2e )
(f ) div (ϕS) = ϕ div S + S ∇ϕ (4.2f )
Proposition
If v is a vector field of class C 2 ,
div (∇vT ) = ∇(div v) (4.5)

Introduction
Definition
The curl of v, which we denote curl v, is the only vector field verifying:
(∇v − ∇vT )a = (curl v)×a , ∀a ∈ V
curl v(x) is the axial vector of the skew tensor ∇v(x) − ∇v(x)T
it is also denoted by rot v, or by ∇×v.
The components of vector curl v are (α, β , γ), with
∂ v3 ∂ v2
∂ v1 ∂ v3 ∂ v2 ∂ v1
α= − ,− , β= γ= −
∂ x2 ∂ x3
∂ x3 ∂ x1 ∂ x1 ∂ x2
1
∇v − ∇vT , has components:

as the skew part of ∇v, W =
2
 
0 −γ β
1
[W] = γ 0 −α 
2
−β α 0
1
Thus, (curl v)i = εijk (vk,j − vj,k ) = εijk vk,j
2
Introduction
Let Φ a scalar field of class C 2 .

Definition
We define the laplacian ∆Φ of Φ as:
∆Φ = div ∇Φ
If ∆Φ = 0, we say that Φ is harmonic

Introduction
Proposition
Let v a vector field of class C 2 such that div v = 0 and curl v = 0. Then v is
harmonic.
Let Φ be a scalar, vector or tensor field. Then,
1 ∂Φ
DΦ(x)[ei ] = lim [Φ(x + αei ) − Φ(x)] = (x)
α→0 α ∂ xi
If ϕ is a scalar field, v is a vector field and S is a tensor field,
∂ϕ ∂ vi ∂ 2ϕ
(∇ϕ)i = div v = ∑ ∆ϕ = ∑
∂ xi i ∂ xi i ∂ xi2
∂ vi ∂ Sij
(∇v)ij = (div S)i = ∑ (∆v)j = ∆vj
∂ xj j ∂ xj
Introduction
Let f and g be smooth point fields and let h = f ◦ g. In this case, the chain
rule stands:
∇h(x) = ∇f(y) ∇g(x)
where y = g(x).
Let ϕ a scalar field, v a vector field, and g a point field of real variable, all of
them smooth. The chain rule stands:
d
ϕ(g(t)) = ∇ϕ(g(t)) · ġ(t)
dt
d
v(g(t)) = ∇v(g(t)) ġ(t)
dt
Introduction
Definition
A curve in R ⊂ E is a smooth application
c : [0, 1] −→ R
such that ċ is never null.
c is closed if c(0) = c(1).

The length of c is the number
Z 1
long (c) = |ċ(σ )| dσ
0
Let v a continuous vector field in R. We define the integral of v along c as

Z Z 1
v(x) · dx = v(c(σ )) · ċ(σ ) dσ
c 0
Introduction
Similarly, for a continuous tensor field S on R we define the integral along c

as Z Z 1
S(x) dx = S(c(σ ))ċ(σ ) dσ
c 0
If ϕ is a smooth scalar field on R,

Z 1 Z 1
d
Z
∇ϕ(x) · dx = ∇ϕ(c(σ )) · ċ(σ ) dσ = ϕ(c(σ )) dσ
c 0 0 dσ
= ϕ(c(1)) − ϕ(c(0)) ;
thus, if c is a closed curve we have:

Z
∇ϕ(x) · dx = 0
c
Introduction
◦
Given a subset R ⊂ E , we denote ∂ R its boundary and R its interior.
We say that R is:

connected if any two points in R can be connected by a curve in R;
simply connected if any closed curve in R can be continuously
deformed to a point without leaving R; i.e., given any closed curve
c : [0, 1] → R, there exists a continuous function f : [0, 1]×[0, 1] → R
and a point y ∈ R such that, for every σ ∈ [0, 1], f(σ , 0) = c(σ ),
f(σ , 1) = y, f(0, σ ) = f(1, σ ); or, in a different way, R has not holes.
R ⊂ E is an open region if it is an open and connected set in E ; the closure

of an open region is called a closed region.
Introduction
Let R ⊂ E be a closed region.

◦
A field Φ is smooth in R if Φ is smooth in R and Φ and ∇Φ have
continuous extensions to all of R; in this case, we also write Φ and ∇Φ for
their extensions.
Similarly, we define Φ ∈ C N (R): the partial derivatives of order less or

equal than N have to be continuous (i.e., have continuous extensions) in R.
Introduction
Proposition
A vector field v = ∇ϕ (ϕ ∈ C 2 ) verifies: curl v = 0.
The reciprocal also stands:
Theorem (potential)
Let v a smooth vector field in a simply (open or closed) connected region R,
and assume:
curl v = 0
Then, there exists a scalar field ϕ of class C 2 in R such that
v = ∇ϕ
Introduction
Proposition
Let f be a smooth point or vector field on a region R, and assume F = ∇f is
constant in R. Then,
f(x) = f(y) + F(x − y) , ∀x, y ∈ R (4.9)
Thanks to (4.9), every point or vector field f with constant gradient F can be
written as:
f(x) = a + F(x − x0 )
with a ∈ V (or a ∈ E if f is a point field) and x0 ∈ E . Moreover, x0 can be
chosen in an arbitrary way (and a depends on the choice of x0 ).
Introduction

R is a smooth region if it is a closed region with piecewise smooth
boundary ∂ R.
R may be bounded or unbounded
If it is bounded, we denote vol (R) its volume.
Theorem (divergence)
Let R be a bounded smooth region and let ϕ : R → IR, v : R → V and
S : R → Lin be smooth fields. Then,
Z Z
ϕn dA = ∇ϕ dV
Z ∂R Z R
v · n dA = div v dV
Z∂ R Z R
Sn dA = div S dV
∂R R
where n is the outwards unit normal field on ∂ R.

Introduction
Theorem (localization)
Let Φ be a continuous scalar or vector field defined on an open subset
R ⊂ E . Let x0 ∈ R; then,
1
Z
Φ(x0 ) = lim Φ dV (1)
δ →0 vol (Ωδ ) Ωδ
where Ωδ (δ > 0) is th closed ball of radius δ centered in x0 . Hence, if

Z
Φ dV = 0
Ω
for every closed ball Ω ⊂ R, then
Φ=0
Introduction
If we combine localization and divergence theorems, we get:

1
Z
div v(x) = lim v · n dA
δ →0 vol (Ωδ ) ∂ Ωδ
1
Z
div S(x) = lim Sn dA .
δ →0 vol (Ωδ ) ∂ Ωδ
Thus, the divergence (of v or S) in a point is the field flux per unit volume
through the boundary of balls centered in the point, when the radius of the
balls approaches zero.
Introduction
Theorem (Stokes)
Let v a smooth vector field on an open set R ⊂ E . Let Ω be a disc in R, n a
unit normal to Ω, and c : [0, 1] → R the boundary of Ω, oriented such that
[ċ(0)×ċ(σ )] · n > 0 for all 0 < σ < 1.
Then, Z Z
(curl v) · n dA = v · dx
Ω c
Introduction
Z
The integral v · dx represents the circulation of v around c.
c
If x0 ∈ E is the center of Ω and δ > 0 is its radius (we write Ω = Ωδ and

c = cδ ), then the combination of Stokes theorem and the “plane” version of
the localization theorem leads us to:
1
Z
(curl v)(x0 ) · n = lim v · dx
δ →0 A(Ωδ ) cδ
where A(Ωδ ) is the area of Ωδ
Thus, the magnitude of curl v is the circulation per unit area in that plane.
Introduction
Summary on vector and tensor differentiation (I)
Derivative of a function of one variable

g : V → V is differentiable in x ∈ V if
g(x + u) = g(x) + Dg(x)[u] + o(u)
Smooth functions
Product rule:
Dh(x)[u] = π(f(x), Dg(x)[u]) + π(Df(x)[u], g(x))
Chain rule:
Dh(x)[u] = Df(g(x)) [Dg(x)[u]] , ∀u ∈ U

Introduction
Summary on vector and tensor differentiation (II)
∂ϕ ∂ vi ∂ 2ϕ
(∇ϕ)i = div v = ∑ ∆ϕ = ∑
∂ vi ∂ Sij
(∇v)ij = (div S)i = ∑ (∆v)j = ∆vj
∂ xj j ∂ xj
(curl v)i = εijk vk,j
Divergence theorem
Localization theorem
Stokes theorem
1 Introduction
2 Kinematics
Bodies, deformations, strains
Small deformations
Motions
Types of motions. Spin. Stretch rate
Transport theorems. Volume. Isochoric motions
Spin. Circulation. Vorticity
3 Conservation laws
Kinematics
Definition
A body B is a regular region of E . We will refer to B as reference
configuration.
Points p ∈ B are called material points and bounded regular subregions of
B are called parts of B.
Continuum mechanics is the study of deformations of bodies. From the

mathematical point of view, a body is deformed via an application f that
carries each material point p ∈ B into a position x = f(p).
Kinematics
Definition
A deformation of a body B is a one–to–one smooth mapping f which maps
B into a closed region in E , f(B), and which satisfies det ∇f > 0.
The requirement that the body not penetrate itself is expressed by the
assumption that f be one–to–one.
det ∇f represents, locally, the volume after the deformation per unit
original volume; hence, we assume that det ∇f 6= 0.
Moreover, a deformation with det ∇f < 0 cannot be reached by a
continuous process starting in the reference configuration.
The vector u(p) = f(p) − p represents the displacement of p.

