Vatsa - Vatsa (2009) - Discrete Mathematics, 4th Edition PDF

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Copyright © 2009, 1993, 1988, 1986 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
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Preface to the Fourth Edition
This edition includes two new chapters, namely, Chapter 4 : Ordered Sets and Lattices, Chapter 10 :
Combinatorics, as well as several new sections on geometric linear transformation, sets, Boolean
algebra and linear equations. I hope the new material will help to further illustrate the relevance of
the mathematics we try to learn.
We tried to emphasize that concepts and terminology should be introduced before they are used.
Most of the material in this book is pre-requisite to so many Computer Science courses. The recent
upsurge in a branch of mathematics known as Discrete Mathematics is mainly due to its applications
in Computer Science and Technology. It is also useful in Operation Research and Electrical Engineering
and Economics.
Discrete Mathematics is a compulsory paper in most computer programmes (M.C.A., M.Sc.,
B.Tech., B.Sc., B.B.A, B.C.A) of all universities of India. This book fulfils the requirements to meet
the needs of B.C.A, B.B.A, D.G.D.C.A., B.Sc. and M.C.A. students.
While revising this book special care has been taken to make the definitions, principles and
theorem clear by numerous illustrations. So it is hoped that a grasp of the theoretical material in this
book will permit a student to understand most of the mathematical preliminaries which are briefly
discussed at the beginning of many articles and books in the areas of computer science.
The exercises are of both a theoretical and numerical nature and are meant to further the
understanding of the application of the concepts to various areas of computer science. We hope that
this book will be useful to computer scientists, engineers, non-mathematics students who desire an
intermediate coverage of topics in discrete mathematics.
We shall feel obliged for receiving suggestions or criticism and pointing out any mistake that
has crept in from our readers which will help to improve the book.
—AUTHORS
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Contents
1. Mathematical Logic 1–16
1.1 Logical Statement or Proposition 1
1.2 Type of Propositions 2
1.3 The Propositional Calculus 2
1.4 The Negation of a Proposition 2
Problem 1.1 3
1.5 Disjunction 3
1.6 Conjunction 4
Problem 1.2 5
1.7 Tautologies and Contradictions 6
1.8 Logical Equivalence 7
Problem 1.3 7
1.9 The Algebra of Propositions 8
Problem 1.4 9
1.10 Conditional Propositions 10
1.11 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive Propositions 11
1.12 The Negation of a Conditional Proposition 12
1.13 Biconditional Propositions 13
Problem 1.5 14
1.14 Arguments 14
Problem 1.6 16
2. Set Theory 17–42

2.1 Sets 17
2.2 Set Designation 17
2.3 Null Sets and Unit Sets 19
2.4 Special Sets of Numbers 19
2.5 Universal Set 20
Problem 2.1 20
2.6 Subsets: Proper Subsets and Equal Sets 21
Problem 2.2 23
2.7 Set Operations 24
(viii) CONTENTS
2.8 Union Operation 24

2.9 Properties of Union Operation 24
2.10 Intersection 26
2.11 Properties of Intersection Operation 27
2.12 Distributive Properties 28
2.13 Complementation 29
2.14 Relative Complement (or Difference of Sets) 29
2.15 Properties of Complement 30
2.16 Properties of Difference 31
2.17 Symmetric Difference 32
Problem 2.3 34
2.18 Power Set 35
Problem 2.4 36
2.19 Cartesian Products 36
Problem 2.5 37
2.20 Generalized Set Theory 38
Problem 2.6 42
3. Relation and Functions 43–74

3.1 Relation 43
Problem 3.1 45
3.2 Equivalence Relation 45
3.3 Partition 51
3.4 Partial Order Relation 52
Problem 3.2 53
3.5 Functions (Mappings) 55
Problem 3.3 61
3.6 Inverse Mapping 62
3.7 Composition of Mappings 63
Problem 3.4 66
3.8 Binary Operations 68
Problem 3.5 70
3.9 Countable and Uncountable Sets 72
Problem 3.6 74
4. Ordered Sets and Lattices 75–111

4.1 Poset 75
4.2 Product Set and Order 77
4.3 Hasse Diagrams of Partially Ordered Sets 78
4.4 Minimal and Maximal, and First and Last Point 80
Problem 4.1 83
CONTENTS (ix)
4.5 Lattices 83
4.6 Lattices as Partially Ordered Sets 84
4.7 Principle of Duality 86
Problem 4.2 91
4.8 Lattices as Algebraic Systems 92
4.9 Lattice and Order 93
4.10 Sublattices 94
4.11 Direct Product of Two Lattices 95
4.12 Isomorphic Lattices 97
Problem 4.3 100
4.13 Complete Lattice 101
4.14 Complemented Lattices 102
4.15 Distributive Lattice 104
4.16 Modular Lattices 108
Problem 4.4 111
5. Boolean Algebra and Switching Circuits 112–139

5.1 Introduction 112
Problem 5.1 121
5.2 Boolean Functions 122
5.3 Normal Form 123
5.4 Fundamental Forms of Boolean/Functions 127
Problem 5.2 132
5.5 Application to Switching Networks 132
Problem 5.3 139
6. Matrices 140–183
6.1 Revision 140
6.2 Diagonal, Scalar, Unit and Triangular Matrix 141
6.3 Equal Matrices 142
6.4 The Transpose of Matrix: Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrix 143
6.5 Algebra of Matrices 144
6.6 Properties of Addition of Matrices 145
6.7 Scalar Multiples of Matrices 146
6.8 Multiplication of Matrices 146
Problem 6.1 149
6.9 Inverse of a Matrix 151
Problem 5.2 152
6.10 Geometric Transformation 153
6.11 Geometric Properties of Plane Linear Transformation 154
(x) CONTENTS
6.12 Rotation 156

6.13 Reflection 157
6.14 Expansions and Compressions 159
6.15 Shears 160
6.16 Translation 162
6.17 Successive Transformations 163
6.18 Inverse Transformation 166
Problem 6.3 177
6.19 Complex Numbers in the Form of a Matrix 179
7. Rank and Equivalence 184–213

7.1 The Concept of a Rank 184
Problem 7.1 187
7.2 Elementary Transformations 187
7.3 Equivalent Matrices 188
7.4 Elementary Matrices 188
Problem 7.2 191
7.5 Normal Form 191
Problem 7.3 195
7.6 Elementary Transformation by Matrix Multiplication 196
Problem 7.4 204
Problem 7.5 207
7.7 Computation of the Inverse of Matrix by Elementary Transformation 207
Problem 7.6 211
Problem 7.7 212
8. Linear Equations 214–232

8.1 System of Linear Equations and Consistency 214
8.2 Solution of n Linear Equations in n Unknowns 217
8.3 Solution of m Linear Equations in n Unknowns with m < n and m > n 222
Problem 8.1 225
8.4 Homogeneous Linear Equations 226
Problem 8.2 229
8.5 Cramer’s Rule 229
Problem 8.3 229
9. Characteristic Roots and Vectors of a Matrix 233–260

9.1 Definition and Examples 233
9.2 Properties of the Characteristic Polynomial 234
9.3 Application of the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem in Finding out the
Inverse of a Non-Singular Matrix 241
CONTENTS (xi)
Problem 9.1 246

9.4 Characteristic Roots and Vectors of a Square Matrix 247
9.5 Similar Matrices 259
Problem 9.2 259
Problem 9.3 260
10. Combinatorics 261–284

10.1 Introduction 261
10.2 Sum Rule Principle 261
10.3 Product Rule Principle 262
10.4 Factorial Notation 262
10.5 Permutations 263
Problem 10.1 266
10.6 Permutation of Things not all Different 267
Problem 10.2 270
10.7 Circular Permutations 271
10.8 To Find the Number of Circular Permutation of n Different Things
Taken all at a Time 271
Problem 10.3 272
10.9 Combinations 272
10.10 To Find the Number of Combinations of n Dissimilar Things Taken
r at a Time that is, Mathematically to Find the Value of nCr 273
Problem 10.4 277
10.11 Division into Groups (Partitions) 278
10.12 To Find the Number of Ways in which (m + n + p) Different Things
be Divided into Three Groups of m, n and p Things Respectively 278
10.13 To Find the Total Number of Ways in which it is Possible to Make
a Selection by Taking Some or All of n Things at a Time 279
10.14 To Find the Total Number of Ways in which a Selection can be Made
Out of p + q + r Things, of which p are Alike of One Kind, q Alike of
Second Kind and r Alike of Third Kind 280
10.15 To Find the Value of r for which nCr is Greatest 280
10.16 The Pigeonhole Principle 282
10.17 The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle 283
Problem 10.5 284
Answers to Problems 285–297
Index 299–302
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Mathematical Logic
1.1 LOGICAL STATEMENT OR PROPOSITION
When we use words alone to express our thoughts, we may find that ambiguity creeps in because
words have many associations in everyday life. But, symbols are abstract and neutral. Thus, when
ordinary methods of reasoning fail, we can use mathematical logic also known as symbolic logic for
a clear expression of our thoughts. Here we shall deal with ‘Statements’ or ‘Propositions’.
Let us consider the following sentences:
(1) This shirt is white.
(2) Please do your work.
(3) May God bless you with success!
(4) The sum of internal angles of a triangle in a plane is two right angles.
(5) ∆’s ABC and PQR are similar.
(6) Where are you going ?
The sentences (1), (4), and (5) are declarative; whereas the sentence, (2) embodies order or
request, (3) embodies wish or prayer, and (6) embodies enquiry. (1) declares the white colour of the
shirt, as the shirt may or may not be white, (4) declares the property of the angles of a triangle,
(5) declares the property of triangles, as the ∆’s ABC and PQR may or may not be similar.
From this discussion it is clear that with every declarative sentence, we can associate a truth
value T, when it is true and a truth value F, when it is false.
Definition 1.1.1. A preposition is any meaningful, unambiguous declarative sentence which is either
true or false, but not both at the same time. So each proposition can be assigned either the truth value
T or the truth value F. (T and F are, of course convenient abbreviation for true or false).
Example 1.1.1. (1) ‘5 < 7’. This is a proposition. Since this is a true proposition, it is assigned
a truth value T.
(2) ‘2 + 3 = 6’. This is a proposition. Since this is a false proposition, it is assigned a truth
value F.
(3) The sum of internal angles of a plane triangle is two right angles. This is a proposition and
its truth value would be denoted by T since it is true proposition.
(4) Today is Tuesday. This is a propositions, but whether it is true or false depends on the
Today which is referred to in the proposition. If Today is Tuesday, the proposition is true. If not, it
is false. But it cannot be both true and false at the same time.
Example 1.1.2. The following are not propositions:
(a) Oh, what a beautiful morning.
(b) Give me the book.
1
2 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(c) When I consider how my light is spent.

(d ) Ram is handsome and ugly.
(e) Triangle ABC is equilateral and its angles are not equal.
Note: 1. The sentences (d) and (e) assert contradictory properties and hence are meaningless. This type
of sentences are not propositions.
2. Every proposition consists of three parts: (1) a subject, (2) a predicate, and (3) copula. Subject
designates the idea about which the declaration is made. Predicate designates the idea which
is affirmed or denied of the subject. Copula, i.e., word or words acting as a connecting link
between subject and predicate. For example in the proposition ‘triangle ABC is equilateral’,
‘triangle ABC’ is subject, ‘equilateral’ is object and ‘is’ is the copula.
1.2 TYPE OF PROPOSITIONS

There are two types of propositions: (a) Simple proposition, and (b) Compound proposition.
Definition 1.2.1. A proposition consisting of just one subject and one predicate is called a simple
proposition.
Example 1.2.1. The following are simple propositions:
(1) Ram is blind.
(2) Line L and L′ are parallel.
(3) The flower is not red.
Definition 1.2.2. A proposition consisting of two or more simple propositions in the form of a single
sentence is called a compound proposition.
Example 1.2.2. The following are compound propositions:
1. Quadrilateral ABCD is a square and each side of this quadrilateral is 4 cm long.
2. Some men are stupid and pigs can fly.
1.3 THE PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
1.3.1 Propositional Connectives–Truth Tables

In practice we often combine simple propositions to form compound propositions by using
logical connectives such as ‘not’, ‘or’, ‘and’, “If ...... then ......”. We shall study the determination of
truth values of compound propositions from the truth tables of their components. We shall denote the
simple propositions by small case letters such as p, q, r, s, etc.
1.4 THE NEGATION OF A PROPOSITION

Definition 1.4.1. Let p be any proposition. Then we write the negation of p as ∼p and define it to
be the proposition ‘it is false that p’.
Example 1.4.1. Let p be the proposition ‘the door is locked’. Then ∼ p, the negation of p, is
the proposition ‘it is false that the door is locked’, or, in better English, ‘the door is not locked’.
Example 1.4.2. Let q be the proposition “all men are honest”. Then ∼ q is the proposition ‘it
is false that all men are honest’. This could be better phrased as ‘not all men are honest’, or ‘all men
are not honest’, but a completely wrong attempt would be ‘all men are dishonest’ which is not the
negation of q as defined above.
It is worth emphasising that the propositions p and ∼p must have opposite truth values. i.e., if
p is a true proposition then ∼p is a false proposition and vice versa. The connection between p and
∼p can be tabulated by the truth table as follows:
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 3
p ∼p
T F
F T
‘Negation’ is known as unary operation.
PROBLEM 1.1
1. Which of the following are propositions ?
(a) A cow has four legs.
(b) Do not stand on the flowers.
(c) There is no greatest prime number.
(d ) 6 > 341.
(e) As white as a sheet.
(f ) It will rain somewhere in Delhi on July 23rd, 1984.
(g) Is that a reasonable argument ?
(h) If 2 + 2 = 5 then ice-cream is yellow.
2. Write the negation of the following proposition:
(a) All students are industrious.
(b) One side of Mercury always faces the sun.
(c) I like eating plums and I like drinking lemonade.
(d) A power of 2 never ends in a 7.
(e) Either the sun will be shining or I shall carry my umbrella.
1.5 DISJUNCTION
Any two propositions can be combined by the connective ‘or’ to form a new proposition which is
called disjunction of the original propositions.
Definition 1.5.1. Let p and q be two propositions. We define the disjunction of p and q to be the
proposition.
either p or q or both
and we write p - q. Quite often the words either and ‘or both’ ore omitted and we say that p - q
is the proposition ‘p or q’. Here it is customary to interpret the use of the word ‘or’ in the inclusive
sense. Thus p - q is true if p is true or q is true or p and q both are true or we can phrase it that
the proposition p - q is false if and only if the propositions p, q are both false. The proposition p
- q is completely specified by its truth table as follows:
p q p-q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example 1.5.1. Let p and q be the propositions given by

p : 21 is divisible by 3.
q : 21 is divisible by 7.
p - q : 21 is divisible by 3 or divisible by 7 or divisible by both 3 and 7.
In this example, the third assertion is true. Here ‘or’ is used in the inclusive sense.
Example 1.5.2
p : I shall buy a car.
q : I shall buy a radio.
p - q : I shall buy a car or a radio.
It is clear that p - q will be false if both p and q are false.
In some cases, we have to use the connective ‘or’ in the ‘exclusive’ sense, i.e., we can not
have both the alternatives. For Example—
p : Straight lines L and L′ are parallel.
q : Straight lines L and L′ intersect.
p - q : Straight lines L and L′ are either parallel or intersecting.
Here, ‘or’ is used in ‘exclusive sense’. If p is true, then q is false and the proposition p - q
is true. If p is false, then q is true and p - q is true.
Therefore, if p and q are both true, then p - q is false. But p and q cannot be both true.
For the exclusive ‘or’ the symbol is -. The truth table for p - q is same as that for ‘p - q’ except
that the first row will read “TTF”, the dissuction is false in this case. the truth table of p - q is given
by
p q p-q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
1.6 CONJUNCTION
We can obtain a new proposition from two given propositions p, q by using connective ‘and’.
Definition 1.6.1. Given two propositions p, q we define the conjunction of p and q to be the
proposition
p and q
and we write it p . q.
For example—
p : This child is a boy.
q : This child is intelligent.
p . q : This child is a boy and intelligent.
p . q : Is true, if the child is a boy and intelligent both.
Even if one of the component is false, p . q is false. Thus the proposition p . q is true if and
only if the propositions p and q are both true. The truth table of p . q is as follows:
p q p.q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example 1.6.1
p : Mathematicians are lazy.
q : Tennis racquets are expensive.
p . q : Mathematicians are lazy and Tennis racquets are expensive.
PROBLEM 1.2
Let the propositions p, q, r and s be given by
p : The sun is a star.
q : Jupiter is a planet.
r : Mumbai is a Capital of India.
s : Protein is necessary for life.
1. State truth values of p - q, p - r, p - s, q - r, q - s, r - s,
2. State truth values of p . q, p . r, p . s, q . r, q . s, r . s
Note: A compound statement is also a proposition. It is not necessary that a proposition has only two
proposition and only one kind of connective. A proposition may have many component propositions
and many connectives joining them.
If there are two propositions, then the truth table will have four rows. If there are three propositions,
there would be eight rows, with four propositions there would be 16 rows and so on. The combination
of truth values of two and three propositions are given by the following Tree diagram:
p q combination of p and q.
T T T
T
F T F
T F T
F
F F F
p qr combination of p, q and
T T T T
T
F T T F
T
T T F T
F
F T F F
T F T T
T
F F T F
F
T F F T
F
F F F F
1.7 TAUTOLOGIES AND CONTRADICTIONS

Let us now consider the truth tables for
‘p - ∼p’ and ∼p - (q - p)
p ∼p p - ∼p
T F T
F T T
and
p q ∼p q-p ∼p - (q - p)
T T F T T
T F F T T
F T T T T
F F T F T
The final columns of the truth-table for both sentences containing nothing but T’s, and they are
thus true under all conditions—no circumstance whatever will render them false. These type of
propositions are called a tautology and T stands for tautology. So p - ∼p = T and ∼p - (q - p) = T.
Definition 1.7.1. A proposition, such as above, which is always true, no matter what truth values are
assigned to its component proposition is called a tautology.
Let us consider the truth table for the propositions p . ∼p and p . q . ∼ (p - q).
p ∼p p . ∼p
T F F
F T F
p q p .q p -q ∼ (p - q) p . q . ~ (p - q)
T T T T F F
T F F T F F
F T F T F F
F F F F T F
It follows from the final columns of the truth tables of the propositions that the proposition have
all truth values F’s. These type of propositions are called contradictions. F stands for contradiction.
Hence p . ∼p = F and p . q . ∼(p - q) = F.
Definition 1.7.2. A proposition, such as above, which is always false, no matter what truth values
are assigned to its component propositions, is called a contradiction.
1.8 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

Two propositions are said to be logical equivalent (or equal) if they have same identical truth values.
We will denote logical equivalence by the symbol ‘=’.
We shall illustrate by a simple example.
Example 1.8.1. Consider the proposition ∼(p . q) and ∼p - ∼q. Their truth tables are:
p q p.q ∼ (p . q) p q ∼ p ∼ q ∼ p-∼ q
T T T F T T F F F
T F F T T F F T T
F T F T F T T F T
F F F T F F T T T
Here the propositions ∼ (p . q) and ∼ p - ∼ q have identical truth values for all possible ways
of assigning truth values to the component propositions p, q. Hence
∼ (p . q) = ∼ p - ∼ q.
PROBLEM 1.3
1. Let p be the proposition ‘high speed driving is dangerous’ and q the proposition ‘Ram was a wise man’.
Write down the meaning of the following propositions:
(a) p . q
(b) ∼ p - q
(c) ∼ (p - q)
(d) (p . q) - (∼ q . ∼ q)
(e) (p - q) . ∼ (p . q)
2. Use the truth table technique to establish the following results, given that p, q, r are arbitrary propositions.
(a) p - (q - r) = (p - q) - r
(b) p - (p . q) = p
(c) p . (q - r) = (p . q) - (p . r)
(d) ∼ (p - q) = ∼ p . ∼ q.
3. Use the truth table technique to establish that the following propositions are tautologies:
(a) (p . q) - (p - ∼ q) - (∼ p . q) - (∼ p . ∼ q)
(b) {(p - ∼ q) . (∼ p . ∼ q} - q
(c) ∼ {p . (∼ p - q)} - q.
1.9 THE ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS

Given arbitrary propositions p, q, r the following propositional identities are algebraic laws and they
can be established by truth table technique.
1. Commutative Laws 2. Assoicative Laws
(a) p - q = q - p (a) p - (q - r) = (p - q) - r
(b) p . q = q . p (b) (p . q) . r = p . (q . r)
3. Distributive Laws 4. Idempotent Laws
(a) p - (q . r) = (p - q) . (p - r) (a) p - p = p
(b) p . (q - r) = (p . q) - (p . r) (b) p . p = p
5. Laws of Absorption 6. Laws of Complimentation
(a) p - (p . q) = p (a) p - ∼ p = T
(b) p . (p - q) = p (b) p . ∼ p = F
7. Laws of Double Complementation 8. De’ Morgan’s Laws
∼ (∼ p) = p (a) ∼ (p - q) = ∼ p . ∼ q
(b) ∼ (p . q) = ∼ p - ∼ q
9. Operations with F and T 10. (a) F - p = p
(a) T - p = T (b) T . p = p
(b) F . p = F
11. (a) ∼F = T
(b) ∼T = F
We shall establish 2(a) and 3(a) for the sake of clarity and rest are left as exercises.
Proof: 2(a) p - (q - r) = (p - q) - r.
We have
p q r p- q (p - q) - r q-r p - (q - r)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T
T F T T T T T
T F F T T F T
F T T T T T T
F T F T T T T
F F T F T T T
F F F F F F F
The truth values in columns (5) and (7) are identical. Hence this proves the logical equivalence,
as desired.
Proof: 3(a) p - (q . r) = (p - q) . (p . r)
We have truth tables for (p - q) . (p - r) and p - (q . r) as follows:
p q r q.r p - (q . r) p-q p- r (p - q) . (p - r)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
T T T T T T T T
T T F F T T T T
T F T F T T T T
T F F F T T T T
F T T T T T T T
F T F F F T F F
F F T F F F F F
F F F F F F F F
By comparison of the columns (5) and (8) in the table it follows that
p - (q . r) = (p - q) . (p - r).
Example 1.9.1. Show that
{p . (∼p - q)} - {q . ∼(p . q)} = q
Proof: L.H.S. = {p . (∼p - q)} - {q . ∼(p . q)}
= {(p . ∼p) - (p . q)} - {q . ( ∼p - ∼q)}
= F - (p . q) - (q . ∼p) - (q . ∼q)
= F - (p . q) - (q . ∼p) - F
= (p . q) - (q . ∼p)
= q . (p - ∼p)
= q . T = q = R.H.S.
{(p - ∼q) . (∼p - ∼q)} - q = T
Proof: L.H.S. = {(p - ∼q) . (∼p - ∼q)} - q
= {(p - ∼q) . ∼p - (p - ∼q) . ∼q} - q
= {(p . ∼p) - (∼q . ∼p) - (p . ∼q) - (∼q . ∼q)} - q
= {F - (∼q . ∼p) - (p . ∼q) - ∼q} - q
= (∼q . ∼p) - (p . ∼q} - ∼q - q
= (∼q . ∼p) - (p . ∼q} - T
= T.
Hence,{(p - ∼q) . (∼p - ∼q)} - q is a tautology.
PROBLEM 1.4
1. Simplify
(a) (∼p . ∼q) - (∼p . ∼q . ∼r)
(b) ∼p . {∼q . (∼p - q)}
(c) {(∼p - ∼q - r) . (p . r)} - {p . (∼q - r)}

(d) (∼p . ∼q) - (∼p . q . r) - ∼(p - ∼q)
2. Show that the following propositions are tautologies:
(a) (p . q) - (p . ∼q) - (∼p . q) . (∼p . ∼q)
(b) {(p - ∼q) . (∼p - ∼p)} - q
(c) {p . (∼p - q)} - (∼p . q) - ∼q
1.10 CONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS

A statement of the form “If p then q”, where p and q are propositions, is called a “conditional
proposition” (or proposition of implication), and it is denoted by p ⇒ q.
The proposition p ⇒ q is completely specified by its truth table which we defined to be
p q p⇒q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Thus the conditional proposition p ⇒ q is false if and only if p is true and q is false. In all other
cases it is true.
Note: The proposition p ⇒ q does not mean that p causes q. The conditional proposition does not need
any logical connection between p and q except that whenever p is true, q is also true, and whenever p is false,
q is also false.
In this truth table, the first two rows are acceptable to most students but the same cannot be
said for the last two rows. The decision to assign the truth value T to the proposition p ⇒ q when
p is false irrespective of the truth value of the proposition p is reasonale.
The confusion is caused by the fact that, in everyday life, when a statement of the form. “If p
then q” is used the proposition p is usually true and the proposition p, q are normally related. It can
be seen by the following example.
Example 1.10.1
p! Two parallel lines are cut by a transversal.
q! The corresponding angles are equal.
p ⇒ q! If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal then the corresponding angles are equal.
Here p is true and p, q are related.
Mathematical logic however must cater for situation where either or both of these restrictions
do not apply.
Example 1.10.2
p : 3=8
q : 3+5=8
p ⇒ q : If “3 = 8” then “3 + 5 = 8”.
Here, p ⇒ q is a true proposition because the inferred statement q is true in spite of the fact
that p is false. In fact there is no logical connection between p and q, i.e., q cannot be deduced from p.
Example 1.10.3
p : Dogs are bipeds.
q : Human beings are quadrupeds.
p ⇒ q : If “dogs are bipeds”, then “human beings are quadrupeds”.
Here p and q are false and it is evident that p and q logically unconnected but the conditional
proposition p ⇒ q is taken true in the mathematical logic.
It is possible to express a conditional as a disjunction, as
p ⇒ q = ∼p - q
which is shown below:
p q p⇒ q ∼p ∼p - q
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
From the columns (3) and (5) is clear that

p ⇒ q = ∼p - q.
The proposition p ⇒ q is used in some alternative fashion. We give below some of the
possibilities:
If p then q
p is sufficient for q
q is necessary for p
p only if q
q if p
p implies q
q follows from p.
1.11. CONVERSE, INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE PROPOSITIONS

Definition 1.11.1. It p ⇒ q is the direct proposition, then
(a) q ⇒ p is called its converse,
(b) The proposition ∼p ⇒ ∼q is called its inverse, and
(c) The proposition ∼q ⇒ ∼p is called its contrapositive.
We have
p q p⇒ q ∼p ∼q ∼q ⇒ ∼p
T T T F F T
T F F F T F
F T T T F T
F F T T T T
∴ p ⇒ q = ∼q ⇒ ∼p
i.e., Direct statement = Contrapositive.
Again, we have
p q q⇒ p ∼p ∼q ∼p ⇒ ∼ q
T T T F F T
T F T F T T
F T F T F F
F F T T T T
∴ q ⇒ p = ∼p ⇒ ∼q
i.e., Converse = Inverse.
Here we shall see that if p ⇒ q is true, then q ⇒ p and ∼p ⇒ ∼q may not be true.
Example 1.11.1
p : x2 = 4
q:|x |<4
Here, p ⇒ q : If x = 4, i.e., x = ± 2, then | x | < 4 is true.
2
The converse q ⇒ p will be “If | x | < 4, then x2 = 4”. This is false. Let x = 3 or x = –3,
then | x | < 4 but these values do not satisfy x2 = 4. Similarly, any value such that – 4 < x < 4 which
is not equal to 2 or – 2 will not satisfy x2 = 4. The inverse ∼p ⇒ ∼q will be “If x2 ≠ 4,
then | x | ≥ 4”. This is also false. Let x = 3 or x = – 3, then x2 ≠ 4 but these values do not satisfy
| x | ≥ 4.
1.12 THE NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL PROPOSITION

This is not a conditional proposition. Given that p ⇒ q we have
p q p⇒ q ∼ (p ⇒ q) ∼p ∼p -q ∼ (∼ p - q) ∼q p . ∼q
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
T T T F F T F F F
T F F T F F T T T
F T T F T T F F F
F F T F T T F T F
Since, the columns (4), (7) and (9) are identical, therefore
∼ (p ⇒ q) = ∼ (∼p - q) = p . ∼ q.
1.13 BICONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS

Given two propositions p, q we write biconditional or equivalence of p, q as p ⇔ q and define it
to be the proposition.
p if and only if q.
The biconditional p ⇔ q is true when p, q are both true or both false and is false otherwise,
as given in the following table:
p q p⇔ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
The following table shows that

p ⇔ q = p ⇒ q . q ⇒ p.
p q p⇔ q p⇒ q q⇒ p p⇒ q.q⇒ p
T T T T T T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T
Since biconditional is a conjunction of the conditional and its converse, the biconditional is
worded in some alternative fashions:
p is equivalent to q
q is equivalent to p
If p then q, and if p then q
If p then q, and conversely
If q then p, and conversely
p is necessary and sufficient for q
q is necessary and sufficient for p
q if and only if p
Example 1.13.1. Show that p ⇔ q = (p . q) - (∼p . ∼q).
Since, p ⇔ q = (p ⇒ q) . (q ⇒ p)
= (∼p - q) . (∼q - p)
= (∼p . (∼q - p) - q . (∼q - p)
= (∼p . ∼q) - (∼p . p) - (q . ∼q) - (q . p)
= (∼p . ∼q) - F - F - (q . p)
= (∼p . ∼q) - (q . p)
= (q . p) - (∼p . ∼q)
PROBLEM 1.5
1. Show that
(a) p ⇒ q = ∼q ⇒ ∼p
(b) (p ⇒ q) ⇒ r ≠ p ⇒ (q ⇒ r)
(c) (p ⇔ q) = (q ⇔ p)
(d) (p ⇔ q) ⇔ r = p ⇔ (q ⇔ r)
(e) [(p ⇒ q) . (q ⇒ r)] ⇒ (q ⇒ ≡ T (tautology).
2. What is the negation of:
(a) p ⇒ q.
(b) p ⇔ q?
3. Write each of the following statements in symbolic form:
(a) If the journey to and accommodation at Bombay are troublesome, I shall not go to Bombay.
(b) The Indian hockey team will win or lose at the new Olympic meet.
(c) If tomorrow is holiday then there will be no examination, but if an examination is held, it will
be in mathematics.
(d) The country will rise if and only if we work hard, sincerely and intelligently.
(e) If one is interested in acquiring good knowledge then it is a pleasure to study in a library if and
only if the library is well equipped with books and journals and the library atmosphere is good.
4. Determine the truth value of each of the following propositions.
(a) 3 + 5 = 8 iff 1 + 3 = 4
(b) 3 + 5 = 9 iff 1 + 3 = 7
(c) 3 + 5 = 8 iff 1 + 3 = 7
(d) 3 + 5 = 9 iff 1 + 3 = 4
5. Let p: Triangle ABC is equilateral,
q: Triangle ABC is equiangular.
Form the converse inverse and contrapositive of p ⇒ q.
6. Let p: ∆1 and ∆2 are similar.
q: ∆1 and ∆2 have corresponding angles equal.
Form the converse; inverse and contrapositive of p ⇒ q.
1.14 ARGUMENTS
An argument (denoted by the symbol d which is called a turnstile) is a sequence of propositions
that purport to imply another proposition. The sequence of propositions serving as evidence will be
called the premises, and the proposition inferred will be called the conclusion. An arguments is valid
if and only if, whenever the conjunction of the premises is true, the conclusion is also true. If we let
p1, p2, p3 be the premises and p4 the conclusion, then argument p1, p2, p3 d p4 will be valid if and,
only if whenever p1 . p2 . p3 is true, p4 is also. We can reduce this to the conditional ⇒ as follows:
Definition. 1.14.1. If p1, p2, ...., pn are premises and p is a conclusion, then the argument p1,
p2, ... pn d p is valid if and only if p1 . p2 . ... . pn ⇒ p is true for all combinations of truth values
of p1 ..., pn and p. In other words, to decide whether an argument is valid, use the conjunction of
evidences as the antecedent of conditional of which the conclusion of the argument is the consequent
and see whether or not a tautology results.
If p1 . p2 . p3 . ...., . pn ⇒ p is not a tautology then the argument p1, ..., pn d p is invalid.

