CHAPTER ONE over Alaska, as well as some places in Canada, while the tsunami created by it caused damage as far away as Hawaii. The INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE most damage was sustained by the city of RESISTANT DESIGN Anchorage, 120 km north-west of the epicenter. Shaking from the quake itself is reported to have lasted for three minutes. 1.0 EARTHQUAKES AND URBANIZATION 3. Sumatra, Indonesia, 26 December Earthquakes occur as a result of 2004 (9.1) sudden displacements across a fault within the earth. The earthquake releases part of In terms of damage and loss of life, its stored strain energy as seismic waves. the scale of the disaster caused by the These waves propagate outward and along resulting Boxing Day Tsunami was the earth’s surface. It is the motion of the enormous. In total, 227,900 people were ground as these waves move past that is killed or presumed dead, with around 1.7 perceived as an earthquake. With most million displaced over 14 countries in earthquakes, ground shaking is the direct South Asia and East Africa. The epicenter and principal cause of damage to buildings was 250 km south-east of Band Aceh, and infrastructure. Considerable damage Indonesia, at a depth of 30 km. Several can be caused by fault rupture at the days later on 28 December, a mud volcano surface, but this is generally limited to began erupting near Baratang, Andamar places near the fault. Sometimes indirect Islands, which is thought to have been shaking effects such as tsunamis, associated with the earthquake. landslides, fire caused by gas-line breaks, and flooding caused by water-line breaks 4. Sendai, Japan, 11 March 2011 (9.0) also play a significant role. Earthquakes So far the official death toll stands at are defined as natural disturbances, several thousand from the combined effect different types of earthquake exist: fault of the powerful earthquake, aftershocks rupture-induced, volcanic, mining-induced and the tsunami. However, the total is and large reservoir-induced. expected to rise, with some estimates of a final toll of over 10,000. Economic impacts are expected to be huge, with the shutting 1.1 HISTORY OF MAJOR INTERNATIONAL down of nuclear reactors which many AND PHILIPPINE EARTHQUAKES industries rely on for power. MAJOR INTERNATIONAL 5. Kamchatka, Russia, 4 November EARTHQUAKES 1952 (9.0)
1. Valdivia, Chile, 22 May 1960 (9.5) This earthquake generated a
tsunami that caused widespread damage in This earthquake killed 1655 people, the Hawaiian Islands. Property damage was injured 3000 and displaced two million. It estimated at around US$1,000,000. Some caused US$550 million damage in Chile, reports describe waves of over 9 m high at while the tsunami that it spawned caused Kaena Point, Oahu. A farmer on Oahu deaths and damage as far away as Hawaii, reported the loss of six cows to the tsunami, Japan and the Philippines. The ‘rupture but no people were reported killed. zone’ of the quake was more than 1000 km long. Two days after the initial quake, the 6. Bio-bio, Chile, 27 February 2010 nearby volcano Puyehue erupted, sending (8.8) ash and steam up to 6 km into the atmosphere over a period of several weeks. This earthquake and subsequent tsunami killed at least 521 people, with 56 2. Prince William Sound, Alaska, 28 missing and 12,000 injured. More than March 1964 (9.2) 800,000 people were displaced with a total of 1.8m people affected across Chile, where Compared to the Chilean damage was estimated at US$30 billion. earthquake, this earthquake was less The epicenter was 335 km south-west of damaging: the resulting tsunami took 128 Santiago, at a depth of 35 km. A minor lives and caused overall US$311 million in tsunami travelled across the Pacific
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causing damage to boats as far away as San midnight of August 17, 1976 that was felt Diego, California. as far as Visayas. It was then followed by a massive 4 to 5 meters high tsunami 7. Ecuador coast, 31 January 1906 (8.8) covering 700 kilometers of coastline bordering the island. Because it was dark, This earthquake caused a tsunami the people were caught by the raging water that is reported to have killed between 500 which claimed 8,000 lives, injuring 10,000, and 1,500 in Ecuador and Colombia. The and leaving 90,000 more, homeless tsunami travelled as far north as San . Francisco, on the west coast of the US, and 2. Magnitude 7.8 earthquake in west to Hawaii and Japan. The tsunami Northern and Central Luzon took roughly 12 hours to cross the Pacific (July 16, 1990) to Hilo, Hawaii. A total of 2,412 people died and at least 8. Rat Islands, Alaska, 2 April 1965 ₱10-billion worth of damages to public and (8.7) private properties was reported after a magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck Northern The worst of