When u is constant, f is a translation: f(p) = p + u
Kinematics
Deformations
1 − p21
   
2 2 
1 + 3p1
f(p) =  1 − p1 − p2  f(p) =  1.2 + 2p2 − p1 p3 

1
2 + p23 1 + p23
2
Kinematics
Translation
 
p1 + 0.5
f(p) =  p2 + 1.0 
p3 + 0.6
Kinematics
Definition
The tensor
F(p) = ∇f(p)
is called gradient of deformation
As det ∇f > 0, we have: F(p) ∈ Lin+ , ∀p ∈ B.
Definition
A deformation is homogeneous if F is constant.
Thanks to (4.9), every homogeneous deformation can be written as:
f(p) = f(q) + F(p − q) , ∀p, q ∈ B (6.4)
Reciprocally, every field f, on points of B, in the form (6.4) with

F ∈ Lin+ and constant is a homogeneous deformation.
Kinematics
Homogeneous deformations
 
1 + 3p1 − p2 + 2p3
f(p) =  2 + p2 − 4p3 
1 + 1.5p3
Kinematics
Proposition (about homogeneous deformations)
(HD1) Given a point q ∈ E and a tensor F ∈ Lin+ , there exists a unique

homogeneous deformation f with ∇f = F and q fixed (i.e., f(q) = q).
(HD2) If f and g are homogeneous deformations, f ◦ g is also homogeneous
and:
∇(f ◦ g) = (∇f)(∇g) .
Moreover, if f and g have q ∈ E fixed, then so does f ◦ g.
Proposition
Let f be a homogeneous deformation. Given a point q ∈ E , we can
decompose f as:
f = d1 ◦ g = g ◦ d2
where g is a homogeneous deformation with q fixed, while d1 and d2 are
translations. Further, each of these decompositions is unique.
Kinematics
Some homogeneous deformations with a point fixed:

(a) Rotation around q:
f(p) = q + R(p − q) , with R ∈ Orth+
(b) Stretch from q:
f(p) = q + U(p − q) , with U ∈ Psym

Kinematics
Rotation
 
cos(4π/5)p1 + sin(4π/5)p2
f(p) =  − sin(4π/5)p1 + cos(4π/5)p2 
p3
Kinematics
Stretching
   
1 2 1 −1
q =  2 , U=  1 3 0 
0 −1 0 2
Kinematics
In particular, a stretch such that:
U = I + (λ − 1)e ⊗ e
with λ > 0 and |e| = 1, then f is an extension (or elongation) of magnitude

λ in the direction of e.
In this case, in a system of coordinates with e1 = e the matrix of U is:

 
λ 0 0
[U] =  0 1 0 
0 0 1
and the corresponding displacement has components (u1 , 0, 0) with
u1 (p) = (λ − 1)(p1 − q1 )
Kinematics
Extension
   
−2 2 0 0
q =  2 , U=  0 1 0 
0 0 0 1
Kinematics
Propositions (HD1) and (HD2) of homogeneous deformations, jointly with

the polar decomposition theorem, leads us to:
Proposition
Let f be a homogeneous deformation with q fixed. Then, f admits the
decompositions
f = g ◦ s1 = s2 ◦ g ,
where g is a rotation around q, while s1 and s2 are stretches from q.
Moreover, each of these decompositions is unique. In fact, if F = RU = VR
is the polar decomposition of F = ∇f, then:
∇g = R, ∇s1 = U, ∇s2 = V
Kinematics
Kinematics
Proposition
Every stretch f from q can be decomposed in a sequence of three extensions
from q in mutually orthogonal directions. The amounts and directions of the
extensions are the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of U = ∇f, and the
extensions may be performed in any order.
Kinematics
Each stretching can be decomposed as the sequence of three extensions

of intensity λ1 , λ2 y λ3 .
λi are called the principal stretches
U and V having the same spectre, the stretches s1 and s2 in

f = g ◦ s1 = s2 ◦ g have the same principal stretches
From now on, until the end of this section, f is a general deformation of B.
As f is a bijection, there exists f−1 : f(B) → B. Further, det ∇f > 0 so that

∇f(p) is invertible for each p ∈ B. Thanks to the smooth inverse theorem,
f−1 is also smooth.
Moreover,
◦
f(B) = f(B)◦ (6.5a )
f(∂ B) = ∂ f(B) (6.5b )
Kinematics
If we develop deformation f : B → E around a point q ∈ B, we have:
f(p) = f(q) + F(q)(p − q) + o(p − q)
where F(q) = ∇f(q) is the gradient of deformation at q.

Thus, in a neighborhood of q and to within an error o(p − q), the
deformation behaves as a homogeneous deformation.
If F = RU = VR is the pointwise polar decomposition of F, then R is the

rotation tensor, U is the right stretch tensor and V is the left stretch
tensor of deformation f.
R(p) measures the the local rigid rotation of points near p, while U(p)
and V(p) measure the local stretches from p.
Kinematics
√ √
As U = FT F and V = FFT , their computation is often difficult.
Definition
We introduce the right and left Cauchy–Green strain tensors, C and B,
defined by:
C = U2 = FT F , B = V2 = FFT ,
which components are:
3 3
∂ fk ∂ fk ∂ fi ∂ fj
Cij = ∑ ∂ pi ∂ pj , Bij = ∑ ∂ pk ∂ pk
k=1 k=1
As
V = RURT B = RCRT
and R ∈ Orth+ , we have:
IV = IU , IB = IC
Kinematics
Definition
A deformation is rigid if it preserves the distances. Actually, f is rigid if
|f(p) − f(q)| = |p − q| ∀p, q ∈ B
f is rigid if and only if it is homogeneous and ∇f is a rotation
Theorem (Characterization of rigid deformations)

The following statements are equivalent:
(a) f is a rigid deformation.
(b) f has the form
f(p) = f(q) + R(p − q)
for every p, q ∈ B, with R ∈ Orth+ constant.
(c) F(p) is a rotation for every p ∈ B.
(d) U(p) = I for every p ∈ B.
(e) For every curve c in B, long (c) = long (f ◦ c).
Kinematics
Proposition
Let f be a deformation of B and let ϕ be a continuous scalar field on f(B).
Given a part P of B, we have:
Z Z
ϕ(x) dVx = ϕ(f(p)) det F(p) dVp
f(P) P
Z Z
ϕ(x) m(x) dAx = ϕ(f(p)) G(p) n(p) dAp
∂ f(P) ∂P
where m and n are, respectively, the outwards unit normal vector to ∂ f(P)
and ∂ P, and
G = (det F) F−T
Kinematics
Given a part P,
Z Z
vol (f(P)) = dV = det F dV
f(P) P
and, thanks to the localization theorem,

vol (f(Ωδ ))
(det F)(p) = lim
δ →0 vol (Ωδ )
where Ωδ is a closed ball of radius δ and centered in p.
Thus, det F is the volume after deformation per unit of original volume.
Kinematics
Definition
A deformation f is isochoric (or it preserves the volume) if for any part P
of B we have:
vol (f(P)) = vol (P)
Proposition
A deformation is isochoric if and only if
det F = 1
Kinematics
Summary on deformations
Material points (p) and spatial positions (x), x = f(p)

Gradient of deformation: F = ∇f
Some kinds of deformations:
translation (constant displacement)
homogeneous (constant F)
rotation (F ∈ Orth+ )
stretching (F ∈ Psym)
extension
rigid
isochoric (det F = 1)
Decomposition: F = RU = VR
Cauchy–Green strain tensors:
C = U2 = FT F, B = V2 = FFT
Kinematics
Small deformations
Small deformations
As f(p) = p + u(p), we have: F = I + ∇u

Hence, Cauchy–Green tensors are
(
C = I + ∇u + ∇uT + ∇uT ∇u
B = I + ∇u + ∇uT + ∇u ∇uT
When the deformation is rigid, C = B = I, and:
∇u + ∇uT + ∇uT ∇u = ∇u + ∇uT + ∇u ∇uT = 0 . (7.3)
Moreover, in this case ∇u is constant as F is constant.
We will study deformations with small ∇u.