Example 1.14.1. Is the following argument valid? “If the labour market is prefect, then the
wages of all persons in a particular employment will be equal. But it is always the case that wages
for such persons are not equal. Therefore, the labour market is not perfect”.
Solution. Here let
p1 : “The labour market is perfect”.
p2 : Wages of all person in a particular employment will be equal.
∼p2 : Wages for such persons are not equal.
∼p1 : The labour market is not perfect.
The premises are p1 ⇒ p2, ∼p2 and
the conclusion is ∼p1.
The argument
p1 ⇒ p2, ∼p2 d ∼p1
valid if and only if
(p1 ⇒ p2) . ∼p2 ⇒ ∼p1
is a tautology. We construct the truth table as below:
p1 p2 ∼p1 ∼p2 p1 ⇒ p2 p1 ⇒ p2 . ∼p2 p1 ⇒ p2 . ∼p2

⇒ ∼ p1
T T F F T F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T T T
If follows from the last column that

p1 ⇒ p2 . ∼p2 ⇒ ∼p1
is tautology.
Hence the argument is valid.
Example 1.14.2. Test the validity of the following: If Ashok wins then Ram will be happy. If
Kamal wins, Raju will be happy. Either Ashok will win or Kamal will win. However if Ashok wins,
Raju will not be happy and if Kamal wins Ram will not be happy. So Ram will be happy if and only
if, Raju is not happy”.
Solution. We symbolizes the statement as follows:
p : Ashok wins,
q : Ram is happy,
r : Kamal wins,
s : Raju is happy.
The premises are
p1 : p ⇒ q, p2 : r ⇒ s, p3 : p - q, p4 : p ⇒ ∼s, p5: r ⇒ ∼q.
The conclusion is
p : q ⇔ ∼s.
p q r s p⇒ q r⇒ s p-r ~s or p⇒ r⇒ q⇒ p⇒ q.r⇒ (12) ⇒

~q ~s ~q ~s s . (p . r) . p (11)
⇒ Å s . r ? ~q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
T T T T T T T F F F F F T
T T F T T T T F F T F F T
T F T F F F T T T T F F T
T F F F F T T T T T F F T
F T T T T T T F T F F F T
F T F T T T F F T T F F T
F F T F T F T F T T F F T
F F F F T F F T T T F F T
Since p ⇒ q . r ⇒ s . p - r . p ⇒ ∼ s . r ⇒ ∼ q ⇒ q ⇔ ∼ s is tautology, the argument

is valid.
Then the argument is
p ⇒ q, r ⇒ s, p - q, p ⇒ ∼ s, r ⇒ ∼ q d q ⇔ ∼ s.
If the conclusion is false, we must have q false and ∼s is true i.e., q false and s false, or q true
and –s false, i.e., q true and s true. So q and s both same truth values. Therefore, the truth table has
eight rows as above:
PROBLEM 1.6
1. Show that the following is invalid:
If I buy stocks, I will lose money. Therefore, if I lose money, I buy stocks.
Hint. Let
p : I buy stocks
q : I will lose money
the premises are q ⇒ q, and
the conclusion is q ⇒ p.
∴ the argument is p ⇒ q d – q ⇒ p.
We have
p q p⇒ q q⇒ p (p ⇒ q) ⇒ (q ⇒ p)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T T T
∴ (p ⇒ q) ⇒ (q ⇒ p) is not a tautology. Hence the argument is invalid.

2. Test the validity of:
For my husband’s a birthday, I bring him gifts. Either it is my husband’s birthday or I work late in
office. I did not bring my husband gifts today. Therefore, today I worked late.
Hint. The argument is valid.
❑❑❑
Set Theory
2.1 SETS
We shall not attempt a formal definition of a set nor shall we try to lay the ground work for an
axiomatic theory of sets. Instead we shall take the operational and institutive approach that by a set
we mean a well defined collection of objects of any type whatsoever, each object of a set is an
element of the set or a member of the set.
Note that we have not really defined the term set and element (since we did not define collection
of object) rather we have taken them as institutive axioms on which all other notions will be based.
Instead of set we sometimes use one of the following class, family, aggregate and totality.
Example 2.1.1. (i) The set of this book, the letter A, and Romesh.
(ii) The set of the numbers, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10.
(iii) The set of green leaves of a given tree.
(iv) The set of cars in Delhi on 26th January, 2008.
(v) The set of the twelve months of the year.
(vi) The set of all world rivers.
(vii) The set of the numbers 5, 13, and 19, Delhi city, a specific piece of chalk, a particular
shirt, and the planet venus.
We observe that the members of a set need not have any common property other than the
property of being considered as members of the same collection. Examples (i) and (vii) are given to
emphasize this fact.
2.2 SET DESIGNATION

A set can be designated in various ways. Since it is very important that a set be well defined, any
type of set designation must indicate whether a given object is a member of the set or is not a member
of the set. This implies that only two possibilities can exist: the object (1) is a member, or (2) is not
a member of the given set. It is then clear that an object cannot be simultaneously in and out of the
given set. For this purpose we use the symbol ∈, which is the Greek letter epsilon. ∈, will mean
“belongs to” or “is a member of” and ∉ will mean “does not belong to” or “is not a member of”.
The following examples will make this notion clear.
x ∈ A is read “x belongs to A”, or
“x is an element of A”, or
“x, an element of A”.
17
x ∉ A is read “x does not belong to A”, or

“x is not an element of A”, or
“x, not an element of A”.
Usually small letters such as a, b, x or y will be used to represent the elements of a set, and
capital letters such as A and B, will be used to represent the set. It is also useful to denote a set putting
braces around its elements such as {a, b, c}. {a, b, c} denotes the set consisting of the three elements
a, b, and c.
We shall determine sets in three ways, two of which have already been used in the preceding
examples (i), (ii) and (vii), or they will be described by some specified statements as in the remaining
examples. In addition to these two ways we shall denote the set by putting braces around a description
of the set called the rule method (Set-builder notation).
Some examples are given to illustrate these three ways of indicating sets.
(a) A set may be indicated by a statement method.
N is the set of all natural numbers.
D is the set of all whole numbers between 1 and 10.
(b) A set may be indicated by the listing method.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...}
D = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ... 9}
REMARK: (1) When we write a set by listing the element we write some elements and follow
them with three dots (...). Three dots at the end of a list of elements indicate that a set has elements
without end. Thus the set N = {1, 2, 3, 4 ...} represent the set of all natural numbers. In general, three
dots (...) indicate the omission of terms of the kind of given terms. Thus in the set D = {2, 3, 4, ...,
9}, three dots indicate that numbers 5, 6, 7, 8 between 4 and 9 are omitted.
(2) While writing a set by listing method we do not repeat any element. For instance the sets
{2, 2, 3, 5} and {2, 3, 5} are one and the same sets.
(3) The order of elements in a set is immeterial. For instance the sets {x, y, z} and {y, x, z}
are one and the same.
(c) A set may be indicated by rule method (Set builder form).
At many places a listing is impossible for an infinite set. For example, the listing of elements
of the set of all triangles in a plane is not possible at all. But the elements of this set satisfy the
common property that every element is triangle in a plane. So in this case we designate the set by
the so-called rule method or set builder notation. Thus the set A of all triangles in a plane can be
written as
A = {x x is a triangle in a plane}, where
the vertical bar ‘ ’ stands for ‘such that’. There are some sets which can be designated by all three
methods.
Thus N = {x x is a natural number}
D = {x x is a whole number between 1 and 10},
REMARK: There are some sets which can be written by listing method but they cannot be
written by rule method. For example, the set A = {5, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, Earth, Delhi} cannot
be written by rule method.
SET THEORY 19
The first example by the rule method is read “N is the set of all x such that x is a natural
number”. Similarly the second is read “D is the set of all x such that x is a whole number between
1 and 10”.
If we represent the statement by P(x) which is satisfied by each element of the set, the set can
be indicated as
D = {x x satisfies P(x)}
and it is read “D is the set of all x such that x satisfies P(x)”.
2.3 NULL SETS AND UNIT SETS

A set may contain a large number of elements or small number of elements. If there are no elements
having certain specified properties we call the set so designated a null set, an empty set, zero set,
a void set, or a vacuous set, denoted by φ.
Definition 2.3.1. A null set is a set which has no elements.
That is, φ = {x x ≠ x}
Examples of null sets:
(1) The set of all human beings born with wings.
(2) The set of all persons who reached the moon before 1855.
(3) The set of all distances which are greater than a metre and also less than a decimetre.
Definition 2.3.2. A unit set is a set which has only one element. It is also called a singleton
set.
Examples of unit sets:
(1) The set of the Presidents of India in 2008.
(2) The set of the planets on which we live.
(3) {5}.
2.4 SPECIAL SETS OF NUMBERS

Throughout this chapter the following sets of numbers will frequently be used. For the sake of clarity
we state specifically what is indeed in each set.
Definition 2.4.1. The positive integers, the counting numbers or the natural numbers are the
positive whole numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .... We shall frequently denote the set of positive integers by N.
Definition 2.4.2. The non-negative integers, are the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,... We shall denote the
set of non-negative integers by J0.
Definition 2.4.3. The integers are the numbers 0, 1, –1, 2, –2, 3, –3, 4, .... We shall frequently denote
the set of all integers by Z.
Definition 2.4.4. The even integers are the numbers of the form 2n, where n is an integer; i.e.,
0, 2, – 2, 4, – 4, 6, – 6,...
Definition 2.4.5. The odd integers are the numbers of the form (2n + 1) or (2n – 1), when n is an
integer, i.e., 1, – 1, 3, – 3, 5, – 5,...
Definition 2.4.6. The rational numbers are the fractions of the form p/q, where p and q are integers,
q ≠ 0, and p and q do not have common factors.
2.5 UNIVERSAL SET

Definition 2.5.1. A particular set which contains all objects which are to be considered during some
specific discussions is called a universal set for that discussion.
The universal set is frequently denoted by U, and is sometimes referred to as the universe, or
the universe of discourse. In a Venn diagram the universal set U is usually represented by the points
of a rectangle plus its interior points.
Examples of universal sets.
(1) The set of integers could be used as a universal set from which the objects for the set
S = {5, –2, 7, 3} are chosen.
(2) The set of all persons in India could serve as the universal set for the set of persons who
speak Hindi or for the set of all students of all Indian universities, or for the set of all teachers in
India.
PROBLEM 2.1
1. Indicate the elements of the following set by listing method:
(a) Set of all integers between 0 and 50, each of which has 3 as its last digit.
(b) Set of all positive integers less than 49 and divisible by 7.
(c) Set of all prime numbers between 1 and 30.
(d ) Set of all square roots of 25 that are even integers.
(e) Set of all positive integers which are common factor of 30 and 45.
(f ) Set of all square roots of the number 9.
(g) Set of even integers between –5 and 7.
2. Which of the following are examples of empty sets ?
(a) Set of all integers ending in 2 which are perfect squares.
(b) Set of all even integers endings in 7.
(c) Set of all integers whose square is 2.
(d) Set of all integral roots of the equation x3 – 5 = 0.
(e) Set of all living people who were born before 1950.
3. Below are given some sets. Express by using the ‘rule method’:
(a) Set of all foreigner who visited India in 2007.
(b) Set of all points in a plane.
(c) Set of all straight lines in a plane.
(d ) Set of all multiples of 5.
(e) Set of all integral divisors of 48.
(f ) Set of all common factors of 48 and 56.
(g) Set of all even integers.
(h) Set of all composite numbers.
4. Let n be an integer. Find the numbers in each of the following sets which correspond to the values
of n from – 4 to 4, inclusive:
(a) {x | x = 5n – 6}
(b) {x | x = 2n – 1}
(c) {x | x = 2n/3 – 1}
(d ) {x | x = 6 – 2n}.
SET THEORY 21
5. Express each of the following sets in different ways:

(a) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 .....}
(b) {x | x is a number such that 2x = 12}
(c) {y | y is the name of a state in India starting with the letter U}.
6. Verify:
(a) {x | x ∈ N, x < 1} = φ
(b) {x | x ∈ I, 6x2 + 5x – 4 = 0} = φ
(c) {x | x ∈ I, 3x + 4 = 8} = φ
(d ) {x | x is a prime even integer ≠ 2} = φ.
7. Express each of the following sets in other ways:
(a) {x | x = 2n where n is an integer}
(b) The set of all integral multiples of three
(c) {–5, – 4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2}
(d ) { x | x is a positive integral divisor of 60}
8. Which of the following statements are true?
(a) a = {a}
(b) 3 ∈ {3}
(c) 4 ∈ {1, 2, 3, {4}}
(d ) φ ∈ {φ}
(e) φ ∈ {{φ}}
(f ) 7 ∉ {3, 4, {2}, {5}}.
2.6 SUBSETS: PROPER SUBSETS AND EQUAL SETS

When we consider two or more than two subsets of the same universal set we may find that some
objects are common in them and sometimes we may find that all objects in one set are objects in the
second set. For this we have specific terminology which indicates how much over-lapping there is
in the sets.
Definition 2.6.1. (Inclusion). A set A is a subset of the set B if every element of A is an element
of the set B. In this case B if a super set of A.
“A is a subset of B’’ is also expressed by saying that “A is included in B” and it is symbolically
denoted by A ⊆ B which is read “A is a subset of B” or “A is included in B”.
Similarly ‘‘B is a superset of A” is also expressed by saying that ‘‘B includes A’’ and it is
symbolically denoted by B ⊇ A, which is read ‘‘B includes A’’ or ‘‘B is a superset of A’’.
If A is not a subset of B we write A ⊆| B.
Example 2.6.1. If A = {2, 3, 4, 5},
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
then we find that every element of A is also an element of B. Therefore by definition A is a subset
of B (A ⊆ B).
Definition 2.6.2. (Proper inclusion). The set A is a proper subset of the set B if every element of
A is an element of the set B but there exists at least one element in B which is not an element of
the set A.
Proper inclusion is denoted by the symbol A ⊂ B which is read ‘‘A is a proper subset of B’’
or ‘‘A is properly contained in B’’, and also by the symbol B ⊃ A which is read ‘‘B includes A
properly’’.
If A is not a proper subset of B we symbolically write A ⊂| B or B ⊃| A.
Example 2.6.2. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4},
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
then we find that every element of A is an element of B but there are 5, 6 and 7 of B which do not
belong to A. In this case A is a proper subset of B(A ⊂ B).
Definition 2.6.3. Two set are identical if they have exactly the same elements in them.
If two sets A and B are identical we shall frequently call them as the same set, as equal sets
or as identical sets and we shall write A = B. If A and B are not equal we shall write A ≠ B.
THEOREM 2.6.1. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then A = B.
Proof. Since A ⊆ B, then by the definition of subset every element of A is an element of B,
that is, whenever x ∈ A, then x ∈ B. And every element of B is an element of A because B ⊆ A,
that is, whenever x ∈ B, then x ∈ A. This shows that the element in A and B are identical or A and
B have exactly the same elements.
Hence A = B.
Therefore in order to prove that A = B we must show that every element of A is an element
of B and every element of B is an element of A; we shall say that A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and
B ⊆ A.
Example 2.6.3. Let A = {x | 0 < x ≤ 15 and x is an odd integer}
and B = {y | 0 < y ≤ 16 and y is an odd integer}
then we find that
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15}
and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15}
Since the elements in A and B are exactly the same elements, by definition, A = B.
Now we shall study the statement of the definition of a subset. We observe that the statement
‘‘every element of A is an element of B’ means the same as “there are no elements in A which are
not in B”. When null set is involving in a discussion, then it may be more convincing to apply the
second statement.
Application of the definition also shows that a null set φ, that is, a set containing none of the
elements of the universe, is a subset of S, for there are no elements in φ, and therefore there are no
elements in φ, which are not in S. Hence φ ⊂ S.
By the same type of reasoning this null set φ is a subset of itself, and also a subset of every
other set taken from this universal set.
Example 2.6.4. Prove that A ⊆ A.
Proof. If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A, by the repetition of the statement therefore A ⊆ A by the definition
of a subset.
Example 2.6.5. If A ⊆ B, and B ⊆ C, then prove that A ⊆ C.
Proof. Let x ∈ A.
x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B since A ⊆ B
⇒ x ∈ C since B ⊆ C.
Hence A ⊆ C.
SET THEORY 23
PROBLEM 2.2
1. State symbolically as many proper inclusion relations as possible among the following sets. Count
repeated letters as the same letter.
A = Set of all letters of the alphabet.
B = Set of vowels a, e, i, o, u.
C = Set of all letters except the vowels a, e, i, o, u.
D = Set of all different letters in the word ‘‘uncomplimentary.’’
E = Set of all different letters in the sentence ‘‘I go to school.’’
2. Let
A = Set of all equilateral triangles.
B = Set of all isosceles triangles.
C = Set of all triangles.
D = Set of all equiangular triangles.
(a) State symbolically, that all equilateral triangles are equiangular.
(b) Make the correct symbolic statement about the set of all equilateral triangles and the set of all
isosceles triangles.
(c) Make the correct symbolic statement about sets C and B.
3. Which of following sets are subsets of which others:
(1) N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
(2) W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4...}
(3) Z = {0, – 1, + 1, – 2, + 2, – 3, + 3, ...}
(4) Q = {x/y | x ∈ Z, y ∈ N and x and y are co-prime to each other}.
(5) R = the set of real numbers.
(6) P = the set of prime natural numbers.
(7) O = the set of odd natural numbers.
(8) E = the set of even natural numbers.
(9) Z– = {–1, –2, –3, ...}
(10) R+ = the set of positive real numbers.
4. Using the definitions of equality of sets, show that
(a) {a, b, c} = {b, c, a}
(b) {a, b, c} = {a, b, a, b, c, c, c}.
5. For all sets A, B, and C, determine whether the following statements are true or false:
(1) B = A and A = C ⇒ (Implies) C = B
(2) B ⊆ C and C ⊆ A ⇒ (Implies) C ⊆ B
(3) B ∈ A and A ∈ C ⇒ (Implies) B ∈ C
(4) B = C and C ∈ A ⇒ (Implies) B ∈ A
(5) B ⊆ A and A ∈ C = (Implies) B ∈ C.
6. Which of the following sets are equal,
{1, 2, 3}, {x | x2 – 2x + 1 = 0}, {3, 2, 1}, {x | x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0}.
2.7 SET OPERATIONS

When two or more then two sets are given and we have to produce a new set from given sets, then
we apply set operations known as union, intersection complementation onsets which result in new
sets. We shall discuss these operations in this section.
Set Diagrams
Set operation can be illustrated by Venn diagrams which was used by John Venn to represent
George Boole’s Theory of logical systems. In a Venn diagram the universal set U is usually represented
by points of a rectangle plus its interior points, and subsets of U, such as A and B, are represented
by the points of circles plus their interior points; through other figures besides rectangle and circles
can be used to give graphic representation.
2.8 UNION OPERATION

A set of elements can be formed by using all of the elements in two given sets. Such a collection
is the union of the given sets.
Definition 2.8.1. The union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which are in A, or in B,
or in both sets A and B.
Symbolically, we write A ∪ B for the union of A and B and sometimes it is read as “A cup B”
or ‘A union B.’
Symbolic notations enables us to produce a more compact but equivalent definition of union.
Definition 2.8.2. A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
Example 2.8.1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 5},
and B = {2, 4, 6},
then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Example 2.8.2. If A = {x | x ∈ Z and x ≥ 9}
and B = {x | x ∈ Z and x ≥ 15}
then A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ Z and x ≥ 9},
Union operation can be illustrated by Venn diagrams.
U U
A A
B B
A = Triangular area A ∪ B = Shaded area

B = Circular area
Fig. 2.1
2.9 PROPERTIES OF UNION OPERATION

Let A, B, C be the subsets of a universal set U. Then union operation satisfies the following fundamental
properties.
SET THEORY 25
(1) A ∪ A = A
(2) A ∪ φ = A
(3) A ∪ U = U
(4) A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B
(5) A ∪ B = B ∪ A
(6) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).
The above properties are very simple and the proofs of all these properties follow immediately
from the definition of union and equality of sets. To indicate the method of proof we give the proof
of the property (6).
In property (6) we have to prove that the two sets (A ∪ B) ∪ C and A ∪ (B ∪ C) are equal.
For this we have to prove that
(1) (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ (B ∪ C)
and (2) A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.
Proof. Let x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C. Then
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B or x ∈ C
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ A or (x ∈ B ∪ C)
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C)
∴ (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ...(1)
Conversely, let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C). Then
x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ A or (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C
∴ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∪ C. ...(2)
Hence from (1) and (2), we have
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
It can be illustrated by Venn diagram.
A B A B
(1) (2) A U B (3) (A U B) UC

A B A B
C C
(4) B U C (5) AU (B U C)
Fig. 2.2
From figures (3) and (5), we have
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
2.10 INTERSECTION
When elements belong to two or more sets we often refer to them as the “elements common to the
sets’. These common elements form the intersection of the sets.
Definition 2.10.1. The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of elements which are in the set
A and also in the set B.
Symbolically, we write A ∩ B for the ‘‘intersection of A and B’’ and this is sometimes read
as ‘A cap B’ or ‘A intersect B’. Now we give the symbolic definition which is more concise form
of set intersection.
Definition 2.10.2. A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
It can be illustrated by Venn diagram:
U U
A A
B B
A = Triangular area A ∩ B = Shaded area

B = Circular area
Fig. 2.3
Example 2.10.1. If A = {x | x ∈ Z and x ≥ 9}

and B = {x | x ∈ Z and x ≥ 15}
Α ∩ B = {x | x ∈ Z and x ≥ 15}
sometimes there is no element common to the given sets. In that case we use a special terminology.
Definition 2.10.3. Two sets are said to be disjoint if their intersection is the empty set, that is a
disjoint sets have no common elements.
Example 2.10.2. If A = {1, 3, 5, ...},
and B = (2, 4, 6, ...}
SET THEORY 27
A ∩ B = φ, A and B are disjoint sets. In the following Venn diagram A and B are disjoint sets.
A B
Fig. 2.4
2.11 PROPERTIES OF INTERSECTION OPERATION

Let A, B, and C be the subsets of a universal set U, then some of the fundamental properties which
are obeyed by intersection are given below:
(1) A ∩ A = A
(2) A ∩ φ = φ
(3) A ∩ U = A
(4) A ∩ B ⊆ A and A∩B⊆B
(5) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
(6) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
The above properties are very simple and follow immediately from the definition of intersection
and quality of sets. However, we prove property (6).
To prove the property (6) we have to show that the sets (A ∩ B) ∩ C and A ∩ (B ∩ C) are
equal and for this we have to prove that
(1) (A ∩ B) ∩ C ⊆ A ∩ (B ∩ C)
and (2) A ∩ (B ∩ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∩ C
Proof. Let x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∩ C. Then
x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∩ C ⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B and x ∈ C
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) and x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A and (x ∈ B and x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∩ C
⇒ x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C)
∴ (A ∩ B) ∩ C ⊆ A ∩ (B ∩ C) ...(1)
Conversely, let x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C). Then
x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C) ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∩ C
⇒ x ∈ A and (x ∈ B and x ∈ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) and x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B and x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∩ C
∴ A ∩ (B ∩ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∩ C ...(2)
From (1) and (2) we get
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
2.12 DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTIES

We shall see that union is distributive over intersection and intersection is distributive over union, i.e.,
(1) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∩ C),
(2) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
If we replace ∪ by ∩ in (1) and ∩ by ∪ in (2) we get the property (2) and (1) respectively.
Therefore, distributive properties (1) and (2) are also known as Duality Principle.
We give the proof of (1) and the proof of (2) will be carried through in a similar way.
Proof. (1) Let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C). Then
x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∩ C
⇒ x ∈ A or (x ∈ B and x ∈ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) and (x ∈ A or x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) and x ∈ (A ∪ C)
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
∴ A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ...(1)
conversely, let x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C). Then
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∈ A ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B and x ∈ A or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B and x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∩ C
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C)
∴ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⊆ A ∪ (B ∩ C) ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C)
It can be illustrated by Venn diagram as follows:
U U U
A B A B A B
C C C
(1) B ∩ C (2) A ∪ (B ∩ C) (3) A ∪ B
U U
A B A B
C C
(4) A ∪ C (5) A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C
Fig. 2.5
SET THEORY 29

A ∪ (B ∩ C) = A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C
2.13 COMPLEMENTATION
Let A be a subset of a universal set U. Since A is well-defined, each element of U is either in A or
is not in A. Thus the elements of U fall into two sets; namely, those which are in A or which are not
in A. The collection of all elements of U which are not in A is the complement of A with respect to
U or simply we refer to it as ‘‘the complement of A.’’
Definition 2.13.1. Let A be a subset of the universal set U. Then the complement of A with respect
to U is the set of all elements of U which are not in A and it is denoted by A'.
The symbolic form of the definition can be given as follows:
Definition 2.13.2. Let A ⊆ U. Then A′ ={x | x ∈ U and x ∉ A}.
Example 2.13.1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}
and E = {2, 4, 6, ...},
then E′ = {1, 3, 5, ...},
It can be illustrated by Venn diagram.
U
A ′ = shaded area
A A′
Fig. 2.6
2.14 RELATIVE COMPLEMENT (OR DIFFERENCE OF SETS)

The relative complement of A in B is the complement of A in B, i.e., relative complement of A in
B is the set of elements in B which are not in A.
Definition 2.14.1. If A and B are subsets of the universal set U, then relative complement of A in
B is the set of all elements in B which are not in A. It is denoted by B – A.
Symbolically, we can write as follows:
Definition 2.14.2. Let A ⊆ U and B ⊆ U. Then
A – B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈
\ B}
It can be shown by Venn diagram as follows:
U U U
B
A A
A
B B
A ⊄B A ⊂B A!B=φ
(1) A – B = B–A= (2) A – B = φ, B – A = (3) A – B = A B–A=B