the damage attributed to and Central Luzon at around 4:00 p.m. of this earthquake was caused by a tsunami, July 16, 1990. Hyatt Terraces Plaza, reported to be about 10 m high on Shemya Nevada Hotel, Baguio Hilltop Hotel, Baguio Island. The wave caused flooding on Park Hotel, and FRB Hotel, all in Baguio Amchitka Island, causing US$10,000 in collapsed trapping and burying people property damage. No deaths or injuries alive. Although the epicenter was recorded were reported. in Nueva Ecija, it caused more damage in the City of Pines. And the quake that just 9. Sumatra, Indonesia, 28 March 2005 lasted for about a minute was one of the (8.6) tragedies in the country that would never be forgotten. This earthquake killed 1313, with over 400 people injured by the tsunami as 3. Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Luzon far away as Sri Lanka. The epicenter was (November 30, 1645) 205 km north-west of Sibolga, Sumatra, at a depth of 30 km. This region, also the site The magnitude 7.5 earthquake that of the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami, is crushed Luzon on November 30, 1645 at particularly geologically active, with three about 8:00 pm was called the “most terrible of the 15 biggest known earthquakes earthquake” in Philippines history. The having happened here. Epicenter of the said quake was in Nueva Ecija caused by the San Manuel and 10. Assam, Tibet, 15 August 1950 (8.6) Gabaldon Faults. The extent of the tremor was felt as far as Cagayan Valley. It has This inland earthquake caused caused many landslides which buried widespread damages to buildings as well as many people alive and destroyed many large landslides. 780 people were killed in buildings and churches including Manila eastern Tibet, with many villages and towns Cathedral. That time, only Spanish are affected across Assam, China, Tibet and counted so the recorded number of India. Oscillations to lake levels occurred casualties was only 600 while the injured as far away as Norway. The total death toll was 3,000. is likely to be higher, as no definitive total was ever estimated. While the earthquake 4. Magnitude 7.3 earthquake in itself is known as the Assam Earthquake, it Casiguran (August 2, 1968) is believed the epicenter may have been in Tibet. Most of the people in Casiguran, Aurora was still fast asleep when a magnitude 7.3 earthquake struck at 4:19 MAJOR PHILIPPINE EARTHQUAKES a.m. of August 2, 1968. It was another deadly and shocking seismic activity in the 1. Magnitude 8.0 earthquake in country. And the City of Manila got the Mindanao (August 17, 1976) most severe damage. Many buildings were either damaged or destroyed totally. The A magnitude 8.0 earthquake took said event was also called the Ruby Tower place near Mindanao and Sulu a little past earthquake after the said six-story building
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located in Binondo collapsed, and caused 9. Magnitude 6.5 quake in Ilocos Norte the death of 260 people. A total of 268 (August 17, 1983) people died that day and 261 more were injured. The magnitude 6.5 quake in Ilocos 5. Magnitude 7.2 earthquake in Bohol Norte on August 17, 1983 happened (October 15, 2013) around 8:18 p.m. and resulted to 16 casualties and 47 people got injured. It The quake affected most of Central caused damages on various establishments Visayas, particularly Bohol and Cebu. It such as schools, buildings, malls, was felt in the whole area of Visayas and residences, and etc. There were also reached as far as Masbate Island in the landslides and sand boils that followed the north and Cotabato in Southern Mindanao. event. According to the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council 10. Magnitude 7.6 earthquake near (NDRRMC), a total of 222 people died, 8 Guiuan, Eastern Samar went missing and 976 others were injured. (August 31, 2012) An estimated 73,000 structures were damaged wherein more than 14,500 of A very strong earthquake with a which were destroyed totally. magnitude of 7.6 happened near Guiuan, Eastern Samar on August 31, 2012 that 6. Magnitude 7.1 earthquake in was felt as far as Mindanao. The Philippine Mindoro (November 15, 1994) Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) issued a tsunami warning November 15, 1994, at around 3:15 Level 3, but it was lifted 5 hours later. The a.m., a magnitude 7.1 earthquake rocked quake caused damage on homes, bridges, Mindoro. A gigantic 8.5 meters (28 ft) and other infrastructures. There were also tsunami then followed which devastated power interruptions in the affected areas. the islands of Baco and Calapan, Mindoro. But despite the intensity only one person A total of 7,566 houses were washed out was reported dead and one injured because and some 78 people died because of that of the landslide in Cagayan de Oro City. tragedy.