Kinematics
Small deformations
The tensor field

1
∇u + ∇uT

E=
2
is called infinitesimal deformation
The infinitesimal deformation verifies:
C = I + 2E + ∇uT ∇u
B = I + 2E + ∇u ∇uT
Kinematics
Small deformations
An infinitesimal rigid displacement of B is a vector field u on B with ∇u

constant and skew, i.e.
u(p) = u(q) + W(p − q)
for all p, q ∈ B, with W skew

As a consequence, we have u(p) = u(q) + ω×(p − q), where ω is the
axial vector of W.
If f is a rigid deformation, then
C=I =⇒ 2E = −∇uT ∇u ;
if u is an infinitesimal rigid displacement, E = 0

An infinitesimal rigid displacement is not the displacement of a rigid
deformation; it is only a good approximation when |∇u| is small.
Kinematics
Small deformations
Theorem (Characterization of infinitesimal rigid displacements)

Let u be a smooth vector field on B. The following statements are
equivalent:
(a) u is an infinitesimal rigid displacement
(b) u verifies the projection property: for all p, q ∈ B,
(p − q) · [u(p) − u(q)] = 0
(c) ∇u(p) is skew for all p ∈ B

(d) the infinitesimal deformation is E(p) = 0 for all p ∈ B.
Kinematics
Small deformations
Summary on small deformations
|∇u| ≈ 0 =⇒ B = C = I + ∇u + ∇uT
1
∇u + ∇uT

Infinitesimal deformation: E = 2
Infinitesimal rigid displacement:

u on B, with ∇u constant and skew
Kinematics
Motions
Motions
Let B be a body.
Definition
A motion of B is a function of class C 3
x : B×IR −→ E
where x(·, t), for each fixed t, is a deformation of B.
Thus, a motion is a smooth parametric family of deformations, time t

being the parameter.
We will denote
x = x(p, t)
the position ocuppied by the material point p at time instant t.
We call
Bt = x(B, t)
the region ocuppied by the body B at time t.
Kinematics
Motions
 
p1 − p2 t + 2t
x(p, t) =  p2 + 3t2 
p3 + 2 sin t
Kinematics
Motions
Trajectory: T = {(x, t) / x ∈ Bt , t ∈ IR}

For each t, x(·, t) is a bijection from B onto Bt ; thus, it has an inverse
p(·, t) : Bt −→ B
such that
x(p(x, t), t) = x, p(x(p, t), t) = p
Given (x, t) ∈ T ,
p = p(x, t)
is the material point in the position x at time t.
The application p : T −→ B is also called reference mapping of the
motion
Velocity and acceleration:
∂ ∂2
ẋ(p, t) = x(p, t) ; ẍ(p, t) = x(p, t)
∂t ∂ t2
Using the reference mapping p, we can describe the velocity ẋ(p, t) as a

function v(x, t) of the position x and time t
The mapping v : T → V defined by: v(x, t) = ẋ(p(x, t), t) is the spatial
description of the velocity.
v(x, t) is the velocity of the material point ocuppying position x at time t
Kinematics
Motions
Any field related to the motion can be described as a function of the

material point and time, with domain B × IR, or as a function of the
position and time, with domain T
Notation: a material field is a mapping on B × IR, while a spatial field
is a mapping on T
For example, the field ẋ is material and the field v is spatial
Spatial description Φs of a material field (p, t) 7→ Φ(p, t):
Φs (x, t) = Φ(p(x, t), t)
Material description Ωm of a spatial field (x, t) 7→ Ω(x, t):
Ωm (p, t) = Ω(x(p, t), t)
Clearly, (Φs )m = Φ and (Ωm )s = Ω

Kinematics
Motions
Given a material field Φ, we write:

∂
Φ̇, material derivative with respect to time of Φ: Φ̇(p, t) = ∂ t Φ(p, t)
(derivative with respect to time t for p fixed)
∇Φ, material gradient of Φ: ∇Φ(p, t) = ∇p Φ(p, t)

(gradient with respect to p for t fixed)
The material field F = ∇x is called the deformation gradient in the
motion x
Given a spatial field Ω, we denote:

∂
Ω0 , spatial time derivative of Ω: Ω0 (x, t) = Ω(x, t)
∂t
(derivative with respect to time t with x fixed)
grad Ω, spatial gradient of Ω: grad Ω(x, t) = ∇x Ω(x, t)

(gradient with respect to x for fixed t)
Kinematics
Motions
We define the spatial divergence and the spatial curl, div and curl , as
the divergence and curl defined for spatial fields, so that the underlying
gradient is the spatial gradient, grad
Similarly, Div and Curl denote the material divergence and the
material curl, defined for material fields and computed by means of
the material gradient, ∇.
Material field Φ Spatial field Ω

Domain: B×IR T
Arguments: (p, t) (x, t)
Gradient: ∇Φ grad Ω
Time derivative: Φ̇ Ω0
Divergence: Div Φ div Ω
Curl: CurlΦ curl Ω
Kinematics
Motions
It is also convenient to define the time derivative with respect to time Ω̇ of

a spatial field Ω, such that Ω̇ represents the derivative of Ω leaving fixed the
material point p.
Thus, to compute Ω̇:

we transform Ω to its material description Ωm
we calculate the material derivative with respect to time (Ωm )˙, and
we come back to the spatial description ((Ωm )˙)s ,
i.e.,
Ω̇ = ((Ωm )˙)s (1)
or:
∂
Ω̇(x, t) = Ω(x(p, t), t)
∂t p=p(x,t)
Kinematics
Motions
Let Φ be a smooth material field and Ω a smooth spatial field. Then,
(Φ̇)s = (Φs )˙≡ Φ̇s (Ω̇)m = (Ωm )˙≡ Ω̇m
In particular, for Ω = v:
(v̇)m = (vm )˙= ẍ
thus v̇ is the spatial description of the acceleration

Let ϕ and u be smooth spatial fields, ϕ being scalar and u vector. Then:
(
ϕ̇ = ϕ 0 + v · grad ϕ
(8.4)
u̇ = u0 + (grad u)v
In particular,
v̇ = v0 + (grad v)v (8.5)
We define the position vector r : E → V as r(x) = x − o.
Let us consider the position vector as a spatial field: r(x, t) = r(x) for
each (x, t) ∈ T . Then
ṙ = v
Kinematics
Motions
Let u be a smooth spatial vector field. Then, ∇(um ) = (grad u)m F

We call velocity gradient the spatial field L = grad v
The velocity gradient verifies:
Ḟ = Lm F , F̈ = (grad v̇)m F
The function s : IR −→ E defined by s(t) = x(p, t) is called trajectory

(or pathline) of the material point p
Clearly, s is a solution of the differential equation:
ṡ(t) = v(s(t), t)
If we fixed the time in t = τ and look at the integral curves of the vector
field v(·, τ), we get the streamlines of the motion at instant τ
Thus, each streamline is a solution s of the differential equation
ṡ(λ ) = v(s(λ ), τ)
Kinematics
Motions
Example
Let us consider the motion x : (p, t) ∈ B×IR −→ x(p, t) = x ∈ E , defined by:
2
x1 = p1 et , x2 = p2 et , x3 = p3 .
Then the deformation gradient F is

 2 
et 0 0
[F] = [∇x] =  0 et 0 
0 0 1
and the velocity is  2 

2p1 tet
ẋ =  p2 et 
0
Kinematics
Motions
The reference application p is:

2
p1 = x1 e−t , p2 = x2 e−t , p3 = x3 ,
the spatial description of the velocity is:
v1 (x, t) = 2x1 t , v2 (x, t) = x2 , v3 (x, t) = 0 ,
and the velocity gradient is

 
2t 0 0
[L(x, t)] =  0 1 0 
0 0 0
The streamlines of the motion at instant t are the solutions of the following
system:
ṡ1 (λ ) = 2ts1 (λ ) , ṡ2 (λ ) = s2 (λ ) , ṡ3 (λ ) = 0,
thus,
s1 (λ ) = y1 e2tλ , s2 (λ ) = y2 eλ , s3 (λ ) = y3 ,
is the streamline that passes through (y1 , y2 , y3 ) for λ = 0.
Kinematics
Motions
Summary on motions
Motion: x : B×IR → E , x(p, t) = x

Velocity and acceleration
∂ ∂2
ẋ(p, t) = x(p, t) , ẍ(p, t) = x(p, t)
∂t ∂ t2
Spatial and material description
Velocity gradient, L = grad v
Pathline of a material particle
Streamline
Kinematics