Fig. 2.7
2.15 PROPERTIES OF COMPLEMENT

Let A and B be two subsets of universal set U.
Then
(1) U′ = φ
(2) φ′ = U
(3) A ∪ A′ = U
(4) A ∩ A′ = φ
(5) (A′)′ = A
(6) A ⊆ B ⇒ B′ ⊆ A′
(7) (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
(De Morgan’s Laws)
(8) (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′
The above properties are very simple and follow immediately from the definition of complement
and quality of sets. However we prove (6) and (7) and the proof (8) is similar to that of (7).
Proof. (6) We have A ⊆ B.
Let x ∈ B′. Then
x ∈ B′ ⇒ x ∉ B
⇒ x∉A since A⊆ B
⇒ x ∈ A′
∴ B′ ⊆ A′.
Proof. (7) Let x ∈ (A ∩ B)′. Then
x ∈ (A ∩ B)′ ⇒ x ∉ A ∩ B
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ B
or x ∉ A and x ∈ B
or x ∉ A and x ∉ B
⇒ x ∉ A′ and x ∈ B′
or x ∈ A′ and x ∉ B′
or x ∈ A′ and x ∈ B′
⇒ x ∈ A′ or x ∈ B′
⇒ x ∈ A′ ∪ B′ Since in all cases
x ∈ A′ ∪ B′ ...(1)
∴ (A ∩ B)′ ⊆ A′ ∪ B′
Conversely, let x ∈ A′ ∪ B′. Then
x ∈ A′ ∪ B′ ⇒ x ∈ A′ or x ∈ B′
⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B
⇒ x∉A∩B
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B)′
∴ (A′ ∪ B′) ⊆ (A ∩ B)′ ...(2)
From (1) and (2) we have
(A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
It can be shown by Venn diagrams.
SET THEORY 31
U U
A A
B B
(1) A ! B = (2) (A ! B)′ =
U U
A A
B B′ B
A′
(3) A′ = , B′ = (4) A′ U B′ =
Fig. 2.8
2.16 PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENCE

Let A and B be two subsets of a universal set U, then
(1) A′ = U – A
(2) A – B = A ∩ B′
(3) A – A = φ
(4) A – φ = A
(5) A – B = B – A if and only if A = B
(6) A – B = A if and only if A ∩ B = φ
(7) A – B = φ if and only if A ⊆ B.
We give the proof of some of the properties given above.
Proof. (2) Let x ∈ A – B. Then
x ∈A–B ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ B
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B′
⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B'
A–B ⊆ A ∩ B′ ...(1)
Conversely, let x ∈ A ∩ B′. Then
x ∈ A ∩ B′ ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B′
= x ∈ A and x ∉ B
= x∈A–B
∴ A ∩ B′ ⊆ A–B ...(2)
Hence from (1) and (2)

A – B = A ∩ B′.
(6) We have A ∩ B = φ. Then
A = (A – B) ∪ (A ∩ B)
⇒ A = A – B ∪ φ. Since A ∩ B = φ.
⇒ A = A – B.
Again we have A – B = A. Then
A = (A – B) ∪ (A ∩ B)
⇒ A ∩ B = A – (A – B)
⇒ A∩B = A–A Since A – B = A
⇒ A∩B = φ
(7) We have A ⊆ B. Then A ∩ B = A
A – B = A – (A ∩ B)
⇒ A–B = A–A Since A ∩ B = A
⇒ A–B = φ
If A – B = φ, then
A ∩ B = A – (A – B)
⇒ A∩B = A–φ
⇒ A∩B = A
A ⊆ B.
2.17 SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE

Definition 2.17.1. The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is the relative complement A ∩ B
in A ∪ B and it is denoted by A ∆ B. Symbolically we can write
A ∆ B = {x | x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∉ A ∩ B}
Thus A ∆ B is the set of these elements which are either in A or in B but not in both A and
B. It can be shown by Venn diagram:
A
B
A ∆B =
Fig. 2.9
Example 2.17.1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
B = {2, 3, a, b, c},
A ∆ B = {1, 4, 5, a, b, c}
SET THEORY 33
Properties of Symmetric Difference

(1) A ∆ A = φ
(2) (A ∆ B) ∆ C = A ∆ (B ∆ C)
(3) A ∆ φ = A
(4) A ∆ B = B ∆ A
(5) A ∆ B = (A – B) ∪ (B – A) = (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B).
We give the proof of the property (5). The proofs of Rest are left to the readers.
Proof. Let x ∈ (A – B) ∪ (B – A). Then
x ∈ (A – B) ∪ B – A ⇒ x ∈ A – B or x ∈ B – A
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ B or x ∈ B and x ∉ A
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∉ A ∩ B
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B – A ∩ B.
∴ (A – B) ∪ (B – A) ⊆ (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B) ...(1)
Conversely, let x ∈ (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B). Then
x ∈ (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B) ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∉ A ∩ B
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B and x ∉ A ∩ B
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ A ∩ B or x ∈ B and x ∉ A ∩ B
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ B or x ∈ B and x ∉ A
⇒ x ∈ A – B or x ∈ B – A
⇒ x ∈ (A – B) ∪ (B – A)
∴ (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B) ⊆ (A – B) ∪ (B – A) ...(2)
Hence from (1) ⊆ (2), we have
(A – B) ∪ (B – A) = (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B).
A – (B ∪ C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)
Solution. x ∈ A – (B ∪ C) ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ B ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ B and x ∉ C
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∉ B) and (x ∈ A and x ∉ C)
⇒ x ∈ A – B and x ∈ A – C
⇒ x ∈ (A – B) ∩ (A – C).
Therefore, A– (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A – B) ∩ (A – C). ...(1)
Conversely,
x ∈ (A – B) ∩ (A – C) ⇒ x ∈ A – B and x ∈ A – C
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∉ B) and (x ∈ A and x ∉ C)
⇒ x ∈ A and (x ∉ B and x ∉ C)
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ B ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ A – (B ∪ C).
Therefore, (A – B) ∩ (A – C) ⊆ A – (B ∪ C) ...(2)
Hence A – (B ∪ C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)
PROBLEM 2.3
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3,....10}, B = {2, 4, 6,...10}
and C = {1, 3, 5, ...9}. Find the following sets:
(a) A ∪ B; (c) A ∩ C; (e) B ∩ C; (g) A – B;
(b) A ∩ B; (d) A ∪ C; (f ) B ∪ C; (h) A – C.
2. (i) Find the set obtained by the following set operations where U is the universal set and A is a subset
of U.
(a) A ∩ A′; (c) A ∪ A′; (e) A ∩ φ; (g) U ∩ φ;
(b) A ∩ U; (d) A ∪ U; (f ) A ∪ φ; (h) U ∪ φ.
(ii) And find a set equal to each of the following:
(a) A ∩ A; (b) A ∪ A; (c) U′; (d) φ'.
3. Let A = set of all even integers,
B = set of all integers which are integral multiples of 3.
C = set of all integers which are integral multiples of 4.
Z = the set of all integers.
Describe the following sets:
(a) A ∩ B; (b) A ∪ B; (c) B ∩ C; (d) A ∪ Z;
(e) A ∪ C; (f ) the complement of C with respect to A;
(g) the complement of C with respect to Z.
4. Let A be a subset of the universal set U. Find a set equal to each of the following:
(a) U – A; (b) A – U; (c) A – φ;
(d) φ – A; (e) A – A.
5. Simplify the following.
(a) C ∩ B ∩ C′ (Ans φ′)
(b) (C′ ∪ φ) ∪ C (Ans U)
(c) (H ∪ K) ∩ K′ (Ans H ∩ K′)
(d) (C ∩ B) ∪ (C' ∩ B) (Ans B)
(e) (A ∪ B)′ ∪ (A′ ∩ B) (Ans A′)
(f ) C ∪ B ∪ C′ (Ans U)
(g) (C ∩ U) ∪ C′ (Ans U)
(h) [(H ∩ K) ∪ (H ∩ K') ∪ (H' ∩ K)] ∩ K (Ans K)
6. Suppose A ⊆ B, show that
(a) A ∩ C ⊆ B ∩ C, (b) A ∪ C ⊆ B ∪ C.
7. Show that
(a) If A ∩ B = B, then A ∪ B = A and A ⊇ B,
(b) If A ⊇ B, then A ∩ B = B and A ∪ B = A,
(c) If A ∪ B = A, then A ∩ B = B and A ⊇ B.
8. If A ⊂ B, and A and B are subsets of U, write the equivalent of the following sets in simple form,
A ∩ B, A ∪ B, A ∩ Bc, A ∪ Bc, where Ac is the complement of A in U.
9. Show that if A ⊆ B, then A ∩ B′ = φ.
10. Let A = {1, 2, 3, ...., 50},
B = {2, 4, 6, ...., 50},
SET THEORY 35
C = {1, 3, 5, ...., 49},

and D = {3, 6, 9, ...., 48}.
Using A as the universal set find the following sets:
(a) A′; (e) B′ ∩ D; (i) D′ ∩ C′;
(b) B′; (f ) B ∩ (D ∪ C); (j) (D ∩ C)′;
(c) C′; (g) (B ∩ D) ∪ (A ∩ C); (k) D′ ∪ C′;
(d) D′; (h) (D ∪ C)′.
11. Establish the following results of differences:
(a) (A – B) – C = A – (B ∪ C),
(b) A – (B – C) = (A – B) ∪ (A ∩ C),
(c) A ∩ (B – C) = (A ∪ B) – (C – A),
(d) A ∩ (B – C) = (A ∩ B) – (A ∩ C),
(e) A – B = A ∩ B′
(f ) A – B = B′ – A′
(g) A – B = φ if and only if A ⊆ B
(h) A – B = A if and only if A ∩ B = φ.
12. Prove that
(a) A ∆ φ = A,
(b) A ∆ A = φ,
(c) A ∩ (B ∆ C) = (A ∩ B) ∆ (A ∩ C),
(d) A ∆ (B ∆ C) = (A ∆ B) ∆ C.
13. Prove that
(a) If B ⊆ A, then, B – C ⊆ A – C,
(b) If B ⊆ A, then A – (A – B) = B,
(c) A ∪ B = A ∩ B if and only if A = B,
(d) A ∪ B = (A – B) ∪ B,
(e) (A – B) ∪ B = A if and only if A ⊇ B,
(f ) A – B = A if and only if A ∩ B = φ
(g) (A ∪ B) – C = (A – C) ∪ (B – C)
(h) A – (B ∩ C) = (A – B) ∪ (A – C)
2.18 POWER SET

Definition 2.18.1. The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S, denoted by P(S) and the
number of objects in P(S) is 2n, where n is the number of elements in S. Symbolically we can write
P(S) = {A | A ⊆ S}
Example 2.18.1. Let A = {a, b, c}, then determine P(A).
Solution. Since the set A contains three elements, the power set P(A) will have 23 elements,
i.e., 8.
The subsets of A having one element are {a}, {b}, {c}, the subsets of A having two elements
are {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, and the subset having three elements is {a, b, c}, i.e., the set A itself and
the set which is having no element of A, i.e., φ. Therefore all subsets of A are.
φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, (a, c}, and A.
PROBLEM 2.4
1. Let A = {a, b, c, d}, list all elements of the power set P(A).
2. How many elements are there in the power set of a set having the following number of objects:
(a) Nine; (c) two; (e) four;
(b) one; (d ) three; (f ) five
(g) n, where n is zero or a positive integer.
3. If A = {(a, b), c}, find out P(A).
2.19 CARTESIAN PRODUCTS

In analytic geometry the properties of the plane figures are studied with the help of rectangular
coordinate system which represents each point in the plane as an ordered pair of real numbers. The
word ordered refers to the fact that the point (a, b) is distinct from the point (b, a) in case a ≠ b.
This is only one of the possible uses for ordered pairs, which we will interpret as the general elements
of the product sets, to be defined below.
Definition 2.19.1. An ordered pair is a set containing exactly two elements for which it has been
decided which is first in the pair and which is second.
The first and second elements of an ordered pair may be taken from the same set, or from
different sets, depending upon the circumstances.
Definition 2.19.2. The Cartesian product of two sets A and B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b),
where a ∈ A and b ∈ B and denoted by A × B. This is.
Using set notation we can write this definition in more compact form.
A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.
Example 2.19.1. Suppose A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b), then A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a),
(2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} and B × A = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (a, 2), (b, 2), (a, 3), (b, 3)}.
We observe that A contains 3 elements, B contains 2 elements, and A × B and B × A contain
6 elements. We also observe that merely interchanging the order of the pairs in A × B produces
B × A.
We see that (1, a) ∈ A × B but (1, a) ∉ B × A.
Therefore, A × B ≠ B × A.
Cartesian product can also be represented by tree-diagram.
Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b}
A×A A×B
1 (1, 1) a (1, a)
1 2 (1, 2) 1
3 (1, 3) b (1, b)
1 (2, 1) a (2, a)
2 2 (2, 2) 2
3 (2, 3) b (2, b)
SET THEORY 37
1 (3, 1) a (3, a)
3 2 (3, 2) 3
3 (3, 3) b (3, b)
The concept of the product of two sets can be extended to the product of any number of sets.
Example 2.19.2. Let A = {1, 2, 3}
and B = {5, 7}, then find A × B.
Solution. Given two sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {5, 7} we form from them the set of all pairs
such that each pair contains an element of A and an element of B arranged in the specified order. If
the elements of A are first in the pairs we denote this set by A × B, read ‘‘The Cartesian product of
A and B,’’ or simply ‘‘A cross B’’.
Therefore, A × B = {(1, 5), (1, 7), (2, 5), (2, 7), (3, 5), (3, 7)} we observe that
A contains 3 elements, B contains 2 elements, and A × B contains 6 elements.
7
A×B
6
B×C
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 2.10
Similarly be merely interchanging the order of the pairs in A × B, we get
B × A = {(5, 1), (7, 1), (5, 2), (7, 2), (5, 3), (7, 3)}
Therefore, A × B ≠ B × A.
PROBLEM 2.5
1. Let A = {– 1, 0, 1} and B = {0, 2} then find out A × B and B × A.
2. If S = {1, 2} and T = {a, b}, list all elements of S × T and T × S.
3. If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, y, z} list all elements in A × B, and B × A and show that A × B ≠ B × A.
4. Prove that A × B = φ if A = φ or B = φ.
5. Prove that A × B = B × A if and only if A = B.
6. Define cartesian product of two sets. If A, B, and C are sets and A ⊂ B, than A × C ⊂ B × C.
7. Show that
(i) A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
(ii) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
8. For sets A, B ⊆ X and C, D ⊆ Y, verify the following properties of the cartesian product.
(a) (A ∩ B) × (C ∩ D) = (A × C) ∩ (B × D);
(b) (A – B) × C = (A × C) – (B × C);
(c) (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C);
(d) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C).
2.20 GENERALIZED SET THEORY

2.20.1 Index Set
Sometimes the elements of one set are used to label the elements of another set, this often being
a convenient way to express a collection of objects, or sets. For example, the elements of {1, 2, 3}
are used to label the elements of {S1, S2, S3}. A one to one and onto functions f from some set I onto
a set S for the purpose of Labelling the elements of S is called the systems of indices for S and I is
called the set of indices, or the index set. The set S is said to be indexed by I, and we may represent
this relationship by writing S as {Si}, i ∈ I.
2.20.2 Family or Class of Sets

Let U be a universal set and let I be an index set. For each i ∈ I there exists a subset Si ⊂ U,
then the collections {Si|∈I} is called the indexed family or class of sets.
2.20.3 Union and Intersection of an Indexed Family of Sets

The two most basic operations are union and intersection. It {Si}, i∈I, is any family of sets
indexed by some set I, then the union of this family of sets is {x | x ∈ Si, for atleast one i∈I}. The
union of {Si}, i∈I, may be denoted by ∪iεI Si or U{Si | i∈I}. This is, ∪iεI Si = {x | x ∈ Si, for at least
one i∈I}.
The intersection of this family of sets is {x | x ∈ Si for every i∈I that is, x is an element of every
member of the family of sets}. The intersection of {Si}, i∈I may be denoted by ∩ iεI Si or ∩{Si | i∈I}
that is,
∩iεI Si = {x | x ∈Si for every i∈I}.
If the class {Si}, consists of a sequence of sets, that is, if {Si} = {S1, S2 S3,....}, then their union
and intersection are often written in the form.
∪∞i = 1 = Si and ∪∞i = 1 = Si
If I is a finite arbitrary set, then union and intersection are often written in the form
∩ni = 1 Si and ∩ni = 1 Si, where I = {1, 2, n}
SET THEORY 39
F 0, 1 I
Example 2.20.1. Let Dn =
H nK , where n∈N, the positive integers. Find:
(i) ∪ {Di | i∈A ⊂ N}
(ii) ∩ {Di | i∈N},
F I 1
H K
1
Solution. Here Dn = 0, is the set of all real numbers lying between 0 and which does
n n
1
not include 0 and .
n
(i) Let α ∈ A be smallest number in A, then
∪{Di | i ∈ A ⊂ N} = Dα.
(ii) If x ∈ R, then there exists i∈N such that
F 1I
H iK
x ∉ 0. Here ∩{Di | i ∈ N} = φ
Example 2.20.2. Let I = [0, 1] and for each i∈I, Let Ai = [0, i]. Find Ui Ai and ∩iAi.
Solution. Here ∪i Ai = [0, 1] and ∪i Ai = {0}.
Now we give here some important and interesting results.
THEOREM 2.20.1. If the family F ={Si | i∈I} of subsets of a universal set U is empty, then
∪i∈ISi = φ.
Proof. Let x∈U. Then for some i∈I, x∈Si x∈∪CεI ⇒ x∈Si for atleast one i∈I but Si ∉ F since
F is an empty set, therefore x ∉ Si, for any i,
⇒ x ∉ ∪iεISi
⇒ ∪iεISi = φ
THEOREM 2.20.2. If the family F = {Si | i∈I} of subsets of a universal set U is empty, then
∩iεISi = U
Proof. Let x∈U. Then for some i∈I there exists a subset Si such that x∈Si. Therefore if x
belongs to each Si, for all i∈I and if there are no sets present in the family F, then
x ∈ ∩iεI Si
⇒ U ⊆ ∩iεI Si ...(1)
Since each Si ⊆ U,
Then ∩ i ∈ I Si ⊆ U ...(2)
From (1) and (2)
∩i ∈ I Si = U.
We now prove the De Morgan formulas for an arbitrary family of sets.
THEOREM 2.20.3. Suppose {Si}, i∈I is a family of subsets of some set U. Then
(i) (∪I Si)′ = ∩I Si′
(ii) (∩I Si)′ = ∪I Si′
Proof. Here Si′ = {x∈U | x ∉ Si}
(i) Let x ∈ (∪I Si)′. Then
x ∈ (∪i Si)' ⇒ x ∉ ∪I Si
⇒ x ∉ Si, for any i∈I
⇒ x∈Si′, for all i∈I

⇒ x ∈ ∩ ISi′
Therefore, (∪iSi)′ ⊆ ∩ ISi′ ...(1)
Conversely, suppose x∈∩I Si′. Then
x∈ ∩I Si′ ⇒ x ∈ Si′, for each i ∈ I
⇒ x ∉ Si, for any i ∈ I
⇒ x ∉ ∪ I Si
Therefore, ⇒ x ∈ (∪I Si)′
∩I Si′ ⊆ (∪i Si)' ...(2)
(∪I Si)′ = ∩I Si′
(ii) Suppose x ∈ (∩I Si))′. Then
x ∈ (∩I Si)′ ⇒ x ∉ ∩I Si
⇒ x ∈ Si for one i and x ∉ Si for all j other than i
or x ∉ Si, for any i
⇒ x ∈ Si and x ∉ Si
or x ∈ Si′
⇒ x ∈ (∪I Si′)
Therefore, (∩I Si)′ ⊂ (∪i Si′) ...(1)
Conversely, suppose x ∈ ∪I Si′, then,
x ∈ ∪I Si' ⇒ x ∈ Si', for atleast one i ∈ I
⇒ x ∉ Si, for atleast one i ∈ I
⇒ x ∉ ∩ISi
⇒ x ∈ (∩ISi)′
Therefore, ∪I S′ ⊆ (∩I Si)′ ...(2)
(∩I Si)′ = ∪I Si′
THEOREM 2.20.4. If {Si | i ∈ I} is a family of subsets of set U and B ⊆ U then
(i) B ∪ (∪I Si) = ∪I (B ∪ Si)
(ii) B ∩ (∩I Si) = ∩I (B ∩ Si)
Proof. (i) Let x ∈ B ∪ (∪I Si). Then
x ∈ B ∪ (∪I Si) ⇒ x ∈ B or x ∈ ∪I Si
⇒ x ∈ B or x ∈ Si for atleast one i ∈ I
⇒ x ∈ B ∪ Si, for atleast one i ∈ I
⇒ x ∈ ∪I (B ∪ Si)
Therefore, B ∪ (∪I Si) ⊆ ∪I (B ∪ Si) ...(1)
Conversely, suppose x ∈ ∪I (B ∪ Si). Then
x ∈ ∪I (B ∪ Si) ⇒ x ∈ B ∪ Si, for atleast one i ∈ I
⇒ x ∈ B or x ∈ Si, for atleast one i ∈ I
⇒ x ∈ B or x ∈ ∪I Si
⇒ x ∈ B ∪ (∪I Si)
SET THEORY 41
Therefore, ∪I (B ∪ Si) ⊆ B ∪ (∪I Si) ...(2)

From (1) and (2) we have,
B ∪ (∪I Si) = ∪I (B ∪ Si)
(ii) Is left as an exercise.
THEOREM 2.20.5. {Sc | i∈I} is a family of subsets of a universal set U and B ⊂ U, then
(i) B ∪ (∩I Si) = ∩I (B ∪ Si)
(ii) B ∩ (∪I Sc) = ∪I (B ∩ Si)
Proof. (i) Let x ∈ B ∪ (∩i Sc). Then
x ∈ B ∪ (∩I Si) ⇒ x ∈ B or x ∈ ∩I Si
⇒ x ∈ B or x ∈ Si, for all i ∈ I
⇒ x ∈ B ∪ Si, for all i ∈ I
⇒ x ∈ ∩I (B ∪ Si)
Therefore, B∪ (∩I Si) ⊆ ∩I (B ∪ Si) ...(1)
Conversely, suppose x ∈∩I (B ∪ Si). Then
x ∈ ∩I (B ∪ Si) ⇒ x ∈ B ∪ Si for all i ∈ I
⇒ x∈ B or x ∈Si, for all i∈I
⇒ x∈ B or x ∈ ∩I Si
⇒ x∈ B ∪ (∩I Si)
Therefore, ∩I (B ∪ Si) ⊆ B ∪ (∩I Si) ...(2)
B ∪ (∩I Si) = ∩I (B ∪ Si)
(ii) Suppose x ∈ B ∩ (∪I Si). Then
x ∈ B ∩ (∪I Si) ⇒ x ∈ B and x ∈ ∪'I Si
⇒ x ∈ B and x ∈ Si for atleast one i ∈ I
⇒ x ∈ B∩Si, for atleast one i ∈ I
⇒ x ∈ ∪I (B ∩ Si).
Therefore, B∩ (∪I Si) ⊆ ∪I (B ∩ Si) ...(1)
Conversely, suppose x∈ ∪I (B ∩ Si). Then
x∈∪I (B∩Si) ⇒ x ∈ B ∩ Si, for at least one i∈I
⇒ x ∈ B and x ∈ Si for at least one i∈I
⇒ x ∈ B and x ∈ ∪I Si
⇒ x ∈ B ∩ (∪I Si)
Therefore, ∪I (B ∩ Si) ⊆ B ∩ (∪I Si) ...(2)
B ∩ (∪I Si) = ∪I(B ∩ Si).
THEOREM 2.20.6. If {Ai | i ∈ I} and {Bj | j ∈ I} are two families of a universal set U, then
(i) (∩I Ai) ∪ (∩i Bi) = ∪ (Ai ∩ Bi)
(i, j)∈ I × I
(ii) (∪I Ai) ∩ (∪I Bi) = ∩ (Ai ∪ Bi)
(i, j)∈ I × I
Proof. (i) Let x∈ (∩I Ai) ∪ (∩j Bj). Then

x∈ (∩I Ai) ∪ (∩j Bj) ⇒ x ∈ ∩i Ai or x∈ ∩j Bj
⇒ x ∈ Ai for all i ∈ I or x ∈ Bi for all j ∈ I
⇒ x∈ (Ai ∪ Bj) for all (i, j) ∈ I × I
⇒ x∈ = ∩ (Ai ∪ Bj)
(i, j)∈ I × I
Therefore, (∩IAi) ∪ (∩jBj) ⊆ ∩ (Ai ∪ Bj) ...(1)
(i, j)∈ I × I
Conversely, suppose x ∈ n(i, j)∈I × I (Ai ∪ Bj) then
x∈∩(i, j)∈I×I (Ai∪Bj) ⇒ x ∈ Ai ∪ Bj, for all (i, j) ∈ I × I
⇒ x ∈ Ai for all i ∈ I or x ∈ Bj for all j ∈ I
⇒ x ∈ ∩I Ai or x ∈ ∩ IBj
⇒ x ∈ (∩I Ai) ∪ (∩I Bj) ...(2)
(∩I Ai) ∩ (∪I Bj ) = ∩ (Ai ∪ Bj).
I × I∈ I × I
(ii) is left as an exercise.
PROBLEM 2.6
1. Let An = {x | x is a multiple of n}, where x∈N, the positive integers and let Bi = [i, i+1], where i∈Z,
the integers. Find,
(i) A3 ∩ A5 (ii) ∪{Ai | i ∈ P}, where P is the set of prime numbers.
(iii) B3 ∩ D4 (iv) ∪{Bi | i ∈ Z}
(v) (∪ (Bi | i ≥ 7)) ∩ A5.
FG 0, 1 IJ , where n ∈ N, the positive integers, Find:

2. Let Dn =
H nK
(i) D3 ∪ D7 (ii) Ds ∪ Dt
(iii) D3 ∩ D20 (iv) Ds ∩ Dt
3. If {Ai} and {Bt} are two classes of sets that {Ai} ⊆ {Bj}. Show that
∪t Ai ⊆ ∪j Bj and ∩j Bj⊂ ∩ iAi
4. If {Ai | i∈I} be an indexed class of sets and if i0∈I , then prove that
∩i ∈I Ai ⊆ Aio ⊂ ∪i ∈I Ai
5. Let A be any set and, for each P∈A, let Gp be a subset of A such that p∈Gp⊂A. Then prove that
A = ∪ {Gp | P ∈ A}.
❑❑❑
! Relation and Functions
3.1 RELATION
The word ‘relation’, in one of its common meanings, indicates a family tie between two people. If
we are considering a set of persons, then there are many types of family relationships that may or
may not hold between two persons, such as father of, mother of, brother of, and sister of.
In the study of the set of real numbers there are relationships that may or may not hold between
two real numbers. Some of these are equal to, less than, greater than, square root of, cube of, and
so forth.
Before giving a definition of a relation let us consider some specific examples involving two
elements. Relations involving two elements are binary or dyadic relations.
Example 3.1.1. In the set of integers, certain integers are square of other integers. For example,
the square of 2 is 4, and the square of 6 is 36. If we use ordered pairs such as (2, 4) and (6, 36) to
ndicate an integer and its square, then we can systematically indicate all pairs by (n, n2), where n is
an integer.
Thus they from the set {(0, 0), (1, 1), (–1, 1), (2, 4), (–2, 4), (3, 9), (–3, 9)....}. This set of
ordered pairs can be indicated in two ways as shown in the figure.
16
5
9 25
–5
0 0
4 –1
1 1
1
–2
4
2
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
Fig. 3.1
In the example our discussion of a relation involves a set of ordered pairs. We observe that these
ordered pairs (0, 0), (1, 1), (–1, 1)....are the elements of the set Z × Z. Therefore relation is a set of
ordered pairs and also a subset of Z × Z.
43
Definition 3.1.1. A binary relation from the set A to the set B is a subset of A × B.
This definition proves that the empty subset of A × B is relation which is called null relation
or the empty relation in A × B. From the definition it is also obvious that A × B is relation which
is referred to as the universal relation from A to B.
If A = B we often say that the relation is in A, it is a subset of A × A.
If R ⊂ A × B and (x, y) is in R, using set notation, we write (x, y) ∈ R.
Definition 3.1.2. The domain of a binary relation is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs
in the relation. The range of binary relation is the set of all second elements of the ordered pairs in
the relation.
We shall denote the domain by d(R) and the range by r(R).
Example 3.1.2. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4}
and T = {1, 2, 3, 4},
then the cartesian product of S and T is
S × T = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4),
(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3) (4, 4)}.
S × T has 42 elements.
The elements (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3) and (4, 4) are called diagonal elements in T × T(S × S).
The set R = {(1, 1)} is a relation in S × T
R = {(x, y) | x = y} is a relation in S × T
or R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.
Here d(R) = r(R) = {(1, 2, 3, 4)}.
Similarly, R = {(x, y) | x < y)} is a relation in S × T
i.e., < or R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}.
Hence, d(R) = {1, 2, 3} and r(R) = {2, 3, 4}.
In each of these illustrations R was some relation described by a single formula relating the first
and second elements of the pairs in R, but, relations may exist for which such formulas are difficult
to find. Consider the relation R in S × T
where R = {(1, 4), (2, 3), (1, 1), (3, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 4), (5, 1), (1, 3)}, for example.
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
R = {x, y) | x = y} in S R = {(x, y) | x < y} in S
Fig. 3.2
RELATION AND FUNCTIONS 45
PROBLEM 3.1
1. If S = {1, 2, 3} and T = {x, y}, list all the elements of S × T. List ten of the relations in S × T.
2. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4} and T = {1, 2, 3, 4}. In each of the following find all of the pairs of S × T that
belong to R:
(a) R = {(x, y) | x ≥ y},
(b) R = {(x, y) | x > y},
(c) R = {(x, y) | x ≤ y},
(d) R = {(x, y) | x = y2}.
3. Let S and T be sets with m and n elements, respectively. How many elements has S × T ? How many
relations are there in S × T ?
4. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Y = {1, 2, 3}. Graph the relation R = {(x, y) | x > y} from a subset of
X into Y. Give the domain and the range of the relation.
5. Graph the relation {(x, y) | x2 + y2 = 25}
(a) in the set of real numbers,
(b) in the set of integers.
6. Describe in words and with set notation the relation “is similar to” in the set of triangles in the plane.
3.2 EQUIVALENCE RELATION