7. Magnitude 6.9 earthquake in 1.3 THE RING OF FIRE
Central Visayas (February 6, 2012) Ring of Fire, also called Circum- A total of 51 people died, 62 still Pacific Belt or Pacific Ring of Fire, long missing and 112 were injured when a 6.9 horseshoe-shaped seismically active belt earthquake Central Visayas, particularly of earthquake epicenters, volcanoes, and Negros and parts of Mindanao on February tectonic plate boundaries that fringes 6, 2012. It caused a landslide which buried the Pacific basin. a barangay, damaged 15,483 houses, and For much of its 40,000-km (24,900- a total damage of ₱383-million on mile) length, the belt follows chains infrastructures and buildings was of island arcs such as Tonga and New recorded. Hebrides, the Indonesian archipelago, the Philippines, Japan, the Kuril Islands, 8. Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in and the Aleutians, as well as other arc- Central and Southern Mindanao shaped geomorphic features, such as the (March 5, 2002) western coast of North America and the Andes Mountains. Volcanoes are A magnitude 7.5 earthquake resulted associated with the belt throughout its to the death of 15 people and injuring length; for this reason, it is called the “Ring around a hundred more in Central and of Fire.” A series of deep ocean Southern Mindanao on March 5, 2002. The troughs frame the belt on the oceanic side, said quake originated near the Cotabato and continental landmasses lie behind. Trench that was followed by a tsunami. But Most of the world’s earthquakes, the it was the flood that was generated by overwhelming majority of the world’s landslides and falling debris that caused strongest earthquakes, and approximately damage to an estimated 800 buildings. 75 percent of the world’s volcanoes occur within the Ring of Fire. The abundance of volcanoes and earthquakes along the Ring of Fire is
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caused by the amount of movement of on one side of the fault line. The slip takes tectonic plates in the area. Along much of plca along an essentially vertical fault plane the Ring of Fire, plates overlap at and can be caused by either compression convergent boundaries called subduction or tension stresses. An example of strike- zones. That is, the plate that is underneath slip occurred in the 1906 San Francisco is pushed down, or subducted, by the plate earthquake on the San Andreas Fault. above. As rock is subducted, it melts and becomes magma. The abundance of Oblique slip faults: exhibit combinations magma so near to Earth’s surface gives rise of strike-slip and dip-slip movements. Can to conditions ripe for volcanic activity. A be either normal or reverse and right or left- significant exception is the border between lateral. the Pacific and North American Plates. This stretch of the Ring of Fire is a transform boundary, where plates move sideways past one another. This type of boundary generates a large number of earthquakes as tension in Earth’s crust builds up and is released.