Definition
A motion x is steady (or stationnary) if:
Bt = B0 , ∀t
v0 = 0 on the trajectory T
The body will ocuppy the region B0 at every moment, hence

T = B0 ×IR
The velocity only depends on the position, thus the material particles
that cross a given position x all cross x with the same velocity v(x)
The velocity of a material point varies with time, depending on the
position occupied at each instant: ẋ(p, t) = v(x(p, t))
In a steady motion, the velocity field is tangent to the boundary:
v(x) is tangent to ∂ B0 , ∀x ∈ ∂ B0
Kinematics
In a steady motion, every streamline is a pathline, and viceversa.
Let Φ be a smooth field on the pathline of a steady motion. Φ is steady

if Φ0 = 0
Let ϕ be a smooth, scalar, steady field on the pathline of a steady

motion. The following statements are equivalent:
d
(a) ϕ is constant on the streamlines: ϕ(s(t)) = 0, ∀t
dt
(b) ϕ̇ = 0
(c) v · grad ϕ = 0
Kinematics
Definition
A motion x is rigid if:
∂
|x(p, t) − x(q, t)| = 0 , ∀p, q , ∀t (9.4)
∂t
The magnitude δ (t) = |x(p, t) − x(q, t)| represents the time distance
between the material points p and q
During a rigid motion, the distance between material points is constant
along time
Similarly, the angle θ (t) between the material points a, p and q is the
angle between vectors x(a, t) − x(p, t) and x(q, t) − x(p, t)
Kinematics
Characterization of rigid motions

Let x be a motion, and let v be its velocity field. The following
statements are equivalent:
(a) x is a rigid motion
(b) v(t) has the form of an infinitesimal rigid motion: ∀t,
v(x, t) = v(y, t) + W(t) (x − y) , ∀x, y ∈ Bt , W(t) ∈ Skw
(c) the velocity gradient L(x, t) is skew for each (x, t) ∈ T
Let ω(t) the axial vector of W(t); then,

v(x, t) = v(y, t) + ω(t)×(x − y) ,
which is the classical expression for the velocity field of a rigid motion
The vector function ω is called the angular velocity
Kinematics
Let us assume ω 6= 0. For y fixed, the velocity field

x 7→ ω×(x − y)
vanishes at positions x on the line {y + αω / α ∈ IR}, and represents a

rigid rotation around that line.
Thus, for a fixed y, the velocity v is the sum of:

a uniform velocity field, with constant value v(y)
a rigid rotation around the line passing through y with the direction of
vector ω.
We call ` = sp {ω} the spin axis

Let us remark that ` = `(t) can also be defined as the set of vectors e such
that: We = 0
Kinematics
Let us now consider a general velocity field v.

As L = grad v,
v(x) = v(y) + L(y) (x − y) + o(x − y)
when x → y, where y is a given position
Let D and W be, respectively, the symmetric and skew parts of L:
1 1
D = (L + LT ) = (grad v + grad vT )
2 2
1 1
W = (L − LT ) = (grad v − grad vT ) .
2 2
Then, L = D + W and:
v(x) = v(y) + W(y) (x − y) + D(y) (x − y) + o(x − y) .
Thus, in points close to y, and within an error o(x − y), a velocity field
v is the sum of a rigid velocity field
x 7→ v(y) + W(y) (x − y)
and a velocity field of the form
x 7→ D(y) (x − y) .
Kinematics
Definition
We call W(y, t) and D(y, t) the spin and the stretching, respectively, and we
call the spin axis in (y, t) the subspace ` ⊂ V of all vectors e such that
W(y, t)e = 0.
` is one dimensional if W(y, t) 6= 0.

The acceleration v̇ verifies:
1
v̇ = v0 + grad (v2 ) + 2Wv , (9.10a )
2
0 1
v̇ = v + grad (v2 ) + (curl v)×v . (9.10b )
2
Definition
A motion is plane if the velocity field has the form:
v(x, t) = v1 (x1 , x2 , t)e1 + v2 (x1 , x2 , t)e2 in some cartesian reference system.
Proposition
In a plane motion, WD + DW = (div v)W
Kinematics
Summary on motions
Steady motion: Bt = B0 , v0 = 0
Rigid motion: the distance between material points is constant along
time
Stretching and spin:
1 1
D = (L + LT ) , W = (L − LT )
2 2
Plane motion
Kinematics

Let x be a motion of body B. Let P ⊂ B be a part of the body.
Definition
We call volume of P at time t:
Z Z Z
vol (Pt ) = dV = dVx = (det F) dVp
Pt Pt P
Theorem (of volume transport)

For every part P ⊂ B and every instant t,
d
Z Z Z
vol (Pt ) = (det F)· dV = (div v) dV = v · n dA
dt P Pt ∂ Pt
Kinematics
Definition
A motion is isochoric if:
d
vol (Pt ) = 0 , ∀P ⊂ B, ∀t
dt
Theorem (of characterization of isochoric motions)

The following statements are equivalent:
the motion x is isochoric
(det F)· = 0
div v = 0 Z
∀P ⊂ B, ∀t, v · n dA = 0.
∂ Pt
Rigid motions are isochoric, as their velocity gradient is skew.

For a motion to be isochoric, the volume of every part should be
constant along the motion; but it is not necessary that the volume of
each part be equal to its volume in the reference configuration.
Kinematics
Theorem (Reynolds transport theorem)

Let Φ be a smooth field, either scalar or vector. Then, for every part P and
every time t,
(a)
d
Z Z
Φ dV = Φ̇ + Φdiv v dV (10.5a )
dt Pt Pt
(b)
d
Z Z Z
Φ dV = Φ0 dV + Φv · n dA (10.5b )
dt Pt Pt ∂ Pt
Let us remark that:

Z
d
Z Z
0 ∂
Φ dV = Φ(x, t) dVx = Φ(x, τ) dVnx .
Pt Pt ∂ t dτ Pt τ=t
Thus, (10.5b ) asserts that the rate at which the integral of Φ over Pt is
changing is equal to the rate computed as if Pt were fixed in it current
position plus the rate at which Φ is carried out of this region across its
boundary
Kinematics
Summary
Volume of a part P:
Z Z Z
Pt Pt P
Theorem of volume transport:

d
Z Z Z
dt P Pt ∂ Pt
Isochoric motion:
d
vol (Pt ) = 0 , ∀P ⊂ B, ∀t
dt
Reynolds transport theorem:
d
Z Z
Φ dV = Φ̇ + Φdiv v dV
dt Pt Pt
Z Z
= Φ0 dV + Φv · n dA
Pt ∂ Pt
Kinematics

We have seen that a rigid motion is characterized by a skew velocity
gradient: L = grad v = D + W = W.
For a general motion, the spin W(x, t) describes the rigid rotation of the
material points occupying positions close to x.
Let J be the skew part of the acceleration gradient:

1
J = (grad v̇ − grad v̇T )
2
Given a spatial tensor field G, let: GF = FT Gm F.
Theorem (of spin transport)

The spin W verifies the differential equations:
(WF )· = JF (11.2a )
Ẇ + DW + WD = J (11.2b )
Kinematics
Definition
A motion is irrotational if W = 0, which implies curl v = 0.
Definition
A spatial vector field g is gradient of a potential (or it derives from a
potential) if it exists a spatial scalar field α such that:
g(x, t) = grad α(x, t) , ∀(x, t) ∈ T .
Proposition
If the velocity v̇ derives from a potential, then J = 0.
The hypothesis of the acceleration deriving from a potential is valid, for

example, for non viscous fluids under conservative volume forces.
Kinematics
Theorem (Lagrange–Cauchy)
A motion which acceleration derives from a potential is irrotational if it is
irrotational at a given instant.
Proposition
In a plane and isochoric motion which acceleration derives from a potential,
we have Ẇ = 0.
Kinematics
Let x be a motion of B.
We call material curve a curve c on B.