A special class of relations, called equivalence relations, is of great importance in mathematics.
Definition 3.2.1. A subset R of A × A is called an equivalence relation on (in) A if R satisfies the
following conditions :
(1) (a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ A (R is reflexive)
(2) If (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R (R is symmetric)
(3) If (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R (R is transitive)
Whenever R is an equivalence relation and x and y are elements of A such that (x, y) ∈ R, we
say that x is equivalent to y.
If we introduce the special symbol (~) for an equivalence relation R, we may restate the
properties as follows :
- a ∈ A, a ~ a.
(1) —
- a, b ∈ A, if a ~ b, then b ~ a.
(2) —
- a, b, c ∈ A, if a ~ b and b ~ c, then a ~ c.
(3) —
We see that symmetric and transitive properties of the relation R ensures the reflexive property
of R.
That is, (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R, since R is symmetric
(a, b), (b, a) ∈ R ⇒ (a, a) ∈ R, since R is transitive.
Hence (a, a) ∈ R, that is, R is reflexive when R is symmetric and transitive. This is only true
when every element a ∈ A is related to some element b ∈ A. Thus for every a ∈ A there exists
b ∈ A such that (a, b) ∈ R.
If for every a ∈ A there does not exist any b ∈ A such that (a, b) ∈ R, then the symmetric and
transitive relation R may not be reflexive. It is clear from the following example.
Example 3.2.1. Let A = {x, y} and R = {(y, y)}. Since

R ⊂ A × A, R is a relation. R is symmetric and transitive. But R is not reflexive because
(x, x) ∉ R.
Thus symmetric and transitive relation R is not reflexive because the element x ∈ A is not
related to some element of A. If every element of A were related to some element of A, then transitive
and symmetric relation would be reflexive.
Example 3.2.2. Let T be a set of triangles in a plane, and define R as the set
R = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ T, a is congruent to b}.
Then show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution. If a and b are triangles in a plane then (a, b) ∈ R if, and only if, a is congruent to
b, (Two triangles are congruent if the area of one triangle is equal to the area of the other i.e., area
of the triangle a = area of the triangle b, or ∆a = ∆b.
We see that:
(1) Since ∆a = ∆a — - a ∈ T, a is congruent to a, i.e., (a, a) ∈ R. Hence R is reflexive.
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ a is congruent to b
⇒ ∆a = ∆b
⇒ ∆b = ∆a ⇒ b is congruent to a
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.
Hence R is symmetric.
(3) (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ a is congruent to b and b is congruent to c
⇒ ∆a = ∆b and ∆b = ∆c
⇒ ∆a = ∆c
⇒ a is congruent to c
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
Hence R is transitive. Thus R is an equivalence relation.
Example 3.2.3. Let S be the set of all points in a plane. Let R be a relation such that for any
two points a and b, (a, b) ∈ R if b is within one inch from a. Examine if R will be an equivalence
relation.
Solution. (1) Since the point a overlaps a, i.e. the distance between a and a is zero which is
obviously less than one inch. Thus —- a ∈ S, (a, a) ∈ R. Hence R is reflexive.
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (implies) b is within one inch from a
⇒ a is within one inch from b
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.
(3) (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ b is with in one inch from a, and c is within one inch from
b (does not imply) c is within one inch from a.
Hence R is not transitive.
This proves that R is not an equivalence relation.
Example 3.2.4. If R and S are equivalence relations in the set X, prove that R ∩ S is an
equivalence relation.
Solution. We have to verify that R ∩ S is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
- a ∈ X, (a, a) ∈ R and (a, a) ∈ S, since R and S are equivalence relations. Hence —
(1) — - a
∈ X, (a, a) ∈ R ∩ S.
Hence R ∩ S is reflexive.
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ∩ S ⇒ (a, b) ∈ R and (a, b) ∈ S
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ S, since
R and S are symmetric being equivalence relations
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R ∩ S.
Hence R ∩ S is symmetric.
(3) (a, b) ∈ R ∩ S, (b, c) ∈ R ∩ S ⇒ (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R and
(a, b) ∈ S, (b, c) ∈ S
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R and (a, c) ∈ S,
since R and S are transtive being equivalence relations
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R ∩ S.
Hence R ∩ S is transitive.
This proves R ∩ S is an equivalence relation.
Example 3.2.5. Which of the following relations in the set of real numbers are equivalence
relations
(i) R = {(a, b) | a | = | b |},
(ii) R = {(a, b) | a ≥ b} ?
Solution. (i) We verify the following properties :
(1) Since —- a ∈ R, the set of real numbers, | a | = | a |, (a, a) ∈ R.
Hence R is reflexive.
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ | a | = | b |
⇒|b|=|a|
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.
(3) (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ | a | = | b | and | b | = | c |
⇒|a|=|c|
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
Hence R is transitive.
Thus R is an equivalence relation.
(ii) For this relation we have
(1) a ≥ a, —- a ∈ R, the set of real numbers, (a, a) ∈ R. Hence R is reflexive.
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ a ≥ b does imply b ≥ a
⇒ (b, a) ∉ R.
Hence R is not symmetric.
(3) (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ a ≥ b, b ≥ c

⇒a≥c
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R
But R is not an equivalence relation.
Definition 3.2.2. Let m be a fixed integer. Two integers are said to be congruent modulo m, written
a ≡ b (mod m)
if and only if m divides a – b. That is, a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if a – b = k m for some integer k.
The relation a ≡ b (mod m) defined on the set Z of all integers is called the relation of
congruence modulo m.
Example 3.2.6. Show that the relation of congruence modulo m a ≡ b (mod m) in the set Z is
an equivalence relation. That is, the relation R = {(a, b) | a – b = k m for some fixed integer m and
a, b, k ∈ Z} is an equivalence relation.
Solution. To show that the relation R is an equivalence relation we verify the following properties :
(1) Since a – a = 0.m, — - a ∈ Z, (a, a) ∈ R. Hence R is reflexive.
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ a – b = k.m, for some integer k.
⇒ b – a = (– k).m, for some integer – k.
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.
(3) (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ a – b = km, b – c = lm for some integers k and l,
⇒ (a – b) + (b – c) = km + lm;
⇒ a – c = (k + l) m, for the integer k + l,
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
This proves R on Z is an equivalence relation.
Example 3.2.7. A relation R is called ‘circular’ if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (c, a) ∈ R. Show
that a relation is reflexive and circular if and only if it is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Solution. Let the relation R be reflexive and circular.
Then we shall prove that R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (c, a) ∈ R, since R is circular; and
(a, a) ∈ R since R is reflexive.
We have
(c, a) ∈ R, (a, a) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R, since R is circular.
This shows (a, c) ∈ R and (c, a) ∈ R. Hence R is symmetric.
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (c, a) ∈ R, since R is circular
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R, since R is symmetric
⇒ R is transitive.
It is given that R is reflexive.
Conversely, if R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive then we show that R is reflexive and
circular.
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R, since R is transitive
⇒ (c, a) ∈ R, since R is symmetric
⇒ R is circular.
(a, c) ∈ R, (c, a) ∈ R ⇒ (a, a) ∈ R, since R is transitive
⇒ R is reflexive
Definition 3.2.3. Let an equivalence relation ~ be defined on A. For any a ∈ A, the set of all elements
x ∈ A which are equivalent to a, x ~ a, is called the equivalence class, denoted by [a]. Thus [a] =
{x ∈ A | x ~ a}.
THEOREM 3.2.1. Let ~ be an equivalence relation on A. For any a, b ∈ A,
(i) a ∈ [a]
(ii) [a] ∩ [b] = φ or [a] = [b] (that is, any two equivalence classes are either disjoint or equal).
(iii) A is the union of all disjoint classes.
Proof. (i) By definition [a] = {x | x ~ a}. Since a ~ a, by reflexive property, we have a ∈ [a].
(ii) [a] ∩ [b] ≠ φ ⇒ ∃ c ∈ [a] ∩ [b]
⇒ c ∈ [a] and c ∈ [b]
⇒ a ~ c and b ~ c
⇒ a ~ c and c ~ b (by symmetry)
⇒ a ~ b (by transitivity)
Let y ∈ [b], then b ~ y and a ~ b, ⇒ a ~ y ⇒ y ∈ [a] ⇒ [b] ⊆ [a].
Again let y ∈ [a], then a ~ y and y ~ a, a ~ b ⇒ y ~ b ⇒ y ∈ [b].
⇒ [a] ⊆ [b].
Hence [a] = [b].
(iii) Let P = ∪ [a], a ∈ A. Clearly P ⊆ A.
For each a ∈ A, there exists an equivalence class [a] containing a.
Thus a ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ [a] ⇒ a ∈ P ⇒ A ⊆ P.
Hence A = P.
From this theorem we conclude that the equivalence relation ~ defined on the set A decomposes
the set A into mutually disjoint equivalence classes. That is,
(1) every element of A belongs to some equivalence class,
(2) Any two equivalence classes are either identical or disjoint.
(3) The union of disjoint equivalence classes is equal to the set A.
Example 3.2.8. Show that the relation of congruence modulo m has m distinct equivalence
classes.
Solution. We have seen in example that the relation of congruence modulo m is an equivalence
relation defined on the set Z, the set of all integers. Since the relation of congruence of modulo m
is an equivalence relation, it decomposes the set Z into mutually disjoint equivalence classes. Now
we find out the equivalence classes.
0 ∈ Z, then the equivalence class [0] is given by

[0] = {x ∈ Z | x ~ 0}
= {x ∈ Z | x – 0 = k.m, k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ Z | x = km, k ∈ Z}
= {0, ± m, ±2m, ±3m ...}.
The equivalence class of 1 is [1] given by
[1] = {x ∈ Z | x ~ 1}
= {x ∈ Z | x – 1 = k.m, x ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ Z | x = km + 1, k ∈ Z}
= {..., – 2m + 1, – m + 1, 1, m + 1, 2m + 1, 3m + 1,...}
Similarly,
[2] = {..., – 2m + 2, – m + 2, 2, m + 2, 2m + 2, 3m + 2, ...}
®
[m –1] = {x ∈ Z | x ~ (m – 1)}
= {x ∈ Z | x – (m – 1) = k, m, k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ Z | x = km + (m – 1)}
= {..., – 2m + (m – 1), – m + (m – 1), (m – 1), m
+ (m – 1), 2m + (m – 1),...}
= {..., – 2m –1, – m – 1, – 1, m – 1, 2m – 1, 3m – 1,....}
Finally,
[m] = {x ∈ Z | x ~ m}
= {x ∈ Z | x – m = km, k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ Z | x = km + m, k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ Z | x = (k + 1)m, k + 1 = k1 ∈ Z}
= {0}.
Similarly,
[m + 1] = [1]. So we need not go further. Thus the disjoint equivalence classes are [0], [1],
[2],...[m –1] which are m in number.
Hence the relation of congruence of modulo m has m distinct equivalence classes.
We also observe that (1) k1m + 1, k2m + 1 ∈ [1], then (k1m + 1) – (k2m + 1) = (k1 – k2)m ⇒
m divides (k1m + 1) – (k2m + 1). That is k1m + 1 and k2m + 1 are congruent modulo m. Thus any
two elements of the same equivalence classes are equivalent.
(2) Again if k1m + 1 ∈ [1] and k2m + 2 ∈ [2], then (k1m + 1) – (k2m + 2) = (k1 – k2)m – 1
⇒ m does not divide (k1m + 1) – (k2m + 2). That is, k1m + 1 is not equivalent to k2m + 2. Thus any
two different elements from to different equivalence classes are not equivalent.
(3) Any two equivalence classes do not have common elements. That is, they are disjoint.
(4) The union of disjoint classes is the set Z.
[0] ∪ [1] ∪ [2] ∪ ... ∪ [m – 1] = Z, the set of all integers on which the equivalence relation
is defined.
(5) Since the equivalence class [0] is the set of elements of Z which on dividing by m give 0
as remainder, [1] is the set of elements of Z which on dividing by m give 1 as remainder, and so on,
the equivalence class [m – 1] is the set of a elements of Z which on dividing by m give m – 1 as

remainder, [0], [1], ..., [m – 1] are called the residue classes modulo m.
The set of equivalence classes of the set A induced by the equivalence relation R is called the
Quotient set, denoted by A/R.
3.3 PARTITION
Definition 3.3.1. Let S be a non-void set. Let P be a collection {Aα} of non-void subsets of S indexed
by A. Then P is a partition of S if, and only if,
(a) Uα Aα∈A = S (the union of the subsets in P is S)
(b) If Aα ≠ Aβ then Aα ∩ Aβ = φ for all, α, β ∈ A (the intersection of two distinct subsets in
P is empty).
THEOREM 3.3.1. Let S be non-void set and P a partition of S. Let P be indexed by A. Let
R be the relation in S × S given by (a, b) ∈ R if, and only if, a ∈ Aα implies b ∈ Aα, where
Aα ∈ P. That is, a, b belong to the same subset in P. Then R is an equivalence relation in S × S.
Proof. We must show that R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. Since every element a is
in the same subset Aα of S in P as itself, we have (a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ S. If a and b belong to S
also belong to Aα ∈ P, then b and a belong to Aα ∈ P. That is, if (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R. If
a and b belong to Aα, that is, if (a, b) ∈ R, and (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R. Hence the theorem.
THEOREM 3.3.2. Let S be non-void set and R an equivalence relation in S × S. Let P be a
collection of subsets of S, called equivalence sets indexed by S, and given as follows. Let x ∈ S. Then
the equivalence set of x, Ax = {y ∈ S | (x, y) ∈ R}. Then the collection P = {Ax} | Ax ⊆ S is a partition
of S.
Proof. We must show that P possesses properties (a) and (b) of definition of partition. The first
of these Ux∈s Aα = S. Since the union of a collection of subsets of S is contained in S, we have Ux∈s
Ax ⊆ S. Let a ∈ S. Since R is reflexive, (a, a) ∈ R. By the definition of Aa, a ∈ Aa. Therefore,
S ⊆ Uα∈s Ax. Hence we have S = Ux∈s Ax.
Now we shall prove that P satisfies the property (b) of definition of partition.
Let u, v ∈ S, and Au, Av ∈ P, we must show Au ∩ Av = φ or Au, Av are not different subset
of S. If Au ∩ Av, = φ, then we have finished. If ½ w ∈ S such that w ∈ Au ∩ Av, then w ∈ Au and
w ∈ Av. By the definition of Au, (u, w) ∈ R, and by the definition of Av, (v, w) ∈ R. By symmetric
property, if (v, w) ∈ R, then (w, v) ∈ R. By transitive property if (u, w) ∈ R and (w, v) ∈ R, then
(u, v) ∈ R.
Therefore u is equivalent to v. It proves that the equivalence set Au of u ∈ S is equal to the
equivalence set of v ∈ S, that is, Au = Av. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Example 3.3.1. Let Z be the set of integers;
Z = {0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3 ...). Let n be non-negative integer. Then the relation Rn is the subset of
all pairs (a, b) ∈ Z × Z such that a – b = kn for some k ∈ Z, is an equivalence relation.
Solution. We must show that Rn is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Let a ∈ Z, then
a – a = 0. n for 0 ∈ Z, that is (a, a) ∈ Rn. It shows that Rn is reflexive.
Now let (a, b) ∈ Rn, then ½k ∈ Z such that a – b = k.n. Then b – a = (– k)n. Here – k ∈ Z.
Therefore (b, a) ∈ Rn. This proves that Rn is symmetric.
To prove Rn is transitive, let (a, b) ∈ Rn and (b, c) ∈ Rn, that is, ½k1, k2, ∈ Z such that
a – b = k1n and b – c = k2n. But (a – b) + (b – c) = k1n + k2n or (a – c) = (k1 + k2)n, where
k1 + k2 ∈ Z. This shows that (a, c) ∈ Rn. Hence Rn satisfies the transitive property and Rn is an
Definition 3.3.2. The partition Pn induced on the set Z by Rn is called the set of integers
modulo n.
Example 3.3.2. Let n = 3, for two integers a and b, (a, b) ∈ R3 if, and only if ½k ∈ Z such
that a – b = k. 3. The pair (3, 18) ∈ R3, since 3 – 18 = (– 5)3. Similarly (7, – 2), (–2, 1),
(–5, –2) belong to R3, because 7 – (– 2) = 3.3, – 2 – 13 = (– 5)3, – 5 – (– 2) = (– 1)3. There are
pairs that do not belong to R3; (2, 3), (– 17, 11) are examples.
Now we form the equivalence sets of elements 0, 1, 2. Therefore [0] = {y ∈ Z | 0 ~ y}
or [0] = {y ∈ Z | (0, y) ∈ R3}
or [0] = {x ∈ Z | 0 – y = k.3 , for y ∈ Z}
i.e., [0] = {{0 ± 3, ± 6, ± 9,...}
Similarly, [1] = {y ∈ Z | (1, y) ∈ R3}
[1] = {..., – 5, – 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
and [2] = {..., – 4, – 1, 2, 5, 8, ...}.
We need not go further, because [3] = [0], [4], = [1], [5] = [2] ...
We observe that if a, b, ∈ [0], then (a, b) ∈ R3, if e, f ∈ [1] the (e, f ) ∈ R3 and if x, y ∈ [2],
then (x, y) ∈ R3.
We also notice that [0] ∪ [1] ∪ [2] = Z and [0] ∩ [1] ∩ [2] = φ.
Therefore the collection Z3 = {[0], [1], [2]} is the partition of Z induced by R3. This set
Z3 = {[0], [1], [2]} is called the set of integers modulo 3.
3.4 PARTIAL ORDER RELATION

There are two types of relations which often arise in mathematics: partial order relation which we
have to study and equivalence relation on which we have commented.
Definition 3.4.1. Let A be non-empty set. The relation R, the set of ordered pairs (a, b) ∈ AXA, is
called partial order relation in the set A if R satisfies the following conditions:
(1) Reflexive property: (a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ A.
(2) Anti-symmetric property: (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R, if and only if a = b.
(3) Transitive property: If (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R.
A non-empty set A in which there is defined a partial order relation is called a partially ordered
set. If it also happens that for all a, b, ∈ A we either have (a, b) ∈ R or (b, a) ∈ R or a = b then
R is called total order relation on A. We observe that if a, b are distinct elements of A, then it is not
necessary that either (a, b) ∈ R or (b, a) ∈ R for every relation R.
Definition 3.4.2. Two elements a and b are said to be comparable with respect to a relation R, if
either (a, b) ∈ R or (b, a) ∈ R or a = b. Thus, R is total order relation on A if either (a, b) ∈ R
or (b, a) ∈ R or a = b, for every pair a, b ∈ A.
Example 3.4.1. The relation ‘‘>’’ defined on N = {1, 2, 3, ...}.
(1) Reflexive a ( a for example 1 >| 1 False
(2) Anti-symmetric a > b and b >| a False

for example 2 > 1 and 1 >| 2
(3) Transitive a > b and b > c True
⇒a>c
Since the relation is not reflexive, it is neither equivalence relation nor partial order relation but
‘‘>’’ is a total order relation.
Example 3.4.2. The relation “<” on A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. ≤ = {(x, y) | x ≤ y} i.e., ≤ = {1, 1),
(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5)}
(1) Reflexive: for all a ∈ A, a = a, that is
(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), ∈ R True
(2) Anti-symmetric (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R, if and only if a = b True
(3) Transitive: if (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R, (2, 3) ∈ R and (3, 4) ∈ R, then
(2, 4) ∈ R True
Hence ≤ is a partial order relation.
Example 3.4.3. Let A be any set: then the relation ‘‘⊆’’ defined on P(A), the power set of A.
(1) Reflexive property: A = A or A ⊆ A True
(2) Anti-symmetric if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A then A = B True
(3) Transitive: if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C True
Hence relation ⊆ defined on P(A) is a partial order relation.
Example. 3.4.4. The relation divides defined on N, divides =‘‘1’’
(1) Reflexive property: a ∈ N, a divides a True
(2) Anti-symmetric: if a | b and b | a, then a = b True
(3) Transitive: if a | b, and b | c, then a | c True
i.e., if 2 | 4 and 4 | 8, then 2 | 8.
Example 3.4.5. Let A = {2, 3, 5, 6} and let R mean ‘‘divides’’
R = {x , y) | x divides y} is a partial order relation.
or R = {(2, 2), (2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 6), (5, 5) (6, 6)}
(1) Reflexive property: — - a ∈ A, (a, a) ∈ R True
(2) Anti-symmetric property: (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R, if and only if a = b, i.e., a | b and
b | a, then a = b. True
(3) Transitive, if (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R then (a, c) ∈ R, (3, 6) ∈ R and (6, 6) ∈ R, then (3,6)
∈ R. True
PROBLEM 3.2
1. Determine whether each of the following relations R is an equivalence relation. If it is, indicate
partition induced: that is, indicate the equivalence classes.
(a) Let R = {(x, y) | x – y = 2n, x, y and n ∈ Z}
(b) Let R = {(x, y) | x – y = 5n, x, y and n ∈ Z}
(c) Let S be the set of books in a specific college library. If x, y ∈ S, then xRy if the books x and
y have the same number of pages in them.
(d) In the set of all people let R = {(x, y) | y is the mother of x}.
(e) Let x, y ∈ Q and let xRy if and only if x – y > 0.
2. Show that a partition of a set S determines an equivalence relation in S.
3. Find an equation which defines each of the following relations. Give the domain and the range.
(a) {(0, 3), (1, 4), (2, 5), (– 1, 2)}
(b) {(–3, 9), ( 2 , 2), (2, 4)}
(c) {(0, 1), (1, 2 ), (–1, 2 ), (2, 5 ), (– 2, 5 )}
4. Show that equality of numbers is an equivalence relation for the set of real numbers.
5. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and R the relation
R = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (1, 1), (2, 2), (4, 2), (3, 1)}
Explain why this relation on S has none of the three properties of an equivalence relation.
6. Let S be the set of Exercise 5 and construct an equivalence relation on S by listing pairs of elements
of S. Give a relation containing 5 or more such pairs.
7. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} have a partition consisting of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {2, 4}. Show that this
partition determines an equivalence relation.
8. Let T be the set of integers from 0 through 12.
Define an equivalence relation on T as follows, where a ~ b for elements of T if and only if one of
the following conditions holds:
(a) Both a and b have the factor 2 (this includes 0, since 0 = 2.0).
(b) Both a and b are prime numbers other than 2.
(c) Each of a and b is either 1 or 9.
List the elements in each of the equivalence sets for this relation.
9. In each of the following problems determine which, if any, of the three defining properties of
an equivalence relation are valid.
(a) S is the set of triangles: (a, b) ∈ R if a is similar to b.
(Two triangles are similar if the angles of one equal to the angles of the other).
(b) R is the set of real numbers; (a, b) ∈ R if a ≤ b.
(c) S is the set of men; (a, b) ∈ R if a is a brother of b.
(d ) S is the set of men; (a, b) ∈ R if a is father of b.
(e) S is the set of polygons; (a, b) ∈ R if a has the same number of sides as b.
(f ) S is a set of coplanar liner; (a, b) ∈ R if a is parallel to b.
(g) S is a set of non-zero rational numbers; (a, b) ∈ R if a = I/b.
(h) Z is the set of all integers, (a, b) ∈ R if a = bx for some. x ∈ Z.
(i) N is the set of natural numbers, (a, b) ∈ R; if a2 – 4ab + 3b2 = 0, a, b ∈ N.
10. Find examples of sets and relations on the sets which are :
(a) Reflexive but not symmetric or transitive.
(b) Symmetric but not reflexive or transitive.
(c) Transitive but not reflexive or symmetric.
(d ) Reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(e) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(f ) Symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
11. Let S = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ N} and define (a, b) ~ (c, d) if and only if ad = bc. Prove that ~ is an
equivalence relation on S.
12. Let S = {n | n ∈ N and n > 1}. If a, b ∈ S define a ~ b to mean that a and b have the same number
of positive prime factors (distinct or identical). Show that ~ is an equivalence relation.
13. Let R be a partial order relation on S. If we define a relation R′ on S by (a, b) ∈ R' if and only if
(a, b) ∈ R, show that R' is a partially order relation on S if and only if R is partially order relation
on S.
14. Let A be the set of all continuous functions on the closed interval [0, 1] = {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 1} and define
1 1
a(x) ~ b(x) if and only if ∫ a( x )dx = ∫ b( x)dx . Show that ~ is an equivalence relation.
0 0
15. Show that for the set of all points in a plane, the relation at the same distance from the origin is an
3.5 FUNCTIONS (MAPPINGS)

The concept of function is widely used throughout mathematics. The concept of function can be
drawn from the relations. There are many types of relations in mathematics and we shall study a
special type of a relation called function. This type of relation is fundamental in all branches of
mathematics.
In the texts of calculus we see the following definition. Let S and T be two sets. If to each
x ∈ S there corresponds a unique y ∈ T by some correspondence, then the correspondence is called
a function and we say that y is a function of x. Although this definition includes the essential idea
of the function's concept but it does not confirm to our purpose of keeping undefined terms to a
minimum, i.e., correspondence is not defined.
In other places we see a function defined as a graph. Again, it is not suitable for us since
‘‘graph’’ is undefined. But we see that a plane graph is a set of ordered pairs. Therefore this concept
leads us to the definition of function as follows.
Definition 3.5.1. A function (or mapping) f from a subset of A into (onto) a set B is a set of ordered
pair (x, y), where x ∈ A and y ∈ B, such that no two distinct ordered pairs have the same first element.
Thus if (x, y1) ∈ f and (x, y2) ∈ f, then y1 = y2.
The word ‘‘mapping’’ is synonymous with the word ‘‘function’’. It is customary to use function
in calculus and in many other places in analysis. Mapping, on the other hand, is used much more
commonly in Algebra and in certain other areas of mathematics. We will use these words
interchangeably.
For a given function, when (x, y) ∈ F, or equivalently y = F(x), we speak of y as the value of
F at x. When the word ‘‘mapping’’ is used for F, it is more common to refer y as the image of x
under the mapping F. We would still write y = F(x) in this case. Again, where we refer to F as a
mapping, the set of images of x ∈ A is called the image set {F(x)} of F.
From the definition it is obvious that f ⊂ A × B. Therefore f is a special type of relation
satisfying the property that each first element x of ordered pairs belonging to f admits only one second
element, it is called single-valuedness.
Thus we can say: a single-valued relation is a function. Therefore every function is a relation.
However, a relation may not be a function.
Example 3.5.1. Let