ELEMENTS OF SEISMOLOGY Fundamental Fault Mechanisms 1.4 EARTHQUAKE FAULTS
When two groundmasses move with 1.5 THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS
respect to one another, elastic strain energy due to tectonic processes is stored and then Earthquake occurrence may be released through the rupture of the explained by the theory of large-scale interface zone. The distorted blocks snap tectonic processes, referred to as ‘plate back towards equilibrium and an tectonics’. The theory of plate tectonics earthquake ground motion is produced. derives from the theory of continental drift This process is referred to as ‘elastic and sea-floor spreading. Understanding the rebound’. The resulting fracture in the relationship between geophysics, the Earth’s crust is termed a ‘fault’. During the geology of a particular region and seismic sudden rupture of the brittle crustal rock, activity began only at the end of the seismic waves are generated. These waves nineteenth century. Earthquakes are now travel away from the source of the recognized to be the symptoms of the active earthquake along the Earth’s outer layers. tectonic movements. This is confirmed by Their velocity depends on the the observation that intense seismic characteristics of the material through activity occurs predominantly on known which they travel. plate boundaries. Plate are large and stable rigid rock slabs with a thickness of about 1.4.1 FUNDAMENTAL FAULT 100 km, forming the crust or lithosphere MECHANISMS and part of the upper mantle of the Earth. The crust is the outer rock layer with an Dip-slip faults: One block moves vertically internal complex geological structure and with respect to the other. If the block non-uniform thickness 0f 25-60 km under underlying the fault plane or ‘footwall’ continents and 4-6 km under oceans. The moves up the dip and away from the block mantle is the portion of the Earth’s interior overhanging the fault plane, or ‘hanging below the crust, extending from a depth of wall’, normal faults are obtained. The 1971 about 30 km to about 2900 km; it consists San Fernando earthquake in California was of dense silicate rocks. The lithosphere caused by rupture of a reverse fault. moves differentially on the underlying Earthquakes along the Circum-Pacific asthenosphere, which is a softer warmer seismic belt are caused by thrust faults. layer around 400 km thick at a depth of about 50 km in the upper mantle. It is Strike-slip faults: The adjacent blocks characterized by plastic or viscous flow. move horizontally past one another. Strike- The horizontal movement of the lithosphere slip can be right-lateral or left-lateral, is caused by convection currents in the depending on the sense of the relative mantle; the velocity of the movement is motion of the blocks for an observer located about 1 to 10 cm/year.
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Large tectonic forces take place at the continental or oceanic lithosphere. They plate edges due to the relative movement of can offset mid-ocean ridges, subduction the lithosphere-asthenosphere complex. zones or both. Boundaries of transcurrent These forces physical and chemical horizontal slip can connect either divergent changes and affect the geology of the and convergent zones or two convergent adjoining plates. However, only the zones. lithosphere has the strength and the brittle behavior to fracture, thus causing an ASSIGNMENT NO. 1 (Handwritten) earthquake. Define and explain the following: 1. Plate Tectonics Theory 1.5.1 PRINCIPAL TYPES OF PLATE 2. Faulting BOUNDARIES 3. Seismic Waves 4. Intensity Divergent or rift zones: Plates separate 5. Magnitude themselves from one another and either an 6. Intensity – Magnitude Relationships effusion of magma occurs or the 7. Directional Effects lithosphere diverges from the interior of the 8. Site Effects Earth. Rifts are distinct from mid-ocean 9. Dispersion and Incoherence ridges, where new oceanic crust and 10. Damage to Buildings and Lifelines lithosphere is created by sea-floor 11. Effects on the Ground spreading. Conversely, in rifts no crust or 12. Human and Financial Losses lithosphere is produced. If rifting continues, eventually a mid-ocean ridge may form, marking a divergent boundary between two tectonic plates. However, the Earth’s surface area does not change with time and hence the creation of new lithosphere is balanced by the destruction at another location of an equivalent amount of rock crust.
Convergent or subduction zones:
Adjacent plates converge and collide. A subduction process carries the slab-like plate, known as the ‘under-thrusting plate’, into a dipping zone, also referred to as the ‘Wadati-Benioff zone’, as far downward as 650-700 km into the Earth’s interior. Two types of convergent zones exist: Oceanic and Continental lithosphere convergent boundaries. The first type occurs when two plates consisting of oceanic lithosphere collide. Oceanic rock is mafic, and heavy compared to continental rock; therefore, it sinks easily and is destroyed in a subduction zone. The second type of convergent boundary occurs when both grinding plates consist of continental lithosphere. Continents are composed of lightweight rock and hence do not subduct. However, in this case the seismicity is extended over a wider area. The Circum- Pacific and Eurasian belts are examples of oceanic and continental lithosphere convergent boundaries, respectively.
Transform zones or transcurrent
horizontal slip: Two plates glide past one another but without creating new lithosphere or subducting old lithosphere. Transform faults can be found either in
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