A material point on the curve is given by c(σ ), σ ∈ [0, 1]. In an instant t, the
material curve c(σ ) will occupy positions x(c(σ ), t) and, hence, the material
points of the curve form another curve:
ct (σ ) = x(c(σ ), t) , σ ∈ [0, 1]
in Bt .
Definition
If c (and, hence, ct ) is closed, we call circulation on c in instant t the
integral: Z
v(x, t) · dx .
ct
The previous expression is the line integral of a vector: it is the sum of

tangential components of vector v.
Kinematics
Theorem (of circulation transport)

If c is a closed material curve,
d
Z Z
v(x, t) · dx = v̇(x, t) · dx .
dt ct ct
Definition
A motion preserves the circulation if:
d
Z
v(x, t) · dx = 0
dt ct
for every closed material curve c and for every time instant.
Theorem (Kelvin)
If the acceleration derives from a potential, the motion preserves the
circulation.
Kinematics
Definition
A curve h in Bt is a line of vortex in instant t if the tangent to the curve at
every point x ∈ h has the direction of the spin of the motion in (x, t).
As the spin axis in (x, t) is the set of vectors e such that W(x, t)e = 0,
the curve h is a line of vortex if and only if:
dh(σ )
W(h(σ ), t) = 0, ∀σ ∈ [0, 1] .
dσ
Theorem (of vorticity transport)

If the acceleration derives from a potential, the lines of vortex are
transported with the motion; i.e., if ct is a line of vortex at an instant t = τ,
then it is a line of vortex at every instant t.
Theorem
The velocity field of an isochoric and irrotational motion is harmonic.
Kinematics
Summary
1
2
Irrotational motion: W = 0 ⇐⇒ curl v = 0
Gradient of a potential vector field: g = grad α
Cauchy–Lagrange theorem
Circulation of a vector field on a curve

Theorem of circulation transport, Kelvin theorem
Line of vortex, Theorem of vorticity transport
1 Introduction
2 Kinematics
3 Conservation laws
Conservation of mass
Linear and angular moments. Center of mass
Forces. Stress. Momentum balance
Consequences of balance of momentum
Conservation of energy
Conservation laws
Let B be a body.
Definition
A distribution of mass of B is a family of smooth density fields
ρf : f(B) −→ IR+ each of them relative to a deformation f, such that:
Z Z
ρf dV = ρg dV = m(P) , ∀P ⊂ B , ∀f, g ∈ Lin+ (1)
f(P) g(P)
ρf (x) represents the density at position x = f(p) in the deformation f;

(1) is an expression of the conservation of mass
we call ρ0 the density field relative to the deformation such that
f(p) = p, ∀p ∈ B (reference configuration); thanks to the localization
theorem,
1 m(Ωδ )
Z
ρ0 (p) = lim ρ dV = lim ,
δ →0 vol (Ωδ ) Ωδ δ →0 vol (Ωδ )
δ centered in p
Conservation laws
Let f be a deformation of B and let F = ∇f. Then, for x = f(p),
ρf (x) det F(p) = ρ0 (p) (2)
If we consider a pathline T , we define the density of the motion x as:
ρ: T −→ IR+
(x, t) −→ ρ(x, t) = ρx(·,t) (x)
Thanks to (1), we have:

Z Z
m(P) = ρ(x, t) dVx ≡ ρ dV
Pt Pt
For every part P ⊂ B and every instant t > 0,

d
Z
ρ dV = 0
dt Pt
Conservation laws
If F = ∇x is the gradient of deformation of the motion and x = x(p, t),

then:
ρ(x, t) det F(p, t) = ρ0 (p) (3)
ρ = (ρ0 /det F)s (spatial description)

Thanks to the regularity lemma, ρ is smooth in T
Theorem (Local form of conservation of mass)

(
ρ̇ + ρ div v = 0
ρ 0 + div (ρv) = 0
Recall that a motion is isochoric if and only if div v = 0. Thus, a

motion is isochoric if and only if ρ̇ = 0
Conservation laws
Control volume
Definition
We call control volume in instant t a bounded region R ⊂ Bτ , for every
instant τ in an neigborhood of t.
Conservation laws
Control volume
Definition
We call control volume in instant t a bounded region R ⊂ Bτ , for every
instant τ in an neigborhood of t.
Conservation laws
Control volume
Z Z
Due to the theorem of divergence, div (ρv) dV = ρv · n dA
R ∂R
Thus,
d
Z Z Z
∂
ρ 0 (x, t) dVx = ρ(x, t) dVx = ρ(x, t) dVx
R R ∂ t dt R
because R is independent of time.
Theorem (Conservation of mass in a control volume)

Let R be a control volume in instant t. Then,
d
Z Z
ρ(x, t) dVx = − ρ(x, t)v(x, t) · n(x) dAx
dt R ∂R
ρv · n represents the flux of mass per unit of area; the velocity of mass
increase in the volume R is equal to the mass flux entering R through
its boundary
Conservation laws
Lemma
Let Φ be a continuous spatial field. Then, for any part P,
Z Z
Φ(x, t) ρ(x, t) dVx = Φm (p, t) ρ0 (p) dVp
Pt P
Theorem
Let Φ be a smooth spatial field. Then, for any part P ⊂ B,
d
Z Z
Φρ dV = Φ̇ρ dV
dt Pt Pt
this result is equivalent to considering the measure of mass ρ dV as a

constant
a particular case is Φ = 1, for which we find again:
d
Z
ρ dV = 0
dt Pt
Conservation laws
Summary on mass conservation
Distribution of mass
Conservation of mass:
(
ρ̇ + ρ div v = 0
ρ 0 + div (ρv) = 0
Conservation of mass in a control volume:

d
Z Z
dt R ∂R
Conservation laws

Let x be a motion of a body B, and let P ⊂ B.
Definition
We call linear moment l(P, t) and angular moment a(P, t) (with respect
to the origin o) of P at instant t to:
 Z
l(P, t) =
 vρ dV
Z Pt
a(P, t) =
 (r×v)ρ dV
Pt
where r : E −→ V is the position vector given by r(x) = x − o
Proposition
For every part P and every time instant t > 0, we have:
Z Z
l̇(P, t) = v̇ρ dV ȧ(P, t) = (r×v̇)ρ dV (4)
Pt Pt
Conservation laws
Let B be a bounded body (m(B) < +∞).

Definition
We call center of mass α(t) of B at instant t the point defined by:
1
Z
α(t) − o = rρ dV (5)
m(B) Bt
the previous definition is independent of the origin o
1
Z
α̇(t) = vρ dV
m(B) Bt
such that α̇(t) represents the mean velocity of B
with the previous result,
l(B, t) = m(B) α̇(t) ; (6)
the linear moment of a body B is equal to the linear moment of a
particle of mass m(B) occupying the position of the center of mass of
B
Conservation laws
Summary on moments
Linear moment of P at instant t:

Z
l(P, t) = vρ dV
Pt
Angular moment of P at instant t:

Z
a(P, t) = (r×v)ρ dV
Pt
For every part P and every time instant t > 0:

Z Z
l̇(P, t) = v̇ρ dV , ȧ(P, t) = (r×v̇)ρ dV
Pt Pt
Center of mass:
1
Z
α(t) − o = rρ dV
m(B) Bt
Conservation laws

In a motion, the mechanical interactions between parts of a body, or between
the body and its environment, are described by means of forces. We will
consider three kinds of forces:
contact forces, between parts of a body
contact forces, exerted on the boundary by its environment
volume forces, exterted on the interior points of a body by the
environment.
Hypothesis (Cauchy)
There exists density of surface forces s(n, x, t) defined for each unit vector n
at every point (x, t) ∈ T (motion trajectory). This field of forces has the
following property: if S is an orientable surface in Bt , with (positive) unit
normal n in x, then s(n, x, t) is the force, per unit of area, exerted through S
on the material on the negative side of S by the material lying at the positive
side. If, moreover, C is an oriented surface tangent to S in x, with the same
unit normal, then the force per unit of area in x is the same in C and S .
Conservation laws
Conservation laws
Conservation laws
Let P, D ⊂ B be two different parts such that St = Pt ∩ Dt . The contact

force exerted by D on P at instant t is given by:
Z Z
s(nx , x, t) dAx ≡ s(n) dA ,
St St
where we have denoted nx the unit normal exterior to ∂ Pt at x.
The force, per unit of area, exerted by then environment on the points of the
boundary of B is called surface traction:
Z
s(n) dA
∂ Bt
The volumen forces, exerted by the environment on the interior points of B,
are determined by a vector field:
b : T −→ V
such that b(x, t) is the force, per unit of volume, exerted by the environment
on the position x at instant t. For every part P ⊂ B,
Z Z
b(x, t) dVx ≡ b dV
Pt Pt
is the fraction, not due to contact, of the total force exerted by the
environment on part P.
Conservation laws
Let N be the set of unit vectors.