F = {(2, 2), (4, 2), (3, 1), (5, 1)},
G = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (4, 2)},
H = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1)}.
We observe that no two distinct pairs of F have the same first element. Therefore F is a
function. Similarly any two ordered pairs of G do not have the same first element. Therefore G is
a function.
But (1, 1) and (1, 3) ∈ H and their first elements are 1. So it does not satisfy the requirement
of the function. Therefore H is not a function.
Instead of writing (x, y) ∈ f we usually write y = f (x). Then y is called the image of x under
f, and it is called functional notation. The image of x is f (x) written x → f (x).
Definition 3.5.2. Let .f be a function in A × B. The collection of all first element of ordered
pairs belonging to f is called the domain of the function f and is denoted by Df . Symbolically, we
can write
D f = {x ∈ A | (x, y) ∈ f for some y ∈ B}.
Therefore Df ⊆ A.
Definition 3.5.3. Let f be a function in A × B. The collection of all second elements of ordered pairs
belonging to f is called the range of the function and is denoted by Rf.
Symbolically we can write
Rf = {y ∈ B | (x, y) ∈ f for some x ∈ A}
Therefore Rf ⊆ B.
Definition 3.5.4. Let f be a function in A × B. If Df = A, then we say that f is a function from A into
B. Symbolically we can write f : A → B.
Example 3.5.1. Let S be the set consisting of the elements x1, x2, x3. We define mapping f :
S → S by x1 → f (x1) = x2, x2 → f (x2) = x3, x3 → f (x3) = x1 or {(x1, x2), (x2, x3), (x3, x1)} = f.
Example 3.5.2. Let S be a set with an equivalence relation, and let T be the set of equivalence
classes S. (We note that T ⊂ P(S). Define f : S → T by s → f (s) = [s].
Definition 3.5.5. Let S be any set; define e : S → S by s = e(s) for any s ∈ S. This mapping e is
called the identity mapping of S.
Example 3.5.3. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4},
f = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}, which can be written in equation,
f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2, f (3) = 3, f (4) = 4 is an identity mapping of A.
Definition 3.5.6. Let S and T be any sets; define f : S × T → S by f{(a, b)} = a for any
(a, b) ∈ S × T. This mapping f is called the projection of S × T on T. We could similarly define
the projection of S × T on T.
Definition 3.5.7. If all elements of the domain are mapped on one element of the range under the
mapping f, then f is called constant mapping. For example, f : A → B, A = {x1, x2, x3} B = {a, b},
then f : x1 → a, x2 → a, x3 → a.
x1
a
x2
x3
b
Fig. 3.3
Definition 3.5.8. Two mapping f and g are equal if and only if f and g have the same domain A and
- x ∈ A.
f(x) = g(x) —
Definition 3.5.9. A sequence is a function f whose domain is the set of positve integers. If n is a
positive integer, f(n) is called the nth term of the sequence.
Definition 3.5.10. The mapping f : S → T is said to be onto T if given t ∈ T. ½ s ∈ S such that f (s)
= t. That is, every element of T is an image, or the image set f (S) of S under f is T, i.e., f (S) = T.
An onto mapping is also sometimes called surjection, and if f(S) ⊂ T, that is, every element of T is
not an image of some s ∈ S, then f is said to be into mapping.
Example 3.5.4. Let A = {a, b, c} and b = {1, 2}
then f : a → 1, b → 2, c → 2.
Here f is a mapping by the definition. It is a mapping of A onto B because every element of
B is an image, while a mapping g : 1 → a, 2 → b is an into mapping because every element of A
is not an image. That, ½ c ∈ A which is not an image element for x ∈ B.
If can be shown by Venn diagrams
A A
B B
a f g a
1 1
b b
2 2
c c
Fig. 3.4
Definition 3.5.11. By many-to-one mapping we mean that many elements in the domain of that
mapping have the same image element in the rage. Thus, we have f (a) = f (b) even if a ≠ b.
Example 3.5.5. Let f = {(x, x2) x ∈ Z} in the set Z × Z.
We observe that the elements of f can be written as
f = {(1, 1), (– 1, 1), (2, 4), (– 2, 4),...}
or the elements 1 and – 1 have the same image element 1, 2 and – 2 have the same image element
4 and so on.
1
1
–1
2
4
–2
3
9
–3
Fig. 3.5
i.e., two elements of the domain have the same image under the mapping f given by x → f (x) = x2
therefore it is many to one mapping. It is into mapping because Rf = {1, 4, 9,...} is a proper subset
of Z. Hence f is many to one and into mapping.
Example 3.5.6. Let f : Z → {E, O} defined by
n → f (n) = E when n is even integer.
n → f (n) = O when n is odd integer.
In this case all even integers are having the same image element E and all odd integers are
having the same image element O. So f is clearly onto.
Therefore it is a many-to-one and onto mapping.
Definition 3.5.12. A mapping f is termed one-to-one if and only if x1, x2 ∈ Df, with x1 ≠ x2 implies
f (x1) ≠ f (x2) that is, distinct elements in the domain of f have distinct image elements in the range
Rf, or in terms of ordered pairs, a mapping f is one-to-one if and only if no two distinct ordered piars
of f have the same second element. Thus we have
(x1, y1) ∈ f and (x2, y2) ∈ f and x1 ≠ x2 imply that y1 ≠ y2).
And sometimes we define that f is one-to-one mapping if and only If. (x1, y) ∈ f, and (x2, y)
∈ f imply x1 = x2. In functional notation this means if f (x1) = f (x2), then x1 = x2.
Example 3.5.7. Show that the mapping f : Z + → Z + defined by f (x) = x2, x ∈ Z +, where Z +
is the set of positive integers, is one-to-one and into.
Solution. In the mapping f : Z + → Z + the domain of f is D1 = Z+, the set of positive integers.
Under the function f the elements of Z + will have the images as follows:
When x = 1, f (1) = 12 = 1,
x = 2, f (2) = 22 = 4,
x = 3, f (3) = 32 = 9. and so on.
Thus, range Rf = {1, 4, 9,...}. Rf ∈ Z . Hence f is into mapping.
+
For x1, x2 ∈ Z+, we assume

f (x1) = f (x1) ⇒ x12 = x22
⇒ (± x1)2 = (± x2)2
⇒ ± x1 = ± x2
⇒ x1 = x2
Since x1 and x2 belong to the set of positive integers, – x1 and – x2 will not be considered. But
x1 and – x1 both have the same image x2 under the given function f.
This shows that the squares of two different positive integers are different. Hence f is one-to-
one and into mapping.
Example 3.5.8. Prove that the mapping f : X → X, where
X = {x ∈ R | x ≠ 0}, defined by f (x) = 1/x is one-to-one and onto.
Solution. The set X is the set of all non-zero real numbers.
Let x1, x2 ∈ X.
1 1
Then f (x1) = f (x2) = =
x1 x2
⇒ x1 = x2.
This proves f is one-to-one.
For every non-zero real number x ∈ X there exists a non-zero real number I/x ∈ X such that
1
f   = 1/1/x = x.
 x
Therefore every element x ∈ X is an image element of 1/x.
Hence f is onto.
Thus f is one-to-one and onto.
Example 3.5.9. Is an injective map (1– 1) from a set to itself a subjective map (onto)? Give
reasons.
Solution. Let A be a set and let f : A → A be an injective map (1 – 1). Then different elements
of A have different images under the injective map f in A. So if A is finite with n distinct elements,
then the images of n distinct elements are n distinct elements of A under the injective map f.
This implies that if A is finite, then f : A → A is onto (surjective) because under the injective map
f, f (A) = A.
If A is infinite, then the injective map f may and may not be surjective depending upon
definition of f.
For example the map f : A → A defined by
f (x) = 2x, V x ∈ A, where A is the set of all integers, is one-to-one (injective) but not onto
(surjective) because the range Rf = {0, ± 2, ± 4...} is a proper subset of A.
Definition 3.5.13. A set is infinite if and only if there exists a one-to-one mapping from the set onto
a proper subset of itself. A set is finite if it is not infinite.
For a function F whose domain and range are both finite sets, the statement that F is one-to-
one and onto implies that the domain and range contain the same number of elements.
Now we condider an interesting thing about f which is f –1 that is, inverse image set of
f : A → B, and if C ⊂ B, then f –1(C) is defined as {a ∈ A | f (a) ∈ C}, the set of all points of the
domain of f whose images are in C. If C has only one element in it, say C = {y}, we usually write
f –1(y) instead of f –1{(y)}. The f –1(C) is called the inverse image of C under f. (Note that no
definition has been given for the symbol f –1 by itself.)
If D ⊂ A, then f (D) is defined as {f (x) | x ∈ D}.
The set f (D) is called the image of D under f. Therefore the set f (A) is the image of A under
f and f (A) ⊆ B.
Example 3.5.10. Let Z be the set of integers and let T = {E, O}. Define f : Z → T by
n → f (n) = E if n is even.
n → f (n) = O if n odd. Then f is a mapping of Z onto T.
f –1(E) = {n ∈ Z | E = f (n)}, the set of even integers.
f –1(O) = {n ∈ Z | O = f (n)}, the set of odd integers.
THEOREM 3.5.1. Let f : X → Y.
For each subset A ⊆ Y,
f (f –1(A) ⊆ A)
Proof. b ∈ f (f –1(A)) ⇒ f (a) = b for some a ∈ f –1(A)
⇒ f (a) ∈ A
⇒ b∈A
⇒ f (f –1(A)) ⊆ A.
COROLLARY. If f is mapping from X onto Y, then
f (f –1(A)) = A.
Proof. In preceding theorem we have proved
f (f –1(A) ⊆ A
For opposite inclusion. Let b ∈ A,
then there exists some element a ∈ X such that
f (a) = b because f is onto.
f (a) = b ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ f –1(A)
⇒ f (a) ∈ f (f –1(A))
⇒ b ∈ f(f –1(A))
⇒ A ⊆ f{f –1(A))
–1
Hence, f (f (A)) = A
THEOREM 3.5.2. Let f : X → Y. For each subset A ⊆ X,
A ⊆ f –1 f (A))
Proof. a ∈ A ⇒ f (a) ∈ f (A) ⇒ a ∈ f –1(f (A))
Hence A ⊆ f –1(f (A)).
COROLLARY. If f is one-to-one function from X onto Y, then
A = f –1(f (A))
Proof. We prove f –1(f (A) ⊆ A.
a ∈ f –1(f (A)) ⇒ f (a) ∈ f (A) ⇒ f (a) = f (a') for some a′ ∈ A
⇒ a = a′ since f is one to one
⇒ a∈A
⇒ f –1(f (A)) ⊆ A. Hence the corollary.
PROBLEM 3.3
1. If S = {1, 2} and T = {a, b}, list all the functions in S × T.
2. If S = {1, 2, 3} and T = {x, y}, list ten of the functions in S × T.
3. Consider the following relations:
(a) {(1, 2), (3, 2), (5, 5)},
(b) {(1, 2), (2, 3), (5, 5)},
(c) {(2, 1), (2, 3), (5, 5)},
Are these relations the function? Explain.
4. Let R be the set of real numbers and F that relation in R × R consisting of all pairs listed below.
Determine which, if any, are functions. If F is not a function, exhibit two elements (x1, y1) and (x1,
y2) in F with y1 = y2
(a) F = {(x, x + 2) | x ∈ R}
(b) F = {(x, 2x) | x ∈ R}
(c) F = {(x, x2) | x ∈ R}
(d ) F = {(x, ax + b) | x ∈ R}
(e) F = {(x, | x |) | x ∈ R}
(f ) F = {(x, sin x) | x ∈ R}
(g) F = {(x, y) | x2 + y2 = 4}
(h) F = {(x, 0) | x ∈ R}
(i) F = {(x, y) | y2 = x}
5. Let S = {(1, 2, 3} and T = {a, b}, list all functions F in S × T with domain S, and range T1 where
(a) S1 = S, T1 = {a} (there is one)
(b) S1 = S, T1 = {b} (there is one)
(c) S1 = S, T1 = {a, b} (there are six)
(d ) S1 = {1, 2}, T1 = T (there are two).
6. Let S = {a, b, c}, T = {1, 2, 3}. List all of the one-to-one function in S × T with domain S (there
are six).
7. Determine which are one-to-one mappings in Exercise number 4. In each case find the range of F.
8. Prove the following : If f : X → Y and A, B ⊂ X. then,
(a) f (A – B) ⊇ f (A) – f (B)
(b) f –1(A – B) = f –1(A) – f –1(B) if A, B, ⊂ Y
(c) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
(d ) f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)
(e) f –1(A ∪ B) = f –1(A) ∪ f –1(B) if A, B ⊂ Y
(f ) f –1(A ∩ B) = f –1(A) ∩ f –1(B) if A, B ⊂ Y
9. Given A = {–1, 0, 2, 5, 6, 11},
B = {–2, –1, 0, 18, 108} and f (x) = x2 – x – 2.
Is f (A) = B? Find f (A)
10. Let A = R – {3} and B = R – {1}, where R is the set of real numbers. Let the function f : A → B
be defined by
x−2
f (x) = . Is this function bijective ?
x−3
11. If R is the set of real numbers; discuss the mapping

f : R → R, where f (x) = x2, x ∈ R.
12. (a) When is the union of two functions a function ?
(b) When is the intersection of two functions a function ?
13. Prove that identity mapping of set S into itself is one-to-one and onto.
3.6 INVERSE MAPPING

Consider two sets A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 7}. The set f1 = {(1, 3), (2, 7)} and f2 = {(1, 3), (2, 3)}
are functions from A into B. f1 is a one-to-one and onto functions and f2 is many-to-one into functions.
We get new relations in B × A by interchanging the components of ordered pairs f1 and f2 and
f1−1 = {(3, 1), (7, 2)} and f 2−1 = {(3, 1); (3, 2)}.
We see that f1−1 is again a one-to-one function while f 2−1 is not since first component is being
repeated. So we have seen that one-to-one functions admit their inverses.
Definition 3.6.1. Let f : A → B be a one-to-one function. The inverse of a one-to-one function,
symbolized by f –1, is the set of ordered pairs,
f –1 = {(y, x) | (x, y) ∈ f }.
Thus, if f : A → B is a one-to-one functions, then
f (x) = y ⇒ x = f –1(y), for x ∈ A, y ∈ B.
THEOREM 3.6.1. The inverse of a one-to-one and onto function is unique.
Proof. Let f : X → Y be a one-to-one and onto functions. Let g : Y → X and h : Y → X be
two different inverse function of f. Then, for x1, x2 ∈ X, there exists y ∈ Y such that
g(y) = x1
and h(y) = x2
Now g(y) = x1 ⇒ y = f (x1) since g is the inverse of f
h(y) = x2 ⇒ y = f (x2) since h is the inverse of f
Then if follows that
f (x1) = f (x2) = x1 = x2 since f is one-to-one.
⇒ g(h) = h(y) — - y ∈ Y.
Hence g and h are equal function and this proves the theorem.
THEOREM 3.6.2. The inverse of a one-to-one and onto function is one-to-one and onto.
Proof. Let f : X → Y be a one-to-one function from X onto Y.
Then for x1, x2 ∈ X, there exist some elements, y1, y2 ∈ X such that
f (x1) = y1, and f (x2) = y2.
⇒ –1
x1 = f (y1) and x2 = f –1(y1).
Now for y1, y2 ∈ Y,
f –1(y1) = f –1(y2) ⇒ x1 = x2
⇒ f (x1) = f (x2)
⇒ y1 = y2
–1
This proves that f is one-to-one.
Again, since f is onto, then for y ∈ Y there exists some x ∈ X such that
f (x) = y.
⇒ x = f –1(y) since f is one-to-one.
This proves f –1 is onto.
Example 3.6.1. The mapping f : R → R be defined by
f (x) = ax + b, where a, b, x ∈ R, a ≠ 0.
has its inverse (i.e., f is invertible).
For, if x1, x2, ∈ R, then
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ ax1 + b = ax2 + b
⇒ ax1 = ax2
⇒ x1 = x2 [Q a ≠ 0]
This proves f is one-to-one.
Again, if y ∈ R, for some x ∈ R.
y = f (x) ⇒ y = ax + b
y−b
⇒ = x,
a
1
Thus for y ∈ R, there exists ( y − b) ∈ R such that
a
F 1 ( y − b )I F 1 ( y − b )I
f
Ha K = a
Ha K + b = y – b + b = y.
Hence, if f is one-to-one and onto, therefore f –1 exists and it is defined by

1
f –1(y) = ( y − b).
a
3.7 COMPOSITION OF MAPPINGS

Definition 3.7.1. Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two mappings. Then the composition of two
mappings f and g denoted by g o f , is the mapping from A into C defined by
g o f = {(x, y) | for some z, (x, z) ∈ f and (z, y) ∈ g}, i.e., g o f : A → C is a mapping defined
by
(g o f ) (x) = g(f (x)), where x ∈ A, f (x) ∈ B.
REMARK: g o f is defined only if Rf = Dg
A f B g C
x g(f(x))
f(x)
gof
Fig. 3.6
Example 3.7.1. If f : R → R and g : R → R defined by

f (x) = x2,
and g (x) = sin x, for all x ∈ R.
Now g o f and f o g are both defined and
(g o f ) (x) = g ( f (x))
= g (x2) = sin x2
and (f o g) (x) = f (g(x))
= f (sin x) = sin2 x.
This shows g o f ≠ f o g.
Example 3.7.2. If f : R → R and g : R → R defined by
f o (x) = x + 2
and g(x) = 2x2 + 5.
We see that g o f and f o g are both defined.
Now (g o f ) (x) = g(f (x)) = g(x + 2) = 2(x + 2)2 + 5
and (f o g) (x) = f (g(x)) = f (2x2 + 5) = (2x2 + 5) + 2
This shows that f o g ≠ g o f.
REMARK: The composition of functions is not commutative.
THEOREM 3.7.1. Let f : S → T, g : T → U, and h : U → V be functions, then
(a) (h o g) o f = h o (g o f ),
(b) if each f and g is one-to-one, then so is g o f,
(c) if each f and g is onto then so is g o f,
(d) if each f and g is one to one and into, then (g o f )–1 = f –1 o g–1.
Proof. (a) It is clear that (h o g) o f and h o (g o f ) are functions from S to V. Now we
have to prove that for any x ∈ S, the image of x under (h o g) o f is equal to the image of x under
h o (g o f ).
Now ((h o g) o f )(x) = (h o g)(f (x))
= h(g(f (x))
= h((g o f )(x)
= (h o (g o f ))(x).
which shows (h o g) o f = h o (g o f )
(b) Let x1, x2 ∈ S, then
(g o f )(x1) ⇒ (g o f )(x2) ⇒ g(f (x2) = g( f (x2))
⇒ f (x1) = f (x2) (since g is one-to-one)
⇒ x1 = x2 (since f is one-to-one)
Hence g o f is one-to-one.
(c) By the definition of composition g o f : S → U is a function. To prove that g o f is onto
we have to prove that every element u ∈ U is an image element for some x ∈ S under g o f, since
g is onto ½t ∈ T such that g(t) = u. Again since f is onto from S to T, ½ x ∈ S such that f (x) = t.
Now (g o f )(x) = g( f )) = g(t) = u,
which shows g o f is onto.
(d) We have g o f : S → U is a function and by (b) and (c) g o f : S → U is a one-to-one and

onto. So its inverse (g o f )–1 exists and (g o f )–1 : U → S is also a one-to-one and onto function.
Again since f and g one-to-one and onto functions, f –1 and g–1 exists and f –1 : T → S and
g : U → T are also one-to-one and onto. So f –1 o g–1 : U → S is also one-to-one and onto by (b)
–1
and (c).
Now to prove (g o f )–1 = f –1 o g–1 we have to show that for every u ∈ U, the images of u under
(g o f )–1 and f –1 o g–1 are equal.
Now we have
g(t) = u ⇒ t = g–1(u) since g is one-to-one and onto
f (x) = t ⇒ x = f –1(t) since f is one-to-one and onto
(g o f )(x) = g( f (x)) = g(t) = u ⇒ x = (g o f )–1(u) ...(1)
since g o f is one-to-one and onto.
Again
( f –1 o g–1) (u) = f –1(g–1(u))
= f –1(t)
= x. ...(2)
By (1) and (2) we have
(g o f )–1 = f –1 o g–1.
COROLLARY. The function f : A → B is one-to-one and onto if and only if f o f –1 = eB, identity
mapping of B onto itself and f –1 o f = eA, identity mapping of A onto itself.
Proof. Since f : A → B is one-to-one and onto, f –1 : B → A exists and it is also one-to-one and
onto. So for x ∈ A,
f (x) = b ⇒ x = f –1(b).
Now (f o f –1(b) = f (f –1(b))
= f (x)
= eB(b)
⇒ fof –1 = eB
–1
Similarly, we can see that f o f = eA.
Conversely, assume that
f o f –1 =eB
Now
For x1, x2 ∈ A
f (x1) = f (x2)
⇒ f –1 (f (x1)) = f –1(f )(x2))
⇒ (f –1 o f )(x1) = (f –1 o f )(x2)
⇒ eA(x1) = eA(x2)
⇒ x1 = x2
This proves that f is one-to-one and clearly onto.
THEOREM 3.7.2. If f and g are mappings from X to X and

f o g = g o f = ex,
then f and g are both invertible. Further more f –1 = g and g–1 = f.
Proof: We have, for x1, x2 ∈ X
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ g(f (x1))= g(f (x2))
⇒ (g o f ) (x1) = (g o f )(x2)
⇒ ex(x1) = ex(x2) since g o f = ex
⇒ x1 = x2
This proves that f is one-to-one.
Also if y ∈ X and
x = g(y)
⇒ f (x) = f (g(y))
⇒ f (x) = f o g(y)
⇒ f (x) = ex(y) = y
This proves that f is onto.
Hence f is invertible.
Similarly, we can show that g is invertible.
Further more,
f o g = ex ⇒ f –1 o (f o g) = f –1 o ex
⇒ (f –1 o f ) o g = f –1
⇒ ex o g = f –1
⇒ g = f –1
Similarly, g o f = ex ⇒ f = f –1(Verify)
PROBLEM 3.4
1. If the mappings f and g are given by
f = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 1)}
g = {(2, 3), (5, 1), (6, 3)}
then write down the pairs in the mappings f ο g and g o f.
2. Let f on a mapping of a set S onto a set T. Then if we define (a, b) ∈ R, for a, b ∈ S provided
f (a) = f (b). Prove that R is an equivalence relation.
3. Let f be function from A into B and let g be a function from B into C. Then
(1) Prove that if g is onto C, then g o f is not necessarily onto C.
(2) Prove that if g is one-to-one, then g o f is not necessarily one-to-one.
(3) Prove thaty if f is not onto, then g o f may be onto.
(4) Prove that if g is not one-to-one, g o f may be one-to-one.
(5) Prove that if g o f is one-to-one, then f is one-to-one.
(6) Prove that if g o f is onto then g is onto.
4. Suppose that f and g are two specific functions from the set R into the set R. The following formulas
define functions f + g, f – g, f · g and f/g by specifying the value of these function at each point of their
domain:
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

(f – g)(x) = f (x) – g(x)
(f · g)(x) = f (x)·g(x)
(f/g)(x) = f (x)/g(x) where g(x) ≠ 0
Prove that if f, g and h are functions for which following operations are defined, then prove that
(1) (f + g)·h = (f·h) + (g · h)
(2) (f · g)·h = (f) · (g · h)
5. Show that the function f = {(x, x/x – 1) | – 1 ≤ x ≤ 1} is one-to-one and obtain its inverse.
6. If f and g are functions having domain R+, let f - g be the function given by (f -g)(x) = maximum
{f (x), g(x)}. Determine whether or not f - g a is a one-to-one function.
7. For the functions f and g, with domain, R+ define
f =g = (f·g) – (g·f )
(a) What is the domain of f =g?
(b) Show that (f = g) + (g = f) = 0, where 0 is the function for which g(x) = 0 for all x ∈ R+.
8. If f (– x) = –f (x), for all x ∈ R, then f is said to be an odd function. If f (– x) = f (x), for all x ∈ R, then
f is said to an even function.
Let f and g be two real functions and let f be even. Then mark each of the following true and false.
(a) If g is even, then f + g is even.
(b) If g is odd f + g is either odd or even.
(c) If g is even, then f · g is even.
(d) If f is odd, then f g is odd.
(e) If g is even, f·g is even.
(f ) If g is odd, f·g is even.
9. Put a cross against the true statement.
(a) Every function has an inverse.
(b) Only those functions f have an inverse for which f (x) ≠ 0 for any x.
(c) Only one-to-one and onto functions have an inverse.
(d) A function has an inverse provided it is either injective or surjective.
(e) If f is an inverse of g, then g is an inverse of f.
(f ) If f and g are inverse of a function h, then f = g.
(g) f is invertible iff f is bijective.
(h) (f –1)–1 = f.
(i) If f is invertible function, then f –1 is also invertible and (f –1)–1 = f.
(j) If f and g are invertible functions, then so is g o f (provided g o f is defined).
(k) If f and g are invertible, then (f o g)–1 = g–1 o f –1.
(l) If f and g are inverses of each other, than g o f and f o g are both identity function.
10. Let f : X → Y be a function. Put a cross against the false statement.
(a) A ⊂ B ⇒ f (A) ⊂ f (B)
(b) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
(c) f (A ∩ B) = f (A) ∩ f (B)
(d) f (X) ⊆ Y
SOLVED PROBLEMS
11. If the mappings f and g are given by
f = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 1)},
g = {(2, 3), (5, 1), (6, 3)},
then write down pairs in the mapping f o g and g o f.
Solution. Since f and g are functions, then f o g and g o f are functions defined by
f o g = {(s, u) | s ∈ Dg, u ∈ Rf , ½t ∈ Rg, such that (s, t) ∈ g and (t, u) ∈ f }, and
g o f = {(x, y) | x ∈ Df, y ∈ Rg. ½z ∈ Rf such that (x, z) ∈ f and (z, y) ∈ g}.
Here D f = {1, 3, 4}, Rf = {2, 5, 1},
and D g = {2, 5, 6}, Rg = {3, 1}.
Thus,
g o f = {(1, 3), (3, 1)}, (1, 3) ∈ g o f because for 1 ∈ Df . ½2 ∈ Rf such (1, 2) ∈ f and (2, 3)
∈ g, (3, 1) ∈ g o f since for 3 ∈ Df , ½5 ∈ Rf such that (3, 5) ∈ f and (5, 1) ∈ g. For 4 ∈ Rf (4, 1)
∈ f but there exists no ordered pair in g which has I as its first component.
Similarly f o g = {(2, 5), (5, 2), (6, 5)}.
Therefore f o g : D → Rf , and g o f : Df – {4} → Rg.
12. Let α be a mapping of a set S onto a set T. Then if we define (a, b) ∈ R, for a, b ∈ S
provided aα = bα, prove that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution. We have to show that R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
(1) Since aα = a α, V a ∈ S, (a, a) ∈ R. Hence R is reflexive,
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ aα = bα
⇒ bα = aα
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.
Hence R is symmetric
(3) (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ aα = bα, bα = cα,
⇒ aα = cα
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
Therefore R is an equivalence relation.
Note: aα is the image of a ∈ S under α. We can write aα instead of α(a).
3.8 BINARY OPERATIONS

When two real numbers are added together the result is another real number. This is also the case
when one real number is subtracted from another. Addition and subtraction are thus rules of
combination, which, when applied to the elements of the set of real numbers, yield results which also
belong to this set. Similarly the operation of union, when applied to the subsets of some universal
set, yields a subset of this universal set.
The operations +, —, and ∪ are examples of binary operations which are precisely defined as
follows:
Definition 3.8.1. Given a set of element A, then a binary operation* on the set A is a rule of
combination which assigns to each ordered pair of elements a, b ∈ A a unique element c ∈ A. We
write symbolically that c = a* b.
Example 3.8.1. Let N be the set of all natural numbers. Then the operation of addition on the
set N is a binary operation, for if a, b ∈ N, then so is c where c = a + b.
Example 3.8.2. Let X be the set of all odd integers. Then the operation of addition on the set
X is not a binary operation, for if a, b ∈ X, then c ∉ X where c = a + b.
Commutative, Associative, Distributive and Idempotent Binary Operation
Definition 3.8.2. A binary operation * on a set of elements A is said to be commutative, if and only
if, for a, b, ∈ A,
a * b = b * a.
Definition 3.8.3. A binary operation * on a set of elements A is said to be associative, if and only
if, for every a, b, c ∈ A,
a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c.
Definition 3.8.4. The binary operation * on a set of elements A is said to be distributive over the
binary operation o on the same set of elements, if and only if, for every a, b, c ∈ A,
a *(b o c) = (a * b) o (a * c).
Definition 3.8.5. The binary operation * is said to be idempotent on a set of elements A if and only
if, for every a ∈ A,
a * a = a.
Definition 3.8.6. An element e in a set A is said to be a unit element with respect to the binary
operation * on A if and only if, for every a ∈ A,
a * e = e * a = a.
Definition 3.8.7. An element b in a set A is said to be the inverse element of an element a ∈ A with
respect to the binary operation * if and only if
a*b = b *a =e (If e exists in A).
Example 3.8.3. In the algebra of sets the operations ∪, ∩ are both commutative, associative,
idempotent, and each one is distributive over the other. The null set φ is the unit element for the
operation ∪, and the universal set ∪ is the unit element for the operation ∩.
Example 3.8.4. The binary operations * and · on the set of all real numbers are defined by
a*b = | a – b |, and a · b = a.
Show that * is commutative but not associative, · is associative but not commutative, and that
* is distributive over.
I. Since a*b = |a – b |
= |b–a|
= b * a.
∴ * is commutative.
Again, (a * b) * c = | a – b | * c = | | a – b | – c |
and a * (b * c) = a * | b – c | = | a – | b – c | |
∴ (a * b) * ≠ a * (b * c).
If a = 1, b = 2, c = 5, then
(a * b) * c = | | 1 – 2 | – 5 | = | 1 – 5 | = 4
a * (b * c) = | 1 – | 2 – 5 | | = | 1 – 3| = 2.
Hence* is not associative.
II. Since a · b = a and b · a = b, it follows that . is not commutative

a·(b·c) = a·b = a
and (a·b)·c = a·c = a
∴ a·(b·c) = (a·b)·c.
.
Hence is associative
III. Since a * (b·c) = a *b
and (a * b).(a * c) = a *b
∴ a * (b·c) = (a * b) · (a * c).
Hence * is distributive over.
Method of Constructing the Operation Table
When the set S being considered has a small number of elements, then the results of applying
the binary operation * to its elements may be represented in the table known as operation table. We
list the elements of S in the same order both vertically and horizontally. The result a*b then appears
in the body of table at the intersection of row headed by a and the column headed b. The next
example shows how this will be done in the text. The binary operation on the set can be defined by
means of an operation table.
Example 3.8.5. Table defines the binary operation * on S = {a, b, c} by the rule:
(ith entry on the left) * (jth entry on the top)
= (entry in the ith row and jth column of the Answers)
Thus a * b = c and b * a = a, so * is not commutative.
(a * b) * c = c * c = a
a * (b * c) = a * b = c
So * is not associative.
∗ a b c
a b c b
b a c b
c c b a
About the operation table we observe the following things:

1. If every entry of the table is an element of the set S, * is a binary operation on S.
2. If the table is symmetric with respect to the diagonal which starts at the upper left corner
of the table and terminates at the lower right corner is commutative.
3. If the elements of the first row and first column are identical, then the element at the
intersection of first row and first column is a unit element in S with respect to the operation*.
4. If the set has an identity element and it appears at (i, j)th and (j, i)th entries, then the element
heading ith row is the inverse of the elements heading jth column and vice-versa.
5. The associativity of the operation is not visualised.
PROBLEM 3.5
1. Determine whether or not each of the definition of * given below does give a binary operation on
the given set. In the event that * is not a binary operations, state whether conditions (1). Exactly one
element is assigned to each possible ordered pair of elements of S, (2). For each ordered pair of
elements of S, the element assigned to it is again in S or both are violated,
(a) On Z +, define * by a * b = a – b
a
(b) On Z +, define * by a * b = ab =
b
(c) On R, define * by a * b
(d) On Z +, define * by a * b = c (Smallest integer = a, b)
(e) On Z +, define * by a * b = c, where c is largest integer less than the product a, b.
2. Prove that if * is an associative and commutative binary operation on a set S, then
(a * b)*(c * d) = [(d * c)*a] * b
for all a, b, c, d ∈ S.
3. For each binary * defined, determine whether * is commutative and whether * is associative.
(a) On Z, define by a * b = a – b
(b) On Q, define by a * b = ab + 1
(c) On Q, define by a * b = ab/2
(d ) On Z +, define by a * b = 2ab
(e) On Z +, define by a * b = ab
( f ) On R – {–1}, define by a * b = a + b + ab
(g) On R – {+ 1}, define by a * b = a + b – ab
(h) On Z, define by a * b = a + b + 1
(i) On Z, define by a * b = a + b – 1.
4. Let the binary operation * be defined on S = {a, b, c, d, e} by means of the adjoining table
(a) Compute (b * d), c * c and (a*c)*e*a from the table.
(b) Compute (a * b)* c and a*(b * c). Is * associative ?
(c) Compute (b * d)*c and b*(d * c).
(d ) Is * commutative ?
∗ a b c d e
a a b c b d
b b c a e e
c c a b b a
d b e b e d
e d b a d e
5. Mark each of the following true or false.