Definition
By a system of forces on B during a motion with trajectory T we mean a
pair (s, b) of functions:
s : N ×T −→ V b : T −→ V
such that:
s(n, x, t) is smooth with respect to x ∈ Bt at every t > 0, ∀n ∈ N
b(x, t) is continuous in x ∈ Bt for every t > 0.
We call s the surface force and b the volume force.
Definition
We define the force f and the moment m in P ⊂ B at instant t as:
Z Z
f(P, t) = s(n) dA + b dV (7)
∂ Pt Pt
Z Z
m(P, t) = r×s(n) dA + r×b dV .
∂ Pt Pt
Conservation laws
Axiom (momentum balance)

For every part P ⊂ B and at every instant t > 0,
(
f(P, t) = l̇(P, t)
m(P, t) = ȧ(P, t)
This axiom assumes the reference to whom magnitudes are expressed,

and is called the inertial reference. The change of the reference implies
a different expression of the axiom.
As a consequence of (7) and (6), a bounded body verifies:
f(B, t) = m(B) α̈(t)
Thus, the total force exerted on a finite body equals its mass times the
acceleration of the center of mass.
Conservation laws
Thanks to (4), the momentum balance can be written as:

Z Z Z
s(n) dA + b dV = v̇ρ dV
∂ Pt Pt Pt
Z Z Z
r×s(n) dA + r×b dV = r×v̇ρ dV (8)
∂ Pt Pt Pt
which is usually known as forces equilibrium and momentum
equilibrium.
If we introduce the total volume force:

b∗ = b − ρ v̇ (9)
where −ρ v̇ is the inertial force, and define:
Z Z
f∗ (P, t) = s(n) dA + b∗ dV
∂ Pt Pt
Z Z
m∗ (P, t) = r×s(n) dA + r×b∗ dV
∂ Pt Pt
then the momentum balance reads:
f∗ (P, t) = 0 m∗ (P, t) = 0
Conservation laws
Let us recall that an infinitesimal rigid displacement is a field w : E −→ V

of the form:
w(x) = w0 + W(x − o) , W ∈ Skw.
Theorem (Principle of Virtual Works)

Let (s, b) be a system of forces on B during a motion. A necessary and
sufficient condition for the momentum equilibrium to verify is:
Z Z
s(n) · w dA + b∗ · w dV = 0 ∀P, ∀t
∂ Pt Pt
for all infinitesimal rigid displacement w.

Conservation laws
Theorem (Cauchy, existence of the stress tensor)

Let (s, b) be a system of forces for a body B during a motion. A necessary
and sufficient condition for the momentum equilibrium to be verified is the
existence of a spatial tensor field T (called Cauchy stress) such that:
for all vector n ∈ N ,
s(n) = Tn (10)
T is symmetric
T satisfies the motion equation: div T + b = ρ v̇
Conservation laws
Let T = T(x, t) be the stress in a given position and time instant, and
n ∈ N a unit vector. If Tn = σ n, n is called principal direction and
the scalar σ is called principal stress. As T is symmetric, there exist
three principal directions, orthogonal to each other, and the
corresponding principal stresses.
Let be a plane surface with positive normal unit vector n(x). The
surface force Tn can be decomposed in:
normal force: (n ⊗ n)Tn = (n · Tn)n
shear force: (I − n ⊗ n)Tn
Thus, n is a principal direction if and only if the corresponding shear
force vanishes.
A fluid does not exerce shear forces: Tn is parallel to n, for every unit
vector n, and is an eigenvector of T. Then, T has an only characteristic
space and T = −πI, where π is the pressure of the fluid. The force per
unit of area at any surface inside the fluid is −πn.
Other important situations:
pure traction (or compression): T = σ (e ⊗ e), |e| = 1
pure shear: T = τ(k ⊗ n + n ⊗ k), |k| = |n| = 1
Conservation laws
Summary on forces
Cauchy hypothesis
System of forces: volume forces, surface forces
Force and moment in a part P
Momentum balance
Principle of Virtual Works

Cauchy theorem: momentum balance and stress tensor T
Conservation laws

According to Cauchy theorem, each system of forces compatible with the
momentum balance can be associated a symmetric field of tensors, T,
verifying: (
s(n) = Tn , ∀n ∈ N
div T + b = ρ v̇
Reciprocally, given a motion x and a tensor field T, the system of forces is
completely determined by:
(
s(n) = Tn
b = ρ v̇ − div T
Definition
We call dynamical process the pair (x, T), where:
x is a motion
T is a symmetric tensor field defined on the trajectory T of x
T(x, t) is smooth (C 1 ) in x ∈ Bt
Conservation laws
Definition
If v and ρ are the velocity and density fields relative to motion x, the triplet
(v, ρ, T) is called flux.
to each system of forces compatible with the momentum balance is

associated an only dynamical process (or flux), and viceversa
Theorem (Momentum balance for a control volume)

Let R be a control volume in instant t. In that instant,
d
Z Z Z Z
s(n) dA + b dV = vρ dV + (ρv)v · n dA
∂R R dt R ∂R
d
Z Z Z Z
r×s(n) dA + r×b dV = r×vρ dV + r×(ρv)v · n dA
∂R R dt R ∂R
Z Z
the total force in the control volume s(n) dA + b dV
∂R R
is equal to the variation of linear momentum plus the flux of
momentum through the boundary ∂ R
Conservation laws
Definition
A flux (v, ρ, T) is stationnary if:
(
Bt = B0 , ∀t
v0 = 0 , ρ 0 = 0 , T0 = 0
In this case, we call B0 the flux region.

Conservation laws
Theorem (of the power expended)

At every instant t > 0, and for every part P ⊂ Bt ,
d v2
Z Z Z Z
s(n) · v dA + b · v dV = T · D dV + ρ dV (11)
∂ Pt Pt Pt dt Pt 2
Definition
The terms:
v2
Z Z
ρ dV and T · D dV
Pt 2 Pt
are called, respectively, kinetic energy and elastic power of P in instant t
the power expended on P by the surface and volume forces equals the
elastic power plus the variation of kinetic energy
Conservation laws
Definition
A flux is potential if its velocity v is the gradient of a potential:
v = grad ϕ
the potential ϕ ∈ C 2 is a spatial field

the potential fluxes are irrotationals: curl v = curl grad ϕ = 0
reciprocally, if a flux is irrotational and Bt is simply connected at any
instant t, then the flux is potential
Definition
A field of volume forces b is conservative if it exists a potential function β
such that:
b
= −grad β
ρ
if the flux is also stationnary,

div T + b = ρ v̇ =⇒ b0 = 0
Conservation laws
Theorem (Bernoulli)
Let (v, ρ, T) be a flux with tension T = −πI and conservative volume forces
of potential β . Then,
if the flux is potential,
v2

1
grad ϕ 0 + + β + grad π = 0
2 ρ
if the flux is stationnary,
v2

1
v · grad + β + v · grad π = 0
2 ρ
if the flux is stationnary and irrotational,

2
v 1
grad + β + grad π = 0
2 ρ
Conservation laws
Summary on momentum balance
Dynamical process, flux

Momentum balance in a control volume
Stationary flux
Theorem of power expended: kinetic energy, elastic power
Potential flux
Conservative volume forces
Bernouilli theorem
Conservation laws
A body (and each of its parts) can receive heat at every instant:
through its boundary, by conduction
at the interior points, by radiation
Analogously to Cauchy hypothesis about contact forces, there is a
Cauchy hypothesis on heat transmission: we assume a density of
surface heat g(n, x, t) for every n ∈ N and every (x, t) ∈ T , with the
following property: if S is an oriented surface in Bt , with outwards
unit positive normal n in x, then g(n, x, t) is the heat, per unity of area
and time, flowing from the negative side of S towards the positive side
of S
Moreover, we will assume the existence of a scalar field f (density of
inner heat) defined in T , such that f (x, t) is the heat, per unity of
volume and time, provided by the environment to point x at time t.
Conservation laws
Definition
A thermal system of a body B during a motion x (with trajectory T ) is a
couple (g, f ) of functions: g : N × T → R, f : T → R, such that:
g(n, x, t) is, for each n and for each t, a smooth function of x in Bt ,
f (x, t) if, for each t, a continuous function of x in Bt .
We call g the surface heat and f the inner heat.
Definition
We call supplied heat to part P at time t:
Z Z
Q(P, t) = − g(n, x, t) dA + f (x, t) dV ,
∂ Pt Pt
Definition
The evolution of a body B is said adiabatic if
d
Q(B, t) = 0 , ∀t
dt
Conservation laws
The first principle of Thermodynamics, or energy conservation law,

stablishes the existence of a scalar field E, called specific total energy,
such that the increment of that field is equal to the power of exterior
forces applied to the body plus the increment of the supplied heat.
Thanks to the theorem of supplied power and the definition of supplied
heat, we can write the first principle of Thermodynamics in the
following way:
Axiom (first principle of Thermodynamics, or energy conservation law)

Let us consider a system of forces (s, b) and a thermal system (g, f ) during
the motion x of a body B. Then, there exists a scalar field E, called specific
total energy, such that for every part P and every time instant t, we have:
d
Z Z Z Z Z
ρE dV = s(n) · v dA + b · v dV − g(n) dA + f dV .
dt Pt ∂ Pt Pt ∂ Pt Pt
(12)
Conservation laws
Theorem (Cauchy)
Let us assume that the momentum equilibrium stands. A necessary and
sufficient condition for the first principle of Thermodynamics to verify is the
existence of a spatial vector field q, called thermal flux, such that:
For every unit vector n
g(n, x, t) = q(x, t) · n (13)
ρ Ė = div (Tv) + b · v − div q + f . (14)
Definition
We call specific inner energy the scalar field
v2
e = E− .
2
Conservation laws
From previous definition we deduce that, for each part P at instant t,

v2
Z Z Z
ρE dV = ρe dV + ρ dV
Pt Pt Pt 2
i.e., the total energy is equal to the inner energy plus the kinetic energy.
Proposition
For every part P and time t,

d
Z Z Z Z
ρe dV = T · D dV − g(n) dA + f dV (15)
dt Pt Pt ∂ Pt Pt
ρ ė = T · D − div q + f . (16)
(14) and (16) are local versions of the energy conservation law. The
conservative versions are obtained adding these equations the mass
conservation law multiplied by E and e, respectively:
(ρE)0 + div (ρEv) = div (Tv) + b · v − div q + f
(ρe)0 + div (ρev) = T · D − div q + f .
Conservation laws
Axiom (Second principle of Thermodynamics)

There exists a scalar field s, called specific entropy, and a strictly positive
scalar field θ , called absolute temperature, such that
d q·n f
Z Z Z
ρs dV ≥ − dA + dV (17)
dt Pt ∂ Pt θ Pt θ
for every part P and time t.
Definition
We call entropy of part P at time t
Z
S (P, t) = ρs dV
Pt
while the sum

q·n f
Z Z
− dA + dV
∂ Pt θ Pt θ
is called the entropy, per unit of time, supplied to part P at instant t.
Conservation laws
The second principle of Thermodynamics stablishes that entropy cannot

conserve, as it can grow more than the supplied by the environment.
Proposition (Clausius–Duhem inequality)
q f
ρ ṡ + div − ≥ 0. (18)
θ θ
Proposition
1
ρθ ṡ − ρ ė + T · D − q · grad θ ≥ 0 . (19)
θ
Definition
We call Helmholtz specific free energy the scalar field ψ defined by:
ψ = e − sθ . (20)
Clearly ψ̇ = ė − ṡθ − sθ̇ . Entering in (19), we get ...

Conservation laws
Proposition
1
ρsθ̇ + ρ ψ̇ − T · D + q · grad θ ≤ 0 . (21)
θ
Definition
A thermodynamic process for a body B with reference density ρ0 is a set
of eight functions
x : B×R → E , T : T → Sym, b:T →V, e : T → R,

θ : T → R+ , q:T →V, f : T → R, s : T → R,
where x is a motion, T its trajectory, T ∈ C1 (T ; Sym), b ∈ C0 (T ; V ),

e ∈ C1 (T ; R), θ ∈ C1 (T ; R), q ∈ C1 (T ; V ), f ∈ C0 (T ; R), s ∈ C1 (T ; R),
and verifying:
ρ v̇ = div T + b
ρ ė = T · D − div q + f
ρ(x, t) det F(p, t) = ρ0 (p, t), with x = x(p, t) .
Conservation laws
A thermodynamic process is determined by the functions x, T, e, θ , q and s,

as b and f can be deduced from the motion equations and the energy
conservation, respectively:
ρ v̇ = div T + b
ρ ė = T · D − div q + f ,
where ρ(x, t) det F(p, t) = ρ0 (p) for x = x(p, t).

Definition
A material body is a triple (B, ρ0 , C ) consisting of a body B, a mass
distribution ρ0 and a family C of thermodynamic processes, called the
constitutive class of the body.
Conservation laws
Definition
A Coleman–Noll material is a material body the constitutive class of which
consists of all thermodynamic processes satisfying:
ˆ
T(x, t) = T̂(F(p, t), s(x, t), p) + `(F(p, t), s(x, t), p)(L(x, t))
e(x, t) = ê(F(p, t), s(x, t), p)
θ (x, t) = θ̂ (F(p, t), s(x, t), p)
q(x, t) = q̂(F(p, t), s(x, t), grad θ (x, t), p)
with x = x(p, t) for some smooth enough functions T̂, `,ˆ ê, θ̂ and q̂.
Conservation laws
Proposition
Let us consider a Coleman–Noll material with constitutive class C and
assume there exists a smooth enough function ŝ such that if s ∈ IR, F ∈ Lin+ ,
θ ∈ IR+ and p ∈ B, then
s = ŝ(F, θ , p) ⇐⇒ θ = θ̂ (F, s, p) .
Then, all elements in C satisfy the second principle of thermodynamics if

and only if:
∂ ê
θ̂ (F, s, p) = (F, s, p)
∂s
ρ0 (p) ∂ ê
T̂(F, s, p) = (F, s, p)FT
det (F) ∂ F
ˆ s, p)(L) · L ≥ 0
`(F, (dissipation inequality)
q̂(F, s, w, p) · w ≤ 0
Conservation laws
Proposition
For a Coleman–Noll material, we have the following form of the energy
equation:
ρθ ṡ = `(L) · D − div q + f
q q
Moreover, div q = grad θ · + θ div
θ θ
1 1 f
`(L) · D − div q + =
=⇒ ρ ṡ =
θ θ θ
1 1 q q f
= `(L) · D − grad θ · − div +
θ θ θ θ θ
q f 1 1 1
ρ ṡ + div − = `(L) · D − 2 grad θ · q = Φ
θ θ θ θ θ
Φ is the dissipation rate, and it is responsible for the production of

non–reversible entropy.
Conservation laws
A thermodynamic process is:

isentropic if ṡ ≡ 0; then:
ˆ
ρ v̇ − div T̂ − div (`(L)) =b
adiabatic if q ≡ 0 and f ≡ 0
Eulerian if ` ≡ 0
Let as assume the existence of a smooth enough function ψ̂ such that the
free energy ψ = e − sθ can be computed as ψ = ψ̂(F, θ , p). Then,
∂ ψ̂
(F, θ , p) = −s
∂θ
∂ ψ̂ ∂ ê det F
(F, θ , p) = (F, s, p) = T̂(F, s, p) F−T
∂F ∂F ρ0 (p)
ρ0 (p) ∂ ψ̂
=⇒ T̂(F, θ , p) = (F, θ , p) FT
det F ∂ F
Conservation laws
The mass, momentum and energy conservation equations of a

Coleman–Noll material are:
ρ̇ + ρdiv v = 0

∂ ψ̂ T
ρ v̇ = div ρ (F, θ , p)F + div (`(D)) + b
∂F
·
∂ ψ̂
−ρθ (F, θ , p) = `(D) · D − div q + f
∂θ
Definition
The specific heat at constant deformation is the scalar field defined by:
cF (x, t) = ĉF (F(p, t), θ (x, t), p)
∂ ê
ĉF = (F, θ , p)
∂θ
Conservation laws
Taking into account that

·
∂ 2 ψ̂ ∂ 2 ψ̂

∂ ψ̂
(F, θ , p) = θ̇ + · Ḟ =
∂θ ∂θ2 ∂θ∂F
∂ ŝ det F ∂ T̂ −T
=− θ̇ + F · Ḟ =
∂θ ρ0 ∂ θ
cF det F ∂ T̂
=− θ̇ + ·L
θ ρ0 ∂ θ
then, the energy conservation becomes:
det F ∂ T̂
ρcF θ̇ − ρθ · L = `(D) · D − div q + f
ρ0 ∂ θ
∂ T̂
ρcF θ̇ = θ · L + `(D) · D − div q + f
∂θ
∂ T̂
ρcF θ̇ = θ · D + `(D) · D − div q + f
∂θ

∂ T̂
ρcF θ̇ = θ + `(D) · D − div q + f
∂θ
Conservation laws
Summary on thermodynamics
Thermal system, supplied heat

First Principle of Thermodynamics, energy conservation law
Cauchy Theorem
Second Principle of Thermodynamics, entropy, Clausis–Duhem
inequality
Thermodynamic process
Global summary
Conservation laws
Summary on vectors and tensors
Vector space, V
inner product
cross product
Tensor: linear transformation from V onto V
associated matrix, components, sum, product by a scalar
tensor product (ST), transpose (ST ), tensor product of two vectors (a ⊗ b),
inner product (S · T)
determinant
projection on a vector, trace
orthogonal tensors, positive definite tensors
Conservation laws
Summary
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors, characteristic spaces

Spectral theorem (for symmetric tensors)
Square root theorem: if C ∈ Psym,
∃U ∈ Psym s.t. U2 = C
Polar decomposition theorem: if F ∈ Lin+ ,
∃U, V ∈ Psym, R ∈ Orth+ s.t. F = RU = VR
Principal invariants of a tensor, Cayley–Hamilton theorem