(a) If * is any binary operation on any set S, then a * a = a, for all a ∈ S.
(b) If * is any commutative binary operation on S, then a*(b * c) = (b * c)* a for all a, b, c ∈ S.
(c) If * is any associative binary operation on any sets, then
a*(b * c) = (b * c)*a for all a, b, c ∈ S.
(d ) The only binary operation of any importance are those defined on sets of numbers.
(e) Every binary operation defined on a set having exactly one element is both commutative and
associative.
( f ) A binary operation on a set S assigns exactly one element of S to each ordered pair of elements
of S.
(g) A binary operation on a set S may assign more than one element of S to some ordered pairs of
elements of S.
3.9 COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE SETS

In this section we shall learn to count the elements of the given set A or to arrange with lables 1,
2, 3,... The elements of a given set can be labelled with the help of one-to-one correspondence.
Definition 3.9.1. A one-to-one function f from the set A onto the set B is called a 1-1 (one-to-one)
correspondence between A and B.
Definition 3.9.2. The set A is finite if A = φ or if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between
the set A and the set Jn = {1, 2, 3, ...., n} for some positive integer n.
Definition 3.9.3. Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent, written A ~ B, if and only if these exists
a one-to-one correspondence between A and B.
Let A be a finite set having n elements and let A ~ B. Then B has n elements.
We consider a function f : N → E, where N = {1, 2, ...,} the set of natural numbers and
E = {2, 4, 6,...} the set of even natural numbers. We see that there exists a one-to-one correspondence
between N and E as follows:
1 2 3 4 ... m, ...
q q q q q
2 4 6 8 ... 2m, ...
Here E ⊂ N and N ~ E. Moreover E and N are both infinite sets. This property is only found
with infinite set. So we define the infinite sets.
Definition 3.9.4. A non-empty set A is infinite if there exists a proper subset B of A such that B is
equivalent to A, i.e., A ~ B.
THEOREM 3.9.1. The relation ~ (equivalence of two-sets) is an equivalence relation.
Proof. (i) For all A we can define an identity function iA: A → A by {iA(x) = x. This is one-
to-one function from A onto itself. Therefore A ~ A. Hence the relation ~ is reflexive.
(ii) For any two sets A, B we assume that A ~ B. Then
A ~ B ⇒ There exists a one-to-one function f from A onto B.
⇒ f –1 : B → A is also one-to-one and onto function.
⇒ B ~ A.
Hence the relation is symmetric.
(iii) For any three sets A, B, C we assume that A ~ B, B ~ C. Then A ~ B, B ~ C ⇒ f :
A → B and g : B → C are one-to-one and onto functions
⇒ g o f : A → C is one-to-one and onto function
⇒A~C
Therefore the relation ~ is transitive.
Thus, the relation ~ is an equivalence relation.
There are many sizes of infinite sets. The smallest size is called countable.
Definition 3.9.5. The set A is countable (or enumerable or denumerable) if A is equivalent with the
set N of natural numbers, i.e., A ~ N.
A is countable if there exists a one-to-one and onto function f : N → A. Therefore, the elements
of A are the images f (1), f (2), f (3), ..., f (n) ... of 1, 2, 3,..., n, ... under the function f. That is,
A = {f (1), f (2), f (3), ...},
where f (i), i ∈ N are all distinct elements.
If we write f (i) = ai ∈ A, then

A = {a1, a2, a3, ...}.
Therefore, we say that A is countable if the elements of A can be written in a sequence a1, a2,
a3, ... where no element occur twice or more in the sequence. We shall see that all infinite sets are
not countable.
THEOREM 3.9.2. The union of two countable set is countable.
Proof. (i) Let A and B be two countable sets. Then the elements of A and B can be written in
sequence as follows:
A = {a1, a2, ..., an, ...},
B = {b1, b2, ..., bn, ...}.
Let A ∩ B = φ. We define a function f : N → A ∪ B by
 an for n = 1, 3, 5,...
f (n) = 
bn for n = 2, 4, 6,...
This function relates that the elements of A are in one-to-one correspondence with the odd
positive integers and the elements of B are in one-to-one correspondence with the even positive
integers. So the elements of A ∪ B can be written as
A ∪ B = {a1, b1, a2, b2, a3, b3, ...}
Here A ∪ B is countable.
(ii) Let A ∩ B ≠ φ. Then B – A is countable or finite. We have A ∩ (B – A) = φ, and
A ∪ (B – A) = A ∪ B. If B – A is countable, then by first case A ∪ B = A ∪ (B – A) is countable
and if B – A is finite, B – A = {c1, c2, ...., cm}. Then the set A ∪ B = {c1, c2, ... cm, a1, a2, ...} is
clearly countable.
THEOREM 3.9.3. If A1, A2, ..., An, ... are countable sets, then n∈∪N An is countable.
Proof. Since A1, A2, ... An, ... are countable sets, their elements can be written in sequences as
follows:
A1 = {a , a , a ,..., a ,...} ,
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
n
A2 = {a , a , a ,..., a ,...} ,
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
n
M M M M
An = { },
a1n , a 2n , a 3n , ..., a nn ,...
where akj is the kth elements of the set Aj. We define the height of the element akj by j + k. Then
the a11 is the only element of height 2, a12 , a21 are the only elements of height, 3 and so on. Since
any positive integer k, there are only (k – 1) elements of height k. So we associate 2 with the elements
a11 of height 2, 3 with the elements a12 , a21 of height 3, 4 with the elements of a13 , a22 , a13 of height
4 and so on. Thus we arrange the elements of n∈∪N An according to their heights as
a11 , a12 , a12 , a13 , a22 , a13 ,...

In listing these elements we should be careful to remove any aij that has already been listed
in the sequence. Hence n∪ ∈N
An is countable.
Example 3.9.1. Show that the set Q of rational numbers is countable.
Proof. We know that the set J = {0, 1, –1, 2, –2, ...} is a countable, set
 0 1 −1 2 −2 
The set An =  , , , , ,... is a set of rational numbers with denominator n. For n = 1,
n n n n n 
2, 3, ..., we get the sets A1, A2, A3 ... of rationals with denominators 1, 2, 3, ... respectively. A1,
A2, ..., An, ... are countable sets. The set Q = ∪ An is the union of countable sets.
n∈N
Hence Q is a countable set.

Example 3.9.2. Show that the set A = {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, x is a real} is uncountable.
Proof. Every real number between 0 and 1 can be written by the decimal fraction as
0.a1 a1, a3, ... where a1, a2, a3, ... are digits.
Let the set A be countable. Then the elements of A can be written in a sequence. Therefore.
A = {x1, x2, x3, ..., xn}, xi ∈ A.
We write each xi ∈ A in decimal fractions.
x1 = 0.a11 a12 a13 ...
x2 = 0.a21 a22 a23 ...
x3 = 0.a31 a32 a33 ...
........................................
xn = 0.an1 an2 an3 ...
Let b1 be any digit such that 0 ≤ b1 ≤ 8 and b1 ≠ a11, b2 be any digit such that 0 ≤ b2 ≤ 8, b2
= a22, ... bn be any digit such that 0 ≤ bn ≤ 8, bn ≠ ann. Now we form a decimal fraction.
y = 0.b1 b2 b3 ... bn ...
Thus, y ∈ A and differs from x1, x2, ..., xn since for any n, bn ≠ ann and the decimal fraction
y is unique since bn ≠ 9 for any n. Therefore y is a real number such that 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 and y does not
occur in the sequence x1, x2, ..., xn, ... of real numbers A. It contradicts to that A is countable. Hence
the set of all real numbers between 0 and 1 is uncountable.
PROBLEM 3.6
1. Show that every infinite set contains a countable subset.
2. Show that every infinite subset of countable set is countable.
3. If A and B are countable sets, then show that the cartesian product A × B is countable.
4. Show that the set of all rationals between 0 and 1 is countable.
5. Show that the set of real numbers is uncountable.
6. Prove that the class of all finite subsets of a countable set is countable.
7. If A and B are countable, then show that A – B is countable.
8. Show that the set of all ordered pairs of integers is countable.
❑❑❑
" Ordered Sets and Lattices
In this chapter, we confine our studies to the ordered set and a special type of ordered set known as
lattice. Though we have introduced partial order relation in chapter 3, yet extend this concept to make
it more useful.
4.1 POSET
Definition 4.1.1. Let S be a non-empty set and let R be a non-empty subset of S × S. If this relation
R on a set S satisfies the following three properties:
(i) Reflexive: For all a ∈ S, (a, a) ∈ R or a R a
(ii) Anti-symmetric: For any a, b ∈ S,
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, a) ∈ R ⇒ a = b
or a R b, b R a ⇒ a = b.
(iii) Transitive: For any a, b, c ∈ S
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R
or a R b, b R c ⇒ a R c,
Then R is called a partial order relation or simply an order relation and the set S with the
partial order is called a partially ordered set or simply, an ordered set or Poset. We denote by an
ordered pair (S, R) when we went to specify the relation R.
The most familiar order relation, called the usual order, is the relation ≤ (read “less than or equal
to). On the positive integer N or on any subset of the real numbers R. We see that
(i) For all a ∈ N, a ≤ a, so ‘≤’ is reflexive.
(ii) For any a, b ∈ R, a ≤ b, b ≤ a ⇒ a = b, so ‘≤’ is anti-symmetric.
(iii) For any a, b, c ∈ R, a ≤ b, b ≤ c ⇒ a ≤ c, so ‘≤’ is transitive.
Hence the relation ‘≤’ is a partial order relation and the set N is partially ordered Set or Poset.
Example 4.1.1. Let S be any collection of sets. Then prove that the relation ⊆ of set inclusion
is a partial order relation on S.
75
Solution: We observe the following properties:

(1) Reflexive: Since for all A ∈ S, A ⊆ A.
So the relation ‘⊆’ is reflexive
(2) Anti-symmetric: Since for any two sets A, B ∈ S,
A ⊆ B, B ⊆ A ⇒ A = B
So ‘⊆’ is anti-symmetric
(3) Transitive: Since for A, B, C ∈ S
A ⊆ B, B ⊆ C ⇒ A ⊆ C.
So ‘⊆’ is transitive.
Hence the relation ⊆ of set inclusion is partial order relation.
Example 4.1.2. Let the relation R be defined on the set N of natural numbers by R = {(a, b)
| a | b}. Show that R is a partial ordering of N.
We observe the following properties:
(1) Reflexive: For any a ∈ N, a | a, (a, a) ∈ R which implies that R is reflexive.
(2) Anti-symmetric: For any two a, b ∈ N,
(a, b), (b, a) ∈ R ⇒ a | b, b | a
⇒ a = b.
(3) Transitive: For any three elements a, b, c ∈ N
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ a | b, b | c
⇒ b = ax, c = by, for some x, y ∈ N
⇒ c = (ax)y
⇒ c = a(xy)
⇒ a | c ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
which shows that the relation R of divisibility in N is a partial ordering.
Example 4.1.3. Let Z be the set of all integers. Define R = {(a, b)|b = ar for some positive
integer r}. Show that R is a partial ordering of Z.
Solution. We see that
(1) For any a ∈ Z, there is a positive integer 1 such that
a = a1 ⇒ (a, a) ∈ R
(2) For any a, b ∈ Z, there exist a positive integers r and s such that
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, a) ∈ R ⇒ b = ar and a = bs ⇒ a = (ar)s
⇒ a = ars
⇒ rs = 1
⇒ r = 1, s = 1 since r and s are integers.
∴ a = b.
(3) For any a, b, c ∈ Z
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ b = ar and c = bs for some r, s ∈ Z.
⇒ c = (ar)s
⇒ c = ars ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
Hence the given relation R is a partial order relation.
ORDERED SETS AND LATTICES 77
Definition 4.1.2. Let ≤ be a partial order relation in S. The relation ≥ is also a partial order relation
in S, then it is called the dual order. Hence the dual order ≥ is the inverse of the relation ≤, that is,
≥ = ≤–1.
A be a subset of an ordered set (S, ≤) and suppose a, b ∈ A. Define a ≤ b as elements of A
whenever a ≤ b as an elements of S. This defines a partial ordering in A called the induced order on
A. The subset A with induced order is called an order subset of S.
Definition 4.1.3. A subset A of an order set (S, ≤) is called a order subset if (A, ≤) is an order set.
Definition 4.1.4. Suppose < is a relation on a set S satisfying the following two properties:
(i) For any a ∈ S, a a
(ii) For any a, b ∈ S, if a < b and b < c, then a < c.
Then < is called a quasi-order in S.
The relation < on the set N of positive integers is a quasi-order for any a ∈ N, a a, and
a < b, b < c ⇒ a < c.
Definition 4.1.5. Let (A, ≤) be a partially ordered set. A subset B of A is called a chain if every
two elements in the subset B are related.
We note that in chain the relation satisfies the anti-symmetric and transitive property, so in any
chain with a finite number of elements {a1, a2, ..., an} there is an element ai1 which is less than every
other element in the chain, there is an element ai2 which is less than every other element except ai1,
there is an element ai3 which is less than every other element except ai1, ai2 and so on. We shall write
them as
ai1 ≤ ai2 ≤ ai3 ≤ ... ≤ ain.
The number of elements in the chain is called the length of the chain.
Definition 4.1.6. A subset of (A, ≤) is called an anti-chain if no two distinct elements in the subset
are related.
Definition 4.1.7. A partially ordered set (A, ≤) is called a totally ordered set or linearly ordered if
A is a chain. In this case, the binary relation ≤ is called a total ordering relation.
Definition 4.1.8. Suppose a and b are elements in partially ordered set (A, ≤). Then a and b are said
to be comparable if a ≤ b or b ≤ a. That is, in chain every pair are comparable.
Example 4.1.4. (1) If we define the relation of divisibility in the set N of all positive integers.
Then 21 and 7 are comparable since 7/21 but 3 and 5 are not comparable since 3 + 5 and 5 + 3. So
(N, ‘1’) is not linearly ordered by divisibility. We see that the set A = {2, 6, 12, 36} is linearly ordered
subset of N since 2/6, 6/12, 12/36.
(2) The set N with usual order ≤ (less than equal) is linearly ordered and every ordered subset
of N is also linearly ordered.
(3) The power set P(A) of the set A with two or more elements with the relation of inclusion
is not linearly ordered, since a, b ∈ A1, {a} and {b} may not be comparable. We observe that the
set {φ, {a}, A} is linearly ordered subset of P(A) since φ ⊂ {a} ⊂ A.
4.2 PRODUCT SET AND ORDER

Let (A, R1) and (B, R2) be too partially ordered sets. We define a binary relation R3 over the set A
× B such that a1, a2 ∈ A and b1, b2 ∈ B ((a1, b1), (a2, b2)) ∈ R3 if and only if (a1, a2) ∈ R1 and
(b1, b2) ∈ R2. We see that the relation R3 satisfies the following properties:
(1) Reflexivity: For any (a, b) ∈ A × B, a ∈ A, b ∈ B

We have, (a, a) ∈ R1, (b, b) ∈ R2, so
((a, b), (a, b)) ∈ R3.
(2) Anti-symmetric: For any (a, b), (a1, b1) ∈ A × B,
((a, b), (a1, b1)) ∈ R3, ((a1, b1), (a, b)) ∈ R3
⇒ (a, a1) ∈ R1, (b, b1) ∈ R2; (a1, a) ∈ R1, (b1, b) ∈ R2
⇒ (a, a1) ∈ R1 (a1, a) ∈ R1 ; (b, b1) ∈ R2, (b1, b) ∈ R2
⇒ a = a1 ; b = b1
⇒ (a, b) = (a1, b1).
(3) Transitivity: For (a, b), (a1, b1), (a2, b2) ∈ A × B
((a, b), (a1, b1)) ∈ R3, ((a1, b1), (a2, b2)) ∈ R3
⇒ (a, a1) ∈ R1, (b, b1) ∈ R2, (a1, a2) ∈ R1, (b1, b2) ∈ R2
⇒ (a, a1) ∈ R1 (a1, a2) ∈ R1; (b, b1) ∈ R2, (b1, b2) ∈ R2
⇒ (a, a2) ∈ R1, (b, b2) ∈ R2
⇒ ((a, b), (a2, b2)) ∈ R3.
Hence (A × B, R3) is a partially ordered set.
4.3 HASSE DIAGRAMS OF PARTIALLY ORDERED SETS

Let (A, R) be a partially ordered set and let a, b ∈ A. We say that a is an immediate predecessor
of a, or that b is an immediate successor of a, or that b is a cover of a, written
a<b
if a < b but no elements in A lies between a and b. That is, there exists no element c ∈ A such that
a < c < b.
Suppose (A, ≤) is a finite partially ordered set. Then partial ordering ≤ on a set A can be
represented by means of a diagram known as a Hasse diagram or partially ordered set diagram of (A,
≤). In such a diagram each element is represented by a small circle or a dot. The circle or dot for
a ∈ A is put below the circle or dot of b ∈ A if a < b, and a line is drawn between a and b if b
covers a. If a < b but b does not cover a, then a and b are not connected directly by a single line.
However, they are connected through one or more elements of A. It is possible to obtain the set of
ordered pairs in ≤ from such a diagram. Some examples of partially ordered sets and their Hasse
diagram follow :
4
Example 4.3.1. (1) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and let ≤ be the relation
‘‘less than or equal to’’. Draw the Hasse diagram of (A, ≤).
3
(2) Let P = {φ, {a}, {a, b}, {a, b, c} and let ⊆ be the relation of
inclusion on P. Draw the Hasse diagram of (P, ⊆).
2
Solution. (1) Since 1 < 2, 2 < 3, 3 < 4, so the Hasse diagram is
given in figure 4.1. A is a totally ordered set. Thus totally ordered set is
a chain. 1
(2) Since φ ⊂ {a} ⊂ {a, b} ⊂ {a, b, c}, so the Hasse diagram of Fig. 4.1
(P, ⊂) is given in the adjacent figure 4.2.
{a, b, c}
{a, b}
{a}
φ
Fig. 4.2
The two relations defined above are not equal, but they have the same Hasse diagram. Such
situation will occur frequently and will be discussed in the discussion of the order isomorphism of
two partialy ordered sets.
24 36
Example 4.3.2. Let A = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36} and let the relation ≤
be such that x ≤ y iff x|y. Draw the Hasse diagram of (A, ≤). 12
Solution. Since 2 + 3, 2 | 6, 6 | 12, 12 | 24, 12 | 36 and 3 | 6,
6
The Hasse diagram is given in the adjacent figure 4.3.
Example 4.3.3. Let A be a given finite set and let P(A) be its power
2 3
set. Let ⊆ be the inclusion relation on the power set P(A). Draw Hasse
diagram of (P(A), ⊆). Fig. 4.3
(a) A = {a}, (b) A = {a, b}; (c) A = {a, b, c}; (d) A = {a, b, c, d}.
Solution. Hence, (a) P(A) = {φ, {a}},
(b) P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}.
(c) P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}.}.
(d) P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d}, {c, d} {a, b, c},
{a, b, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d}; {a, b, c, d}}.
Hasse diagram of different P(A) are given below :
{a, b}
{a, b}
{a}
{a} {b} or {b} {a}

(a) (b)
φ
φ
{a, b, c} φ
{a, b} {b, c}
{a, c}
(c)
{a} {b} {c}
φ
(d) {b, c, d}
A
{b, d}
{a, b, a} {a, c, d} {c, d}

{a, b, c} {b, c}
{a, d}
{a, c}
{a, b} {d}
{c}
{b}
{a}
B
Fig. 4.4
REMARKS: (i) It is clear from example (b) that a Hasse diagram is not unique.
(ii) The Hasse diagram of (A, ≥) can be obtained from a Hasse diagram of (A, ≤) by rotating
the Hasse diagram of (A, ≤) through 180°, so that the points at the top become the points at the
bottom.
(iii) Some Hasse diagrams have a unique point which is above all the other points, and similarly
some Hasse diagram have a unique point which is below all other points. In example 3, all Hasse
diagrams have seen such points and in example 2 the Hasse diagram does not have such point.
4.4 MINIMAL AND MAXIMAL, AND FIRST AND LAST POINT

Definition 4.4.1. Let (A, ≤) be a partially ordered set. If there exists a point a ∈ A such that a ≤ x
for all x ∈ A, then a is called the least member in A relative to the partial ordering ≤ .
Definition 4.4.2. Let (A, ≤) be a poset. If there exists a point b ∈ A such that x ≤ b for all x ∈ A.
Then b is called the greatest member in A relative to the partial ordering.
From the definition it is clear that the least member, if it exists, is unique; so also the greatest
member. It may happen that the least or the greatest members does not exist. The least number is
usually denoted by 0 and greatest member by 1.
Definition 4.4.3. An element b ∈ A is called a minimal member of A relative to a partial ordering
≤ if for no x ∈ A is x < b. A minimal number need not be unique. All those members which appear
at the lowest level of a Hasse diagram of a partially ordered set are minimal members.
Similarly, an element b ∈ P is called a maximal member of A relative to the partial ordering
≤ if no x ∈ A is b < x. Distinct minimal members are in comparable, and distinct maximal members
are also incomparable.
It is not always necessary to draw the Hasse diagram of a partially ordered set in order to
determine the least, greatest, maximal and minimal elements. However, their determination becomes
simple by Hasse diagram.
We now extend these ideas to the subset of a partially ordered set.
Definition 4.4.4. Let (A, ≤) be a partially ordered set. Let B ⊆ A. An element b ∈ A is an upper bound
for B if for all x ∈ B, x ≤ b. Similarly, an element a ∈ A is a lower bound of B if for all x ∈ B,
a≤x.
Example 4.4.1. Let A = {a, b, c}. Then the power set of A is P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}
{a, c} {b, c}, {a, b, c}}. and (P(A), ⊆) is a partially ordered set.
Solution. We choose the B ⊆ P(A), let B = {{b}, {c}, {b, c}}. Then {b, c} and A are upper
bounds of B, while φ is its lower bound. For the subset C = {{a, c}} {c}}. The upper bounds are
{a, c} and A, while lower bounds are φ and {c}. If A = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36} and B = {2, 3, 6}. Then
6, 12, 24, 36 are upper bounds for B and there is no lower bound.
Here we observe that upper and lower bounds of a set are not necessarily unique. So we define
the following terms.
Definition 4.4.5. Let (A, ≤) be a poset and let B ⊆ A. An element b ∈ A is called a least upper bound,
or superman, for B if b is an upper bound of B and b ≤ y where y is any upper bound for B. Similarly,
the greatest lower bound, or infimum, for B is an element a ∈ A such that a is a lower bound and
y ≤ a for all lower bounds y.
A least upper bound, if it exists, is unique and so is the true for greatest lower bound. The least
upper bound is written as ‘LUB’ or ‘sup’ and greatest lower bound as ‘GLB’, or ‘inf’.
Example 4.4.2. Let P = {a, b, c, d, e, f } be ordered as in the e f
adjacent figure. and let A = {b, c, d}, the upper bounds of A are e,
and f. Since only e and f succeed every element of A.
We note that e and f are incomparable, hence LUB of A does
not exist. Similarly, the lower bounds of A are a and b, since only
a and b precede every element of A. Hence, b also succeeds a, c d
hence GLB of A is b.
Example 4.4.3. Let N be the set of all positive integers and let b
the relation ≤ be divisibility. (N, ≤) is a partially ordered set. The
greatest common divisor of a and b in N, denoted by
gcd (a, b)
is the largest integer which divides a and b and every common a
divisor of a and b divides gcd (a, b). Thus
Fig. 4.5
gcd (a, b) = GLB or Inf (a, b).
The lowest common multiple of a and b, denoted by LCM (a, b) is the smallest integer divisible
by a and b.
So LUB or Sup (a, b) = LCM (a, b).
In other words, Inf (a, b) and Sup (a, b) do exist for any pair a, b ∈ N, ordered by divisibility.
Example 4.4.4. Let Dm denote the set of alldivisors of positive integer m. For m = 36.
Dm = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36}
Hence, 1|2, 1|3, 2 + 3, 2|4, 2|6, 2|12, 2|18, 2|36
3|6, 3|12, 3|18, 3|36
4|12, 4|36
6|12, 6|18, 6|36
9|18, 9|36
18|36
The Hasse diagram is given below in figure 4.6.
36
12 18
6
4 9
2 3
Fig. 4.6
Here it is clear that
Inf (a, b) = gcd (a, b)
Sup (a, b) = LCM (a, b) for every pair a, b ∈ D36.
Inf D36 = 1, Sup D36 = 36.
Example 4.4.5. Let X = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36} be ordered by 18 36
divisibility. Let A = {2, 3, 6}. Then A has LUB A = 6, while the GLB
A does not exists. Similarly, for the subset B = {2, 3}, Sup B = 6, but
B has no infimum. For the subset C = {12, 6}, the Sup C = 12 and Inf 12
C = 6.
The partially ordered sets which are such that every subset has a
6
supremum and Infinum form an important class of partially ordered sets
which are known as lattices.
For a partially ordered set (A, ≤) we know that its dual (A, ≥) is also
a partially ordered set. So the least element of A relative to the ordering 2 3
≤ is equal to the greatest element A relative to the ordering ≥ and vice Fig. 4.7
versa. Similarly, maximal and minimal elements are interchanged.
Definition 4.4.6. A partially ordered set is called well ordered if every non-empty subset of it has
a least element.
The set N of positive integer with usual order ≤ is well ordered set. From the definition we note
that
(1) Every well ordered is linearly ordered. For if a, b ∈ A, {a, b} has first element and hence
a and b are comparable.
(2) Every subset of a well ordered set is well-ordered.
Example 4.4.6. (1) The set Z of integers with usual order ≤ is linearly ordered since every
element has a immediate successor and an immediate predecessor but Z is not well ordered. Because
Z has no first element. However, any subset of Z which is bounded from below is well ordered.
(2) The set Q of rational numbers with usual order ≤ is linearly ordered set, but no element in
Q has an immediate successor or an immediate predecessor.
a+b a+b
For if a, b ∈ Q, a< < b, where ∈ Q.
2 2
PROBLEM 4.1
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,} be ordered by the Hasse diagram in adjacent figure. Insert the correct symbol,
<, >, or O (not comparable), between each pair of elements:
(a) 1 ..... 5 (b) 2 ...... 3 (c) 4 ..... 1 (d) 3 ..... 4
1
2 3
4
5
Fig. 4.8
2. Consider the ordered set in question 1.
(a) Find all minimal and maximal elements of A
(b) Does A has lower bound or a upper bound?
3. Draw the Hasse diagrams of the following sets under the partial ordering relation ‘divides’ and
indicate which are totally ordered.
{2, 6, 24}, {3, 5, 15}, {1, 2, 3, 6, 12}, {2, 4, 8, 16}, {3, 9, 27, 54}.
4. If (X, R) is a partially ordered set with partial ordering R and A ⊆ X, show that R ∩ (A × A) is a partial
ordering relation on A.
5. Given an example of a set A such that (P(A), ⊆) is a totally ordered set.
6. Give a relation which is both a partial ordering relation and equivalence relation on a set.
7. Show that there are only five distinct Hasse diagrams for partially ordered sets containing three
elements. x1
8. Let the partially ordered set (P, R) be given by the Hasse
diagram in the adjacent figure 4.9.
where P = {x1, x2, x3, x4, x5}.
(a) Find which of the following true; x2 x3
x1Rx2, x4Rx1, x3Rx5, x2Rx5, x1Rx1, x2Rx3, and x4Rx5.
(b) Find the least and greatest in P if they exist
(c) Find the maximal and minimal elements of P.
(d) Find the upper and lower bounds of {x2, x3, x4}, {x3, x4, x4 x5
x5} and {x1, x2, x3}.
Fig. 4.9
Also indicate the LUB and GLB of these subsets if they exist.
4.5 LATTICES
The algebra of mathematical statement and algebra of sets provide us the motivation for the study
of algebraic system possessing all essential properties of these algebra. Such an algebraic system
known as Boolean Algebra was originated by English mathematician George Boole in 1854. Before
studying Boolean Algebra we study an algebraic system known as Lattice. We shall see that Boolean
Algebra is a case of special lattice.
In order to emphasize the role of an ordering relation, a lattice is first introduced as a partially
ordered set, and then defined lattice as an algebraic system.
4.6 LATTICES AS PARTIALLY ORDERED SETS

Here we introduce a lattice as a partially ordered set satisfying certain properties. Particularly, the
notion of the least upper bound (LUB) and the greatest lower bound GLB of a partialy ordered set
will be used repeatedly.
Definition 4.6.1. A partially ordered set (L, ≤) is called a lattice if every pair of elements a, b ∈ L
has a GLB and a LUB.
The GLB of {a, b} ⊆ L will be denoted by a * b and the LUB by a ⊕ b. We also call GLB
{a, b} = a * b the meet or product of a and b and the LUB {a, b}= a ⊕ b the join or sum of a
and b. Sometimes meet * and join ⊕ are also represented by ∧ and ∨ or, and + and . In certain cases
the symbol ∩ and ∪ are also used to denote the meet and join respectively.
Since GLB and LUB are unique in a partially ordered set, from the definition of a lattice it is
clear that meet * and join ⊕ are binary operations on a partially ordered set L.
We have seen under the heading of partial order relation that a totally ordered set is a chain
which has GLB and LUB. So it is finally a lattice. But not all posets are Lattices.
Here we shall give some examples of Lattices which will be referred to frequently throughout
this chapter.
Example 4.6.1. Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Then
P(S) = {φ, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}.
We know that (P(S), ⊆) under the relation of inclusion ⊆ is a partially ordered set. Now we
define meet and join by
A ∧ B = A ∩ B = GLB {A, B},
and A ∨ B = A ∪ B = LUB {A, B}.
It is clear that P(S) is closed under intersection and union. The poset (P(S), ⊆) is a lattice which
is represented by the following diagram.
{1, 2, 3}
{1, 2} {2, 3}
{1, 3}
{1} {2} {3}
{φ}
Fig. 4.10
Example 4.6.2. Let N be the set of all positive integers. The relation R is defined on N by a
R b if and only iff a | b, a, b ∈ N. Then (N, R) is a lattice in which the meet of a and b, that is,
a*b = GLB = greatest common divisor (GCD) of a and b and the join of a and b, that is, a ⊕ b
= LUB = least common multiple (LCM) of a and b. We know that GCD and LCM of two positive
integers a and b are positive integers and are unique.
Example 4.6.3. Let S = {2, 3, 4, 6} and let the relation R be defined by a R b iff a | b, a, b
∈ S. Then (S, R) is a poset. But the poset (S, R) is not a lattice since LCM {4, 6} = LUB {4, 6} =
12 ∉ S and GCD {2, 3} = GLB {2, 3} = 1 ∉ S. 12
Example 4.6.4. For positive integer 12, let Dm be the set of all
divisors of 12, i.e., Dm = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} and let R be the relation 4 6
defined by a R b iff a | b, a, b ∈ Dm = then (Dm, R) is a partially ordered
set. 3
2
Let a, b ∈ Dm, then LUB {a, b}, the least positive integer c such
that a|c, b|c.
∴ LUB {a, b} = c = LCM {a, b}. 1
Similarly, GLB (a, b) = the greatest integer d such that d|a, d|b Fig. 4.11
⇒ GLB{a, b} = d = GCD {a, b}. The lattice (S, R) is shown in the adjacent
diagram 4.11.
Example 4.6.5. Let (N, ≤) be a partially ordered set, where N is the set of all positive integer
and ≤ is the usual relation ‘‘less than and equal to”.
Here GLB {a, b} = min {a, b} and LUB = max {a, b}. Since GLB {a, b} and LUB {a, b} belong
to N, (N, ≤) is a lattice.
Example 4.6.6. Every chain is a lattice. It is easy to see that in a chain (L, ≤) we have either
a ≤ b or b ≤ a, a, b ∈ L. For clearity suppose a ≤ b, then GLD {a, b} = a and LUB {a, b} = b belong
to L. Hence (L, ≤) is a Lattice.
Example 4.6.7. Explain why the partial ordered sets given in the following figures are not
lattices.
e f
e d
b d c
b c
a
a
(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.12
Solution. In Figure (i) the set L = {a, b, c, d, e} and the relation ≤ is defined by a ≤ b, a ≤
c, b ≤ d, c ≤ d, b ≤ e, c ≤ e.
Upper bound {d, e} = d ∨ e does not exist, upper bounds {b, c} = b ∨ c is not d because e
is also upper bound of {b, c}. So upper bound {b, c} does not exist. Hence (L, ≤) is not a lattice.
(ii) Here L = {a, b, c, d, e, f}.
Lower bound of {e, d} = e ∧ d does not exist because b and c are lower bound of {e, d}.
Upper bound of {b, c} = b ∨ c does not exist because e and d are upper bounds of {b, c}.
4.7 PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY

We know that if the relation ≤ is partial ordering on a set A, then the relation ≥ which is converse
of ≤, is also a partial ordering relation on A. The diagram of (A, ≥) can be obtained from that of
(A, ≤) by simply turning it upside down. The posets (A, ≤) and (A, ≥) are called duals of each other.
If B ⊆ A, then LUB B with respect to the relation ≤ is equal to GLB B with respect to the relation
≥, and vice versa. That's GLB and LUB are interchanged, if we interchange the relations ≤ and ≥.
In case of lattices the operations of meet and join on (A, ≤) become the operations of join and meet
on (A, ≥). So if (A, ≤) is a lattice, then (A, ≥) is also a lattice.
Definition 4.7.1. Any statement about lattices involving the operations * and ⊕ and the relations ≤
and ≥ remain true if * is interchanged by ⊕ and ⊕ by *, ≤ by ≥, and ≥ by ≤.
The operations * and ⊕ are called duals of each other as are the relations ≤ and ≥. Similarly,
the lattices (A, ≤) and (A, ≥) are called duals of each other.
Some Properties of Lattices

We shall give some properties of the two binary operations of meet * and join ⊕ on a lattice
(L, ≤).
THEOREM 4.7.1. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. Then for a, b, c ∈ L, we have
Idempotent Law:
(L–1) a * a = a (L–1)′ a ⊕ a = a
Commutative Property:
(L–2) a * b = b * a (L–2)′ a ⊕ b = b ⊕ a
Associative Property:
(L–3) (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) (L–3)′ (a ⊕ b) ⊕ c = a ⊕ (b ⊕ c)
Absorption Law:
(L–4) a * (a ⊕ b) = a (L − 4)′ a ⊕ (a * b) = a.
Proof. (L–1) Since, GLB {a, b} = a * b, then
GLB {a, a} = a ⇒ a * a = a.
′
(L–1) Similarly, LUB {a, b} = a ⊕ b, then
LUB {a, a} = a ⇒ a ⊕ a = a.
(L–2) Since, a, b ∈ L, a ≤ b or b ≤ a. For simplicity,
suppose a ≤ b and GLB {b, a} = d.
GLB{a, b} = d = GLB {b, a}
⇒ a*b=d=b*a
⇒ a * b = b * a.
Similarly, (L–2)′ LUB {a, b} = l = LUB {b, a}.
⇒ a⊕b = l=b⊕a
⇒ a ⊕ b = b ⊕ a.
(L–3) Let GLb {b, c} = d, that is, b * c = d.
⇒ d ≤ b, d ≤ c
Now let a * d = e, then e = GLB {a, d}
⇒ e ≤ a, e ≤ d
⇒ e ≤ a, and e ≤ d, d ≤ b and d ≤ c
⇒ e ≤ a, e ≤ b, and e ≤ c
⇒ e = LB {a, b, c}.
If f is any lower bound of {a, b, c}, then
f ≤ a, f ≤ b, f ≤ c
Now, f ≤ b, f ≤ c and d = GLB {b, c} ⇒ f ≤ d
and f ≤ a and e = GLB {a, d} ⇒ f ≤ e
Hence, e = GLB {a, b, c}, that is, e = a * (b * c) ...(1)
Similarly, we can show that
e = (a * b) * c ...(2)
Thus from (1) and (2), we get
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
(L–3)′ On the pattern of the proof of (L–3) we can easily show that
(a ⊕ b) ⊕ c = a ⊕ (b ⊕ c)
(L–4)′ We know that for a, b ∈ L.
a ≤ a and a ≤ a ⊕ b
⇒ a ≤ a * (a ⊕ b) ...(1)
Again, a * (a ⊕ b) = GLB {a, a ⊕ b} ≤ a ...(2)
a * (a ⊕ b) = a.
THEOREM 4.7.2. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice in which * and ⊕ denote the operations of meet and
join respectively.
For any a, b ∈ L
(i) a ≤ b iff a * b = a, and
(ii) a ≤ b iff a ⊕ b = b.
Proof. (i) Let a ≤ b. We know that a ≤ a. Therefore a ≤ a * b. But from the definition of
a * b, we have a * b ≤ a
Hence, a ≤ b ⇒ a * b = a.
Conversely, Let a * b = a. then
a * b = a ⇒ a ≤ b.
This proves the first result.
Let a ≤ b, then b ≤ b and LUB {a, b} = b, i.e., a ⊕ b ≤ b. ...(1)
But by the definition of a ⊕ b,
a ⊕ b = LUB {a, b}
So, we have b ≤ a ⊕ b ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we a ⊕ b = b
Conversely, let a⊕b = b
Since a ≤ a ⊕ b and a ⊕ b = b, then
a ≤ b.
This theorem establishes a connection between the partial ordering relation and two binary
operations of meet * and join ⊕ in a lattice (L, ≤). We now prove some elementary inequalities that
hold between the elements of a lattice.
THEOREM 4.7.3. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. For any a, b, c ∈ L
b≤c⇒ {aa ∗⊕bb≤≤aa∗⊕c c

This property is known as isotonicity.
Proof. By previous theorem we have
b ≤ c ⇒ b * c = b and b ⊕ c = c. ...(1)
To show that a * b ≤ a * c, we shall prove that
(a * b) * (a * c) = a * b.
We note that
(a * b ) * (a * c) = (a * a) * (b * c) = a * (b * c) = a * b by (1)
Similarly, to show that a ⊕ b ≤ a ⊕ c, we have to show that
(a ⊕ b) ⊕ (a ⊕ c) = a ⊕ c.
We note that
(a ⊕ b) ⊕ (a ⊕ c) = (a ⊕ a) ⊕ (b ⊕ c)
= a ⊕ (b ⊕ c) = a ⊕ c by (1)
THEOREM 4.7.4. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. Then for a, b, c ∈ L
(i) a ≤ b and a ≤ c ⇒ a ≤ b ⊕ c ...(1)
(ii) a ≤ b and a ≤ c ⇒ a ≤ b * c ...(2)
Proof: (i) From the definition of ⊕ it is obvious that b ⊕ c is least upper bound of b and c.
So, b ≤ b ⊕ c
Now a ≤ b, b ≤ b ⊕ c ⇒ a ≤ b ⊕ c.
(ii) We see that
a ≤ b and a ≤ c ⇒ a is a lower bound of {b, c}
⇒ a ≤ b * c (GLB {b, c}.
Hence the theorem.
In a similar manner, we can write that if (L, ≤) is a lattice, then (L, ≥) is its dual lattice and
(1) and (2) result of the theorem can be written as
a ≥ b, a ≥ c ⇒ a ≥ b ⊕ c ...(3)
a ≥ b, a ≥ c ⇒ a ≥ b * c. ...(4)
We shall use these inequalities frequently in our proofs.
THEOREM 4.7.5. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. For any a, b, c ∈ L the following holds:
(i) a ≤ b and c ≤ d ⇒ a * c ≤ b * d, ...(5)
(ii) a ≤ b and c ≤ d ⇒ a ⊕ c ≤ b ⊕ d. ...(6)
Proof. (i) We are given that a ≤ b and c ≤ d.
By the definition of meet *
a * c ≤ a and a * c ≤ c
and
Now a * c ≤ a and a ≤ b ⇒ a * c ≤ b
a * c ≤ c and c ≤ d ⇒ a * c ≤ d }
by transitivity.
Thus, a * c is a lower bound of {b, d}

Hence, a * c ≤ GLB {a, b}
⇒ a * c ≤ b * d.
(ii) We have a ≤ b and c ≤ d.
By the definition of join ⊕
b ≤ b ⊕ d and d ≤ b ⊕ d
Now, a ≤ b, b ≤ b ⊕ d ⇒ a ≤ b ⊕ d
c ≤ d, d ≤ b ⊕ d ⇒ c ≤ b ⊕ d }By transitivity
Thus, b ⊕ d in upper bound of {a, c}.

Since, a ⊕ c is the least upper bound of a and c,
a ⊕ c ≤ b ⊕ d.
This proves the theorem.
Corollary: If (L, ≤) is a lattice then for a, b, c ∈ L the following holds:
(i) a ≤ b ⇒ a * c ≤ b * c ...(7)
(ii) a ≤ b ⇒ a ⊕ c ≤ b ⊕ c. ...(8)
Proof. (i) We know from the above theorem that
a ≤ b, c ≤ c ⇒ a * c ≤ b * c
and a ≤ b, c ≤ c ⇒ a ⊕ c ≤ b ⊕ c.
THEOREM 4.7.6. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. For a, b, c ∈ L. The following inequalities, called
distributive inequalities hold:
(i) a ⊕ (b * c) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c)
(ii) a * (b ⊕ c) ≥ (a * b) ⊕ (a * c).
Proof. We know that
a ≤ a ⊕ b and a ≤ a ⊕ c.
By using the inequality 1, we have
a ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c) ...(9)
b*c≤b≤a⊕b
and b * c ≤ c ≤ a ⊕ c.
Hence by using (2) again we have
b * c ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c) ...(10)
From (9) and (10) and using (4) again, we have
a ⊕ (b * c) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c).
(ii) The second inequality can be proved by using the principle of duality. But we prove
independently in a similar manner.
We know that
a ≥ a * b and a ≥ a * c.
By using (3), we have
a ≥ (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) ...(11)
b⊕c≥b≥a*b
b⊕c≥c ≥a*c
By using (3) again, we have
b ⊕ c ≥ (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) ...(12)
From (11) and (12) and using (3) again, we have
a * (b ⊕ c) ≥ (a * b) ⊕ (a * c).
THEOREM 4.7.7. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. For any a, b, c ∈ L. The following inequality, called
modular inequality holds:
a ≤ c iff a ⊕ (b * c) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * c.
Proof. We know that
a ≤ e, ⇔ a ⊕ c = c.
The first distributive inequality.
a ⊕ (b * c) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c)
⇒ a ⊕ (b * c) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * c since a ⊕ c = c.
That is a ≤ c ⇔ a ⊕ (b * c) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * c.
Example 4.7.1. Prove that dual of a lattice is a lattice.
Solution. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice, then we have to prove that its dual (L, ≥) is also a lattice, where
the relation ≥ is defined by x ≥ y iff x ≤ y. It is simple to see that (L, ≥) is a partially ordered set.
Since (L, ≤) is a lattice, then for any x, y ∈ L. The LUB {x, y} = x ⊕ y ∈ (L, ≤).
x ≤ x ⊕ y and y ≤ x ⊕ y.
⇒ x ≥ x ⊕ y and y ≥ x ⊕ y by the definition of ≥.
⇒ x ⊕ y is a lower bound of {x, y} in (L, ≥).
Now we shall show that x ⊕ y is the greatest lower bound in (L, ≥).
Let z be any lower bound of {x, y} in (L, ≥).
Then, z ≥ x, z ≥ y
⇒ x ≤ z, y ≤ z
⇒ z is an upper bound of {x, y} in (L, ≤)
⇒ x ⊕ y ≤ z since LUB {x, y} = x ⊕ y.
⇒ z ≥ (x ⊕ y) in (L, ≥).
⇒ x ⊕ y is the greatest lower bound in (L, ≥). Similarly, we can prove that x * y is the
least upper bound in (L, ≥) wherever x * y is the greatest lower bound in (L, ≤).
Example 4.7.2. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. For any a, b, c, d ∈ L show that
(a) (a * b) ⊕ (c * d) ≤ (a ⊕ c) * (b ⊕ d),
(b) (a * b) ⊕ (b * c) ⊕ (c * a) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (b ⊕ c) * (c ⊕ a).
Solution. (a) We know that
a * b ≤ a and c * d ≤ c
⇒ (a * b) ⊕ (c * d) ≤ a ⊕ c by (6) ...(1)
Again, a * b ≤ b and b * d ≤ d
⇒ (a * b) ⊕ (c * d) ≤ b ⊕ d. by (6) ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we get
(a * b) ⊕ (c * d) ≤ (a ⊕ c) * (b ⊕ d) by 5.
(b) We know that

a * b ≤ a ⊕ b, a * b ≤ b ≤ b ⊕ c, a * b ≤ a ≤ c ⊕ a.
⇒ a * b ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (b ⊕ c) * (c ⊕ a) ...(1)
Similarly,
b * c ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (b ⊕ c) * (c ⊕ a) ...(2)
and c * a ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (b ⊕ c) * (c ⊕ a) ...(3)
From (1), (2) and (3), we have
(a * b) ⊕ (b * c) ⊕ (c * a) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (b ⊕ c) * (c ⊕ a).
This proves the result.
Example 4.7.3. In a lattice (N, ≤) of natural numbers with usual relation ≤ (less than and equal
to), show that
max {a, min {a, b}} = a
min {a, max {a, b}} = a.
Proof. In the lattice (N, ≤) we know that for any a, b ∈ N,
GLB {a, b} = a * b = min {a, b}
LUB {a, b} = a ⊕ b = max {a, b}.
If a ≤ b, a * b = a and a ⊕ b = b.
By absorption law, we have
a * (a ⊕ b) = a
and a ⊕ (a * b) = a
⇒ min{a, max {a, b}} = a
and max {a, min {a, b}} = a.
Example 4.7.4. Let (N, 1) be a lattice with relation of divisibility. Then prove that
LCM (a, gcd (a, b)) = a
gcd (a, LCM (a, b)) = a.
Proof. Here the operation of meet * and join ⊕ are given by
a * b = gcd (a, b)
a ⊕ b = LCM (a, b).
By absorption law
a * (a ⊕ b) = a
a ⊕ (a * b) = a }
⇒
gcd (a, LCM (a, b)) = a
LCM (a, gcd (a, b)) = a.
PROBLEM 4.2
1. Show that in a partially ordered set (P, R). The supremum or infimum of two elements is unique.
2. Show that in a lattice (L, ≤) if a ≤ b ≤ c,
Then a ⊕ b = b * c
and (a * b) ⊕ (b * c) = b = (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c).
3. Show that in a lattice (L, ≤), if a ≤ b and c ≤ d, then a * c ≤ b * d.
4. Show that a lattice with three or fewer elements is a chain.
5. Prove that every finite subset of a lattice has an LUB and a GLB.
[Hint: Use the mathematical induction.]
6. Prove that for a, b, c in a lattice (L, ≤)
(a) (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) ≤ a * [b ⊕ (a * c)],
(b) (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c) ≥ a ⊕ [b * (a ⊕ c)].
7. Show that every finite lattice has least and greatest elements.
8. Prove that a poset (L, ≤) is a lattice iff every non-empty finite subset of L has a GLB and an LUB.
4.8 LATTICES AS ALGEBRAIC SYSTEMS

In this section, we define a lattice as an algebraic system on which it is possible to define a partial
ordering relation. Therefore, it is possible to define sublattices direct product of lattices and also
lattice homomorphism.
Definition 4.8.1. Let L be a non-empty set closed order two binary operations called meet and join,
denoted respectively by * and ⊕. Then the system (L, *, ⊕) is called a lattice, if the following axioms
hold:
(L1) Commutative Property: Both binary operations meet * and join ⊕ are commutative in
L, that is, for all a, b ∈ L.
(1a) a * b = b * a (1b) a ⊕ b = b ⊕ a
(L2) Associative Property: Both binary operations meet * and join ⊕ are associative in L, that
is,
for all a, b, c ∈ L
(2a) (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) (2b) (a ⊕ b) ⊕ c = a ⊕ (b ⊕ c)
(L3) Absorption Law: For a, b ∈ L
(3a) a * (a ⊕ b) = a (3b) a ⊕ (a * b) = a.
Definition 4.8.2. (Duality). The dual of any statement in a lattices (L, *, ⊕) is defined to be the
statement that is obtained by interchanging * by ⊕. For example, the dual of
a * (b ⊕ a) = a ⊕ a is a ⊕ (b * a) = a * a.
THEOREM 4.8.1. (Principle of duality). The dual of any theorem in a lattice is also a theorem.
Proof. This follows from the fact that the dual theorem can be proved by using the dual of each
step of the proof of the original theorem.
An important property of lattices follows directly from the absorption law.
THEOREM 4.8.2. (Idempotent law). In a lattices (L, *, ⊕)
(i) a * a = a (ii) a ⊕ a = a.
Proof. (i) a*a = a * (a ⊕ (a * b)) by (3b)
= a by (3a)
(ii) a⊕a = a ⊕ (a * (a ⊕ b)) by (3a)
= a by (3b)
4.9 LATTICE AND ORDER

Definition 4.9.1. Given a lattice (L, *, ⊕), we can define a partial order on L as follows:
a ≤ b if a * b = a
and a ≤ b if a ⊕ b = a.
THEOREM 4.9.1. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a lattice. Then
(i) a * b = a iff a ⊕ b = b
(ii) The relation a ≤ b defined by a * b = a or a ⊕ b = b, is a partial ordering relation on L.
Proof. (i) Suppose a * b = a. Using absorption law, we have
b = b ⊕ (b * a)
= b ⊕ (a * b) = b ⊕ a = a ⊕ b.
Now suppose a ⊕ b = b. Again using absorption law
a = a * (a ⊕ b) = a * b.
Thus a * b = a if and only if a ⊕ b = b.
(ii) We observe the following properties about the relation ≤.
(a) Reflexive Property. For any a ∈ L, we have by idempotent law
a * a = a ⇒ a ≤ a.
So ≤ is reflexive.
(b) Anti-symmetric. For any two elements a, b ∈ L
a ≤ b, b ≤ a ⇒ a * b = a, b * a = b
⇒a= a*b=b*a=b
⇒ a = b.
So ≤ is anti-symmetric.
(c) Transitive Property. For any a, b, c ∈ L
a ≤ b, b ≤ c ⇒ a * b = a, b * c = b
⇒ a * (b * c) = a
⇒ (a * b) * c = a by associativity
⇒ a * c = a since a * b = a.
⇒ a ≤ c.
So ≤ is reflexive.
Hence, ≤ is a partial ordering relation on L.
THEOREM 4.9.2. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a lattice. For two elements a, b ∈ L, the GLB and LUB of
{a, b} ⊆ L with respect to the partial ordering ≤ are a * b and a ⊕ b respectively.
Proof. From absorption laws, we have
a * (a ⊕ b) = a
and b * (a ⊕ b) = b.
⇒ a ≤ a ⊕ b, b ≤ a ⊕ b.
Let us assume that there exists an element c ∈ L such that a ≤ c, and b ≤ c. This means that
a ⊕ c = c and b ⊕ c = c
or (a ⊕ c) ⊕ (b ⊕ c) = (a ⊕ b) ⊕ c = c ⊕ c = c.
⇒ a ⊕ b ≤ c.
This shows that a ⊕ b is the least upper bound of a and b.
In similar manner, we can show that a * b is the greatest lower bound of a and b with respect
to partial ordering relation ≤.
Equivalence of Two Definitions of a Lattice

Now we summarize the above discussion by saying that on a lattice (L, *, ⊕), it is possible to
define a partial ordering relation ≤ such that for any a, b ∈ L
a ≤ b ⇔ a * b = a ⇔ a ⊕ b = b.
and LUB {a, b} = a ⊕ b and GLB{a, b} = a * b with respect the relation ≤ on L.
On the other hand, we have shown that a poset (L, ≤) is a lattice in which two binary operation
* and ⊕ are defined such that for any a, b ∈ L
a * b = GLB{a, b} and a ⊕ b = LUB {a, b}.
and a ≤ b ⇔ a * b = a ⇔ a ⊕ b = b.
where the operations * and ⊕ are commutative and associative and satisfy the absorption law. This
establishes the equivalence of the two definition of a lattice.
4.10 SUBLATTICES
Definition 4.10.1. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a lattice. Let M be the non-empty subset of L. If (M, *, ⊕) is a
lattices under the operations of L, we say that (M, *, ⊕) is a sublattice of lattice (L, *, ⊕). We note
that M is a sublattice of L if and only if M is closed under the operations * and ⊕ of L.
Let (L, ≤) be a lattice and let a, b ∈ L such that a ≤ b. The interval [a, b] = {x ∈ L | a ≤ x
≤ b}.
(|a, b|, ≤) is itself a lattice.
Example 4.10.1. Let S = {1, 2, 3} and let P(S) be the power set of S. Then (S, ⊆) is a lattice
in which the meet and join are the usual operations of intersection and union.
The subset M = {φ, {1}, {2}, {3}} ⊆ P(S) is a sublattice, while the subset N = {φ, {1}, {2}},
is not a sublattice since {1} ∪{2} does not belong to N.
Example 4.10.2. For any positive integer m, let Dm be the set of all divisors of m. Then
(Dm, 1) under the relation of divisibility is a lattice and the set of all positive integers under divisibility
is a lattice (N, 1). Here, Dm ⊂ N. Hence, (Dm, 1) is a sublattice of lattice (N, 1). For example
(D12, 1) is a sublattice of (N, 1), where D12 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} a1
Example 4.10.3. Let L = {a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, a8}
The diagram of lattice
a4
(L, ≤) is given in the adjacent figure. a2
a3
Let S1 = {a1, a2, a4, a6}, S2 = {a3, a5, a7, a8} and S3 =
{a1, a2, a4, a8}. We see that (S1, ≤) and (S2, ≤) are sublattices of
(L, ≤), but (S3, ≤) is not a sublattice, because a2, a4 ∈ S3 but a5
a6 a7
a2 * a4 = a6 ∉ S3.
a8
Fig. 4.13
Though (S3, ≤) is a lattice as shown in the adjacent diagram 4.14.

a1
a2 a4
a8
Fig. 4.14
4.11 DIRECT PRODUCT OF TWO LATTICES

Definition 4.11.1. Let (L1, *, ⊕) and (L2, ∧, ∨) be two lattices. The cartesian product L1 × L2
= {(a1, b1) | a1 ∈ L1, b1 ∈ L2}. The system (L1 × L2, · , +) in which binary operations · and + on
L1 × L2 are defined by for any (a1, b1), (a2, b2) ∈ L1 × L2, a1, a2 ∈ L1, b1, b2 ∈ L2
(a1, b1) · (a2, b2) = (a1 * a2, b1 ∧ b2)
(a1, b1) + (a2, b2) = (a1 ⊕ a2, b1 ∨ b2)
is called the direct product of the lattices (L1, *, ⊕) and (L2, ∧, ∨).
THEOREM 4.11.1. Let (L1, *, ⊕) and (L2, ∧, ∨) be two lattices.
Then the system (L1 × L2, ·, +) is a lattice under the binary operations · and +.
Proof. Let (a1, b1), (a2, b2) ∈ L1 × L2. Then a1, a2 ∈ L1 and b1, b2 ∈ L2. Since (L1, *, ⊕) and
(L2, ∧, ∨) are lattices, then a1 * a2 ∈ L1, a1 ⊕ a2 ∈ L1 and b1 ∧ b2∈ L2, b1 ∨ b2 ∈ L2. So
(a1, b1) · (a2, b2) = (a1 * a2, b1 ∧ b2) ∈ L1 × L2
(a1, b1) + (a2, b2) = (a1 ⊕ a2, b1 ∨ b2) ∈ L1 × L2.
That is L1 × L2 is closed under the operations · and +.
We observe that it satisfies the following properties:
(i) Commutative Property. For (a1, b1), (a2, b2) ∈ L1 × L2
(1a) (a1, b1) · (a2, b2) = (a1 * a2, b1 ∧ b2)
= (a2 * a1, b2 ∧ b1) since * and ∧ are commutative in L1 and L2
respectively.
= (a2, b2) · (a1, b1)
So the operation · is commutative.
(1b) (a1, b1) + (a2, b2) = (a1 ⊕ a2, b1 ∨ b2)
= (a2 ⊕ a1, b2 ∨ b1)
= (a2, b2) + (a1, b1)
So the operation + is commutative.
(ii) Associative Property. For (a1, b1), (a2, b2), (a3, b3) ∈ L1 × L2
(2a) {(a1, b1) · (a2, b2)}· (a3, b3) = (a1 * a2, b1 ∧ b2) · (a3, b3)
= ((a1 * a2) * a3, (b1 ∧ b2) ∧ b3)
= (a1 * (a2 * a3), b1 ∧ (b2 ∧ b3))
= (a1, b1) · (a2 * a3, b2 ∧ b3)
= (a1, b1) · {(a2, b2) · (a3, b3)}
So · is associative.
(2b) {(a1, b1) + (a2, b2)} + (a3, b3) = (a1 ⊕ a2, b1 ∨ b2) + (a3, b3)
= ((a1 ⊕ a2) ⊕ a3, (b1 ∨ b2) ∨ b3)
= (a1 ⊕ (a2 ⊕ a3), (b1 ∨ (b2 ∨ b3))
= (a1, b1) + (a2 ⊕ a3, b2 ∨ b3)
= (a1, b1) + {(a2, b2) + (a3, b3)}.
So + is associative.
(iii) Absorption Law. For (a1, b1), (a2, b2) ∈ L1 × L2
(a1, b1) · {(a1, b1) + (a2, b2)} = (a1, b1) · (a1 ⊕ a2, b1 ∨ b2)
= (a1 * (a1 ⊕ a2), b1 ∧ (b1 ∨ b2)
= (a1, b1) since L1, L2 are lattices.
Similarly, we can show that
(a1, b1) + {(a1, b1) · (a2, b2)} = (a1, b1).
Thus, (L1 × L2, · , + ) is a lattice.
Example 4.11.1. Let L = {0, 1} and the lattice (L, ≤) is shown in the adjacent figure 4.15(a).
Then
1
L × L = L2 = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)}
L × L × L = L3 = {(0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), (0, 1, 0)
0
(0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}
Fig. 4.15 (a)
The lattices (L2, ≤2) and (L3, ≤3) are shown in adjacent figures 4.15 (b).
(1, 1)
(1, 1, 1)
(1, 0) (0, 1) (1, 1, 0) (0, 1, 1)