Conservation laws
Summary on vector and tensor differentiation (I)
Derivative of a function of one variable

g : V → V is differentiable in x ∈ V if
g(x + u) = g(x) + Dg(x)[u] + o(u)
Smooth functions
Product rule:
Dh(x)[u] = π(f(x), Dg(x)[u]) + π(Df(x)[u], g(x))
Chain rule:
Dh(x)[u] = Df(g(x)) [Dg(x)[u]] , ∀u ∈ U

Conservation laws
Summary on vector and tensor differentiation (II)
∂ϕ ∂ vi ∂ 2ϕ
(∇ϕ)i = div v = ∑ ∆ϕ = ∑
∂ vi ∂ Sij
(∇v)ij = (div S)i = ∑ (∆v)j = ∆vj
∂ xj j ∂ xj
(curl v)i = εijk vk,j
Divergence theorem
Localization theorem
Stokes theorem
Conservation laws
Summary on deformations
Material points (p) and spatial positions (x), x = f(p)

Gradient of deformation: F = ∇f
Some kinds of deformations:
translation (constant displacement)
homogeneous (constant F)
rotation (F ∈ Orth+ )
stretching (F ∈ Psym)
extension
rigid
isochoric (det F = 1)
Decomposition: F = RU = VR
Cauchy–Green strain tensors:
C = U2 = FT F, B = V2 = FFT
Conservation laws
Summary on small deformations
|∇u| ≈ 0 =⇒ B = C = I + ∇u + ∇uT
1
∇u + ∇uT

Infinitesimal deformation: E = 2
Infinitesimal rigid displacement:

u on B, with ∇u constant and skew
Conservation laws
Summary on motions
Motion: x : B×IR → E , x(p, t) = x

Velocity and acceleration
∂ ∂2
ẋ(p, t) = x(p, t) , ẍ(p, t) = x(p, t)
∂t ∂ t2
Spatial and material description
Velocity gradient, L = grad v
Pathline of a material particle
Streamline
Conservation laws
Summary on motions
Steady motion: Bt = B0 , v0 = 0
Rigid motion: the distance between material points is constant along
time
Stretching and spin:
1 1
D = (L + LT ) , W = (L − LT )
2 2
Plane motion
Conservation laws
Summary
Volume of a part P:
Z Z Z
Pt Pt P
Theorem of volume transport:

d
Z Z Z
dt P Pt ∂ Pt
Isochoric motion:
d
vol (Pt ) = 0 , ∀P ⊂ B, ∀t
dt
Reynolds transport theorem:
d
Z Z
Φ dV = Φ̇ + Φdiv v dV
dt Pt Pt
Z Z
= Φ0 dV + Φv · n dA
Pt ∂ Pt
Conservation laws
Summary
1
2
Irrotational motion: W = 0 ⇐⇒ curl v = 0
Gradient of a potential vector field: g = grad α
Cauchy–Lagrange theorem
Circulation of a vector field on a curve

Theorem of circulation transport, Kelvin theorem
Line of vortex, Theorem of vorticity transport
Conservation laws
Summary on mass conservation
Distribution of mass
Conservation of mass:
(
ρ̇ + ρ div v = 0
ρ 0 + div (ρv) = 0
Conservation of mass in a control volume:

d
Z Z
dt R ∂R
Conservation laws
Summary on moments
Linear moment of P at instant t:

Z
l(P, t) = vρ dV
Pt
Angular moment of P at instant t:

Z
a(P, t) = (r×v)ρ dV
Pt
For every part P and every time instant t > 0:

Z Z
l̇(P, t) = v̇ρ dV , ȧ(P, t) = (r×v̇)ρ dV
Pt Pt
Center of mass:
1
Z
α(t) − o = rρ dV
m(B) Bt
Conservation laws
Summary on forces
Cauchy hypothesis
System of forces: volume forces, surface forces
Force and moment in a part P
Momentum balance
Principle of Virtual Works

Cauchy theorem: momentum balance and stress tensor T
Conservation laws
Summary on momentum balance
Dynamical process, flux

Momentum balance in a control volume
Stationary flux
Theorem of power expended: kinetic energy, elastic power
Potential flux
Conservative volume forces
Bernouilli theorem
Conservation laws
Summary on thermodynamics
Thermal system, supplied heat

First Principle of Thermodynamics, energy conservation law
Cauchy Theorem
Second Principle of Thermodynamics, entropy, Clausis–Duhem
inequality
Thermodynamic process
Iñigo Arregui, José M. Rodrı́guez Seijo

(arregui@udc.es, jose.rodriguez.seijo@udc.es)
Department of Mathematics
University of A Coruña, Spain
June, 2018
ROMSOC Project

(A Brief) Introduction To Continuum Mechanics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(A Brief) Introduction To Continuum Mechanics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(A brief) Introduction to Continuum Mechanics

Iñigo Arregui, José M. Rodrı́guez Seijo

M. E. G URTIN, An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics. Academic

O. L ÓPEZ P OUSO, “An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics”, de

A. B ERM ÚDEZ DE C ASTRO, Continuum Thermomechanics.

Points, vectors and tensors

We will work in the three–dimensional Euclidean point space, E

(u, v) = u · v = (u · v) = |u| |v| cos(u, v) , |u| = (u · u)1/2

sp{u, v, . . . , w} = {αu + β v + · · · + γw / α, β , . . . , γ ∈ IR}

If we consider the sum of tensors and the product of a scalar by a tensor:

(S + T)v = Sv + Tv (αS)v = α(Sv)

then the set of tensors is a vector space

Components of a tensor: Sij = ei · Sej

and it is the matrix associated to the linear application S

Standard notation: S2 = SS, S3 = SSS, etc.

(Su) · v = u · (ST v) , ∀u, v ∈ V

(S + T)T = ST + TT , (S T)T = TT ST , (α S)T = α ST ,

so that the components of the tensor product are: [a ⊗ b]ij = ai bj

Let e be a unit vector. Then,

The projection of v on the orthogonal plane to e is:

From the linearity of the trace, we deduce:

In terms of the components,

det S = det [S]

S is invertible if and only if det S 6= 0

det (ST) = (det S)(det T) (ST)−1 = T−1 S−1

Notation: S−T = (S−1 )T

(Qu) · (Qv) = u · v , ∀u, v ∈ V

A necessary and sufficient condition for Q to be orthogonal is:

If the basis {ei } is positive oriented, we have e3 = e1 × e2 and:

Given a skew tensor W, there exists a unique vector w such that

and viceversa. w is called the axial vector of W.

the skew tensor

Summary on vectors and tensors

Spectral, Cayley–Hamilton and polar decomposition

The characteristic space of S relative to ω is the subspace of V

Reciprocally, if S has the form (2.1), {e1 , e2 , e3 } being an orthonormal basis,

(2.1) is the spectral decomposition of S

S = ω1 e ⊗ e + ω2 (I − e ⊗ e), |e| = 1, ω1 6= ω2 (2.2)

Then, ω2 and ω2 are two different eigenvalues and the characteristic

The matrix of S relative to the basis of autovectors {ei } is:

Theorem (of the square root)

Theorem (polar decomposition)

Moreover, each of those decompositions is unique; in fact,

We call the representation F = RU (resp. F = VR) the right polar

det (S − ωI) = −ω 3 + ı1 (S)ω 2 − ı2 (S)ω + ı3 (S) , ∀ω ∈ IR (2.7)

S3 − ı1 (S)S2 + ı2 (S)S − ı3 (S)I = 0 (2.12)

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors, characteristic spaces

Square root theorem: if C ∈ Psym,

Polar decomposition theorem: if F ∈ Lin+ ,

∃U, V ∈ Psym, R ∈ Orth+ s.t. F = RU = VR

Principal invariants of a tensor, Cayley–Hamilton theorem

The most usual norms:

Let U and W be normed vector spaces, and let f be defined in a

Similarly, f(u) = g(u) + o(u) means f(u) − g(u) = o(u)

Let g be a scalar, vector, tensor or point valued function defined on an open

in which case we say that g is differentiable in t.

If g is point valued, then g(t + α) − g(t) is a vector and, thus, ġ(t) is a

If g is differentiable in t, then (1) implies:

or, in an equivalent way,

g(t + α) = g(t) + α ġ(t) + o(α) (3.2)

Clearly, α ġ(t) is linear on α; thus, g(t + α) − g(t) equals a linear term on α

Let U and W finite dimension, normed vector spaces. Let D ⊂ U be open

g(x + u) = g(x) + Dg(x)[u] + o(u)