(1, 0, 1)
(0, 1, 0) (0, 0, 1)
(1, 0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0, 0)
Fig. 4.15 (b)

where ≤ means the relation of ‘‘less than or equal to’’ on, {0, 1}
If a = (a1, a2, a3), b = (b1, b2, b3) ∈ L3, then a ≤ b ⇔ ai ≤ bi for all i = 1, 2, 3.
Example 4.11.2. Let D4 = {1, 2, 4} and D9 = {1, 3, 9} be the set of divisors of 4 and 9
respectively. Let the relation of partial ordering be division.
D4 × D9 = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 9), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 9), (4, 1) (4, 3), (4, 9)}.
The (D4, 1) and (D9, 1) are lattices it is clear that D4 and D9 are chains.
4 9
2 3
1 1
(D4 × D9, · , +) is also lattice which is shown in the following diagram 4.16 :
(4, 9)
(4, 3) (2,9)
(4, 1) (2, 3) (1, 9)
(2, 1) (1, 3)
(1, 1)
Fig. 4.16
We also notice that diagram of the lattice of divisors of 36 is the same as given above except
the node (a, b) is replaced by the product ab.
Example 4.11.3. Let (C1, ≤1) and (C2, ≤2) be two chains, where C1 = {0, 1, 2}, C2 = {0, 1}
and ≤1 and ≤2 are usual relation ‘less than and equal to’. Then
C1 × C2 = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 0), (2, 1)}
(C1 × C2, ≤) is a lattice which is shown in the following diagram 4.17:
(2, 1)
(1, 1)
(2, 0)
(0, 1) (1, 0)
(0, 0)
Fig. 4.17
which is the same as the diagram of divisors of 20 as D20 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20}.
4.12 ISOMORPHIC LATTICES

Definition 4.12.1. Let (L, *, ⊕) and (S, ^, ∨) be two lattices. A mapping f: L → S is called a lattice
homomorphism from the lattice (L, *, ⊕) to (S, ^, ∨) if for any a, b ∈ L
f (a * b) = f (a) ^ f (b)
and f (a ⊕ b) = f (a) ∨ f (b).
That is, f preserves the both operations of meet and join. There are many mappings which
preserve one of the two operations. Such mappings are not lattice homomorphisms.
THEOREM 4.12.1. Let (L1 *, ⊕) and (S, ∧, ∨) be two lattices and the partial ordering relations
on L and S corresponding to the operations of meet and join be ≤ and ≤′ respectively. If f : L → S
is a homomorphism, then for a, b ∈ L such that a ≤ b, then f(a) ≤′ f(b).
Proof. We have, a ≤ b ⇒ a*b=a

⇒ f (a * b) = f (a)
⇒ f (a) ∧ f (b) = f (a)
⇒ f (a) ≤′ f (b).
This means that a ≤ b ⇒ f(a) ≤′ f(b) if f is a homomorphism.
Definition 4.12.2. Two lattices (L, *, ⊕) and (S, ∧, ∨) are said to be isomorphic, if there is a one-
to-one mapping f : L → S such that for any a, b ∈ L.
f(a * b) = f (a) ∧ f(b) and f (a ⊕ b) = f(a) ∨ f(b).
If two lattices (L1 *, ⊕) and (S, ∧, ∨) are isomorphic and f : L → S is an isomorphism, then
for any a, b ∈ L.
a ≤ b ⇒ f (a) ≤′ f (b)
and also f (a) ≤′ f (b) ⇒ a ≤ b.
This result shows that two lattices which are isomorphic can be represented by the same
diagram in which the nodes are replaced by the images. This fact explains why we found several
different lattices could be represented by the same diagram.
Definition 4.12.3. Let (L1, *, ⊕) be a lattice. Then a homomorphism f : L → L is called endomorphism.
If f : L → L is an isomorphism, then f is called an automorphism.
It is interesting to note that if f : L → L is a homomorphism then image set f (L) is a sublattice
of (L, *, ⊕).
Example 4.12.1. Let S = {a, b, c}. Then (P(S), ∩, ∪) is a lattice, where P(S) = (φ, {a}, {b},
{c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}, and let D30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} and (D30, gcd, LCM)
is a lattice. Define f : P(S) → D30 by f(a) = 1,
f (a) = 2, f (b) = 3, f (c) = 5, f ({a, b}) = 6, f ({b, c}) = 15
f ({c, a}) = 10. f ({a, b, c}) = 30.
Show that f is a lattice isomorphism.
Solution. For A = {b, c}, B = {a}
A ∪ B = {a, b, c}
⇒ f (A ∪ B) = f {a, b, c} = 30
and f (A) ⊕ f (B) = f ({b, c}) ⊕ f ({a})
= 15 ⊕ 2
= LCM {15, 2} = 30
So f (A ∪ B) = LCM (f (A), f (B) = f (A) ⊕ f (B))
Now A∩B = φ
⇒ f (A ∩ B) = f {φ} = 1,
and f (A) * f (B) = gcd {f (A), f (B)}
= gcd {15, 2} = 1
So f (A ∩ B) = gcd (f (A), f (B) = f (A) * f (B)).
Moreover, A ⊆ S
⇒ A∩S = A
⇒ f (A ∩ S) = f (A)
⇒ f (A) * f (S) = f (A)
⇒ gcd (f (A), f (S)) = f (A)

⇒ f (A) | f (S)·, i.e., 15|30
Hence f is also order preserving.
Thus f is an isomorphism and lattice {P(S), ⊆} is isomorphic to the lattice (D30, 1).
Example 4.12.2. Let L = {1, 2, 3, 6}. Then consider the lattices (L, 1) and (L, ≤), where 1 stands
for divisibility and ≤ is usual relation ‘less than and equal to’, on L.
Show that the lattice (L, 1) is not isomorphic to the lattice (L, ≤).
Solution. Let f : L → L be any mapping.
For 2, 3 ∈ L
2*3 = gcd {2, 3} = 1
⇒ f (2 * 3)= f (1)
But f (2) ∧ f (3)= min {f (2), f (3)}
= f (2) or f (3) as f (2) ≤ f (3) or (f (3) ≤ f (2)
In any case, f (2 * 3) ≠ f (2) ∧ f (3).
Thus (L, 1) is not isomorphic to (L, ≤).
THEOREM 4.12.2. Let (L, *, ⊕) and (S, ∧, ∨) be two lattices. If f : L → S is an isomorphism
and a is the least element of L, then f (a) is the least element of S.
Proof. Since a is the least element of L, then
a ≤ x, for all x ∈ L
⇒ f (a) ≤′ f (x), for all f (x) ∈ S.
Since f is onto, then every element of S is of the form f (x).
Hence f (a) is the least element of S.
THEOREM 4.12.3. If L → S is a isomorphism and x, y ∈ S. Such that x < y, there exist two
elements a, b ∈ L such that f (a) = x, f (b) = y and a < b.
Proof. Since f : L → S is onto, then for x, y ∈ S there exist two elements a, b ∈ L such that
f (a) = x, f (b) = y.
Since f is an isomorphism from L to S, then
For a, b ∈ L
f (a ⊕ b) = f (a) ∨ f (b)
= x∨ y
= y. Since x < y.
We also know that
a≤a ⊕ b
But a = a ⊕ b,
⇒ f (a) = f (a ⊕ b)
⇒ f (a) = f (a) ∨ f (b) = f (b)
⇒ x = y
Which is a contradiction
Hence, a ≠ a⊕b
That is a < a⊕b

If we take b = a ⊕ b, then
a < b and f (a) = x, f (b) = y. Hence proved.
PROBLEM 4.3
1. Show that the union of two sublattices of a lattice is not necessarily a sublattice.
2. Show that the intersection of two sublattices is a sublattice.
3. Show that the diagram in the figure is a lattice and it is not a sublattice of the lattice in the figure.
a
b c d
e f
Fig. 4.18
4. Show that every interval of a lattice is a sublattice.
5. Find all the sublattices of the lattice (Sn, D) for n = 12.
6. Draw the diagram of a lattice which is the direct product of the five-element lattice given in the figure
4.19 and the chain of two elements .
Fig. 4.19
7. Let (D4, 1) and (D9, 1) be two lattices of divisors of 4 and 9 respectively. Draw the diagram of the
product lattices of these lattices.
8. Let S = {a, b, c}. Prove that the lattice (P(S), ⊆) is isomorphic to the lattice (D24, 1).
9. Let (L, *, ⊕) and (S, ∧, ∨) be two lattices. Let f : L → S be isomorphism. If a is the greatest element
of L, then show that f (a) is the greatest element of S.
10. Let f : L → S be an isomorphism from a lattice (L, *, ⊕) to a lattice (S, ^, ∨). If f(a) ≤′ f (b), then
show that a ≤ b.
11. Let (Sn, D), for n = 12, be a lattice, that is, the lattice of divisors of 12 in which the partial order
relation means division and let (Sn, ≤) be a lattice in which ≤ denotes the usual relation, ‘‘less than
or equal to’’. Show that f: Sn → Sn defined by f (x) = x is order preserving and bijective, but f –1 is
not order preserving. That is, prove that (Sn, D) and (Sn, ≤) are neither order-isomorphic nor isomorphic.
[Hint: Here Sn = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} and f : Sn → Sn is given by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2, f (3) = 3,
f (4) = 4, f (6) = 6, f (12) = 12. 12
Here, 1 2, 2 4, 4 12, 1 3, 3 6, 6 12, 3 12

4
⇒ f (1) ≤ f (2), f (2) ≤ f (4), f (4) ≤ f (12), f (6) ≤ f (12), 6
f (3) ≤ f (6), f (3) ≤ f (12).
So f is order preserving. 2
3
Now 2 ≤ 3
But f –1(2) does not divide f –1(3) or 2 does not divide 3.
Hence, f –1 is not order preserving.
1
So (Sn, D) and (Sn, ≤) are neither order isomorphic nor isomorphic.
Fig. 4.20
4.13 COMPLETE LATTICE

In a lattice (L, *, ⊕) we know that every pair of elements of L has a least upper bound and a greatest
lower bound. By principle of induction we can show that every finite subset of a lattice has a least
upper bound and a greatest lower bound. But in the case of infinite subset of a lattice it is not true.
For example, the lattice (N, ≤) in which N is the set of all positive integers has an infinite subset E
of even positive integers. The subset E of even positive integers has no least upper bound.
Definition 4.13.1. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a lattice and S ⊆ L be a finite subset of L where S =
{a1, a2, ... an}. The greatest lower bound and the least upper bound of S can be expressed as
n n
GLB S = ∗ ai and LUB S = ⊕ ai , ...(1)
i =1 i =1
2 k k −1
where ∗ ai = a1 * a2 and ∗ = ∗ ai ... ∗ ak , k = 3, 4, ...
i =1 i =1 i =1
2 k k −1
and ⊕ ai = a1 ⊕ a2 and ⊕ = ⊕ ai ⊕ ak , k = 3, 4, ...
i =1 i=1 i =1
n n
Since * and ⊕ are associative, we can write them as * = a1 * a2 * ... * an and ⊕ = a1 ⊕ a2
i=1 i=1
⊕ ... ⊕ an.
Definition 4.13.2. A lattice (L, *, ⊕) is called complete if each of its non-empty subset has a least
upper bound and a greatest lower bound.
Bounded Lattice. It is obvious that every finite lattice is complete and every complete lattice
must have a least element and greatest element. The least and the greatest elements of a lattice, if
they exist, are called the bounds of the lattice and are denoted by 0 and 1 respectively.
Definition 4.13.3. A lattice (L, *, ⊕) which has both bounds 0 and 1 is called a bounded lattice
denoted by (L, *, ⊕, 0, 1).
For the lattice (L, *, ⊕, 0, 1) with L = {a1, a2, ... an}.
n n
* ai = 0 and ⊕ ai = 1 ...(2)
i =1 i =1
or a1 * a2 * ... * an = 0 and a1 ⊕ a2 ⊕ ... ⊕ an = 1
Properties of a Bounded Lattice

The bounds 0 and 1 of a bounded lattice (L, *, ⊕, 0, 1) satisfy the following properties: For
all a ∈ L
(i) a ⊕ 0 = a, a*1=a ...(3)
a ⊕ 1 = 1, a*0=0 ...(4)
It is clear that 0 is the identity in L with respect to the operation join ⊕ and 1 is the identity
in L with respect to the operation meet *. Similarly, 0 and 1 are zeros with respect to the operation
* and ⊕ respectively. In bounded lattice 0 and 1 are duals of each other, and the principle of duality
can be extended to include the interchange of 0 and 1. The identities in (3) are duals of each other,
and so are also the identities in (4).
4.14 COMPLEMENTED LATTICES

Definition 4.14.1. In a bounded lattice (L, *, ⊕, 0, 1), an element b ∈ L is said to be complement
of an element a ∈ L
If a * b = 0 and a ⊕ b = 1.
The complement in a and b is symmetric, that is, if a is complement of b, then b is also
complement of a. Any element a ∈ L may or may not have a complement. Moreover, an element
a ∈ L may have more than one complement in L.
THEOREM 4.14.1. In bounded lattice (L, *, ⊕, 0, 1), 0 and 1 are complements of each other.
Proof. We show that 1 is the complement of 0.
We have, 0 * 1 = 0 and 0 ⊕ 1 = 1 ...(5)
Let c ≠ 1 be the complement of 0 and let c ∈ L.
Then, 0 * c = 0 and 0 ⊕ c = 1
But 0 ⊕ c = c since 0 is the identity in L with respect to ⊕ and c ≠ 1. This leads to contradiction.
So, 1 is the complement of 0.
In a similar manner, we can show that the 0 is the complement of 1.
Definition 4.14.2. A lattice (L, *, ⊕, 0, 1) is said to be a complemented lattice if every element of
L has at least one complement.
Example 4.14.1. In the adjacent figures, the diagram of some lattices are given and the
complements of some elements are given on next page.
1 1 1
b
a a
a b b
c
c
0 0 0
The complement of a is b Complements of a are b and c Complements of a are b and c
Complements of b are a and c
Fig. 4.21
Example 4.14.2. The lattice (P(S), ⊆) of the power set of any set S, in which the meet and join
operations are ∩ and ∪ respectively, is a complemented lattice. The bounds P(S) are φ and S. The
complement of any subset of A in S is S − A.
THEOREM 4.14.2. Two bounded lattices (L, *, ⊕) and (M, ∧, ∨) are complemented if and only
if (L × M, ·, +) is complemented.
Proof. Let 0 and 1 are 0′ and 1′ be universal bounds of lattices L and M respectively.
Then (0, 0′) and (1, 1′) will be the least and the greatest elements of L × M.
Let (a, b) ∈ L × M, a ∈ L, b ∈ M.
Since L and M are complemented lattices, then there exist elements a′ ∈ L, b′ ∈ M such that
a * a′ = 0 and a ⊕ a′ = 1
and b ∧ b′ = 0′ and b ∨ b′ = 1′.
Now (a, b) · (a′, b′) = (a * a′, b ∧ b′) = (0, 0′)
(a, b) + (a′, b′) = (a ⊕ a′, b ∨ b′) = (1, 1′)
⇒ (a′, b′) is the complement of (a, b) ∈ L × M.
Hence (L × M, ·, +) is complemented.
Conversely, let (L × M, ·, +) be complemented.
Let (a, b) ∈ L × M, there exist (a′, b′) ∈ L × M. Such that
(a, b) · (a′, b′) = (0, 0′)
and (a, b) + (a′, b′) = (1, 1′)
⇒ (a * a′, b ∧ b′) = (0, 0′)
(a ⊕ a′, b ∨ b′) = (1, 1′)
⇒ a * a′ = 0, b ∧ b′ = 0′
and a ⊕ a′ = 1, b ∨ b′ = 1′
⇒ a′ is the complement of a in L and b′ is the complement of b in M.
Thus, L and M are complemented.
THEOREM 4.14.3. The dual of a complemented lattice is complemented.
Proof. Let (L, R) be a complemented lattice with 0 and 1 as the least and the greatest elements
respectively.
Let (L, R′) be the dual of (L, R), then 1 and 0 are as the least and the greatest elements
respectively.
Let a ∈ L. Since L is complemented, then there exists an elements a′ ∈ L such that
a * a′ = 0 and a ⊕ a′ = 1 in L.
⇒ 0 = GLB {a, a′} in L
⇒ 0 R a and 0R a′ in (L, R)
⇒ a R′ 0, a′ R 0 in (L, R′)
⇒ 0 is the upper bound of {a, a′} in (L, R′)
Let x ∈ (L, R′) be another upper bound of {a, a′}. Then a R′ x, a′ R′ x in (L, R′)
⇒ x R a, x Ra′ in (L, R)
⇒ x is the lower bound of {a, a′} in (L, R)
Since, 0 = GLB {a, a′} in (L, R)
⇒ x R 0 in (L, R)
⇒ 0 R′ x in (L, R′)
As x is arbitrary, 0 is the least upper bound of {a, a′} in (L, R′)
Similarly, we can prove that
1 = GLB {a, a′} in (L, R′)
⇒ (L, R′) is complemented.
4.15 DISTRIBUTIVE LATTICE

Definition 4.15.1. A lattice (L, *, ⊕,) is called distributive lattice if for a, b, c ∈ L
a * (b ⊕ c) = (a * b) ⊕ (a * c)
a ⊕ (b * c) = (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c).
That is, a lattice (L, *, ⊕) is distributive if meet is distributive over join and join is distributive
over meet.
It is sufficient to verify anyone of these two equalities for all possible combinations of the
elements of a lattice.
It is noted that the distributive properties may be satisfied by some elements of a lattice, but
this does not mean that the lattice is distributive as it is clear from the following example:
Example 4.15.1. Show that the lattices represented by the diagram in the adjacent figure 4.22
are not distributive.
1 1
b
a x
y
z
c
0 0
Fig. 4.22
Solution. c * (a ⊕ b) = c * 1 = c
and (c * a) ⊕ (c * b) = 0 ⊕ c = c
so c * (a ⊕ b) = (c * a) ⊕ (c * b)
and a * (b ⊕ c) = a * b = 0
and (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) = 0 ⊕ 0 = 0
so a * (b ⊕ c) = (a * b) ⊕ (a * c)
But b * (a ⊕ c) = b * 1 = b
and (b * a) ⊕ (b * c) = 0 ⊕ c = c
Thus, b * (a ⊕ c) ≠ (b * a) ⊕ (b * c)
Hence, the lattice is not distributive.
In second case,
x * (y ⊕ z) = x * 1 = x
and (x * y) ⊕ (x * z) = 0 ⊕ 0 = 0
Thus, x * (y ⊕ z) ≠ (x * y) ⊕ (x * z)
Hence the lattice in this case is also not distributive.
In the following theorem, we see that certain lattices are always distributive.
THEOREM 4.15.1. Every chain is a distributive lattice.
Proof. Let (L1 ≤ ) be a littice. Let a, b, c ∈ L. Now there are two possibilities:
(i) a ≤ b or a ≤ c (ii) a ≥ b or a ≥ c
Case I: Let a ≤ b or a ≤ c. Then
a * (b ⊕ c) = a * b if c ≤ b
= a
and a * (b ⊕ c) = a ⊕ c if b ≤ c
= a
and (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) = a ⊕ a = a
So a * (b ⊕ c) = (a * b) ⊕ (a * c)
Case II: Let a ≥ b or a ≥ c
a * (b ⊕ c) = b ⊕ c
and (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) = b ⊕ c
Hence a * (b ⊕ c) = (a * b) ⊕ (a * c)
This proves the theorem.
THEOREM 4.15.2. The direct product of any two distributive lattices is a distributive lattice.
Proof. Let (L, *, ⊕) and (S, ∧, ∨) be two distributive lattices.
L × S = {(a, b)  a ∈ L, b ∈ S}. The meet · and join + are defined by
(a1, b1) . (a2, b2) = (a1 * a2, b1 ∧ b2)
and (a1, b1) + (a2, b2) = (a1 ⊕ a2, b1 ∧ b2).
We have proved that (L × S, ·, +) is a lattice.
Now it remains to show that the meet is distributive over join and vice-versa.
For (a1, b1), (a2, b2), (a3, b3) ∈ L × S,
(a1, b1) . {(a2, b2) ⊕ (a3, b3)}

= (a1, b1) . (a2 ⊕ a3, b2 ∨ b3)
= (a1 * (a2 ⊕ a3), b1 ∧ (b2 ∨ b3))
= ((a1 * a2) ⊕ (a1 * a3), (b1 ∧ b2) ∨ (b1 ∧ b3))
= (a1 * a2, b1 ∧ b2) + (a1 * a3, b1 ∧ b3)
= (a1, b1) . (a2, b2) + (a1, b1) . (a3, b3)
Similarly, we can prove that join is distributic over meet.
Hence, the theroem is proved.
In addition it is obvious that any sublattice of a distributive lattice is distributive. We also
observe that the distributive laws are duals of each other.
Example 4.15.2. The lattice (P (S), !, ") of power set of a set S is a distributive lattice since
! is distributive over " and " is distributive over !.
Example 4.15.3. Let (N, D) be a lattice of positive integers and let D denote the relation of
division in N, such that for any a, b ∈ N, a D b iff a divides b. Therefore the join ⊕ and meet *
of a and b are given by LCM {a, b} = a ⊕ b and gcd {a, b} = a * b. Then (N, D) is a distributive
lattice, and so are the sublattices (Sn, D) for any positive integer n.
THEOREM 4.15.3. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a distributive lattice. For any a, b, c ∈ L
(a * b = a * c) and (a ⊕ b = a ⊕ c) ⇒ b = c.
Proof. Assume that a * b = a * c and a ⊕ b = a ⊕ c
Then (a * b) ⊕ c = (a * c) ⊕ c = c
Since a* b = a*c ...(1)
and (a * b) ⊕ c = (a ⊕ c) * (b ⊕ c)
= (a ⊕ b) * (b ⊕ c). Since a ⊕ b = a ⊕ c
= (b ⊕ a) * (b ⊕ c)
= b ⊕ (a * c) By distributive properly
= b ⊕ (a * b) = b By absorption law ...(2)
From (1) and (2)
b = c.
THEOREM 4.15.4. In a distributive lattice (L, *, ⊕), if an element a ∈ L has a complement,
it must be unique.
Proof. Let a ∈ L and Let b and c be two complements of a. Then
a * b = 0, a * c = 0.
and a ⊕ b = 1, a ⊕ c = 1
That is, a * b = a * c and a ⊕ b = a ⊕ c
But from above theorem 4.15.3 this means b = c.
Hence the complement of an element a ∈ L, if it exists, is unique.
Now we recall that a lattice is complemented if every element of the lattice has at least one
complement. If we consider those distributive lattices which are also complemented, then every
element a ∈ L has a unique complement and it is denoted by a′ ∈ L. Lattice which are complemented
and distributive are called Boolean Algebra.
THEOREM 4.15.5. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a distributive lattice and let c′ be the complement of an
element c in L. Then b * c′ = 0 ⇒ b ≤ c.
Proof. Let, b * c′ = 0, then
(b * c′) ⊕ c = 0 ⊕ c = c ...(1)
Since the lattice is distributive
(b * c′) ⊕ c = (b ⊕ c) * (c′ ⊕ c)
= (b ⊕ c) * I = b ⊕ c ...(2)
b⊕c = c
⇒ b ≤ c.
Example 4.15.4. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a complemented and distributive lattice. Then prove De
Morgan’s laws given by
(a ⊕ b)′ = a′ * b′ ...(1)
(a * b)′ = a′ ⊕ b′. ...(2)
Solution. To prove (1), we show that
(a′ * b′) ⊕ (a ⊕ b) = 1
and (a′ * b′) * (a ⊕ b) = 0
Now (a′ * b′) ⊕ (a ⊕ b) = (a′ ⊕ (a ⊕ b)) * (b′ ⊕ (a ⊕ b))
= (a′ ⊕ a ⊕ b) * (b′ ⊕ b ⊕ a)
= (1 ⊕ b) * (1 ⊕ a)
= 1*1=1
and (a′ * b′) * (a ⊕ b) = (a′ * b′ * a) ⊕ (a′ * b′ * b)
= (0 * b′) ⊕ (a′ * 0)
= 0 ⊕ 0 = 0.
Thus, (a ⊕ b)′ = a′ * b′
Since the complement of an element is unique.
Hence, (a ⊕ b)′ = a′ * b′.
To prove (2), we show that
(a * b) ⊕ (a′ ⊕ b′) = 1
and (a * b) * (a′ ⊕ b′) = 0
Now (a * b) ⊕ (a′ ⊕ b′) = (a ⊕ a′ ⊕ b′) * (b ⊕ a′ ⊕ b′)
= (1 ⊕ b′) * (1 ⊕ a′)
= 1 * 1 = 1.
and (a * b) ∗ (a′ ⊕ b′) = (a * b * a′) ⊕ (a * b * b′)
= (0 * b) ⊕ (a * 0)
= 0 ⊕ 0 = 0.
Example 4.15.5. Show that in the adjoining figure 4.23(a) the lattice is not distributive while
in figure 4.23(b) the lattice is distributive.
1
1
c c
d e
d
a a
b
b
0
0
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.23
Solution. In figure (a) L = {0, a, b, c, d, e, 1}
a * (b ⊕ c) = a * 1 = a
(a * b) ⊕ (a * c) = 0 ⊕ 0 = 0
So, this lattice is not distributive.
In figure (b) the lattice is distributive.
4.16 MODULAR LATTICES

Definition 4.16.1. A lattice is said to be modular if
a ≤ c ⇒ a ⊕ (b * c) = (a ⊕ b) * c.
REMARKS: (1) If we put a = c,
a ⊕ (b * c) = a ⊕ (b * a) = a by absorption law
and (a ⊕ b) * c = (a ⊕ b) * a = a by absorption law.
Hence above condition is satisfied.
(2) If b ≤ c, then
a ≤ c and b ≤ c ⇒ a * b ≤ c and a ⊕ b ≤ c.
Therefore, a ⊕ (b * c) = a ⊕ b = c
(a ⊕ b) * c = c * c = c
Hence the condition is satisfied.
(3) If c ≤ b, then
a ≤ c and c ≤ b ⇒ b * c = c and a ⊕ b = b
∴ a ⊕ (b * c) = a * c = c
and (a ⊕ b) * c = b * c = c.
Hence above condition is satisfied.
(4) If b ≤ a, then
a ≤ c and b ≤ a ⇒ b ≤ c
∴ a ⊕ (b * c) = a ⊕ b = a since b ≤ a
and (a ⊕ b) * c = a * c = a.
Hence the above condition is satisfied.
(5) If a ≤ b, then
a ≤ c and a ≤ b ⇒ a ≤ b * c
∴ a ⊕ (b * c) = b * c since a ≤ b * c
and (a ⊕ b) * c = b * c since a ≤ b.
Hence the above condition is satisfied.
Thus from conditions (1) to (5) we conclude that whenever a = c or b is comparable with a
and c, the condition of modularity in satisfied. Hence to check modularity of a lattice we check the
condition for triad a, b, c, where a > c and b is not comparable with a or c.
Example 4.16.1. The lattice shown in the adjoining figure 4.24.
1
a is modular
b
c
Fig. 4.24
Solution. Here we need to check the lattice only for triplets a, b, c where a > c and b is not
comparable with a or c. So, we cannot find out triplet a, b, c such that a > c and b is not comparable
with a or c.
Hence, it is modular.
THEOREM 4.16.1. Every distributive lattice is modular.
Proof. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a distributive lattice.
For a, b ∈ L, we shall show that
a ≤ c ⇒ a ⊕ (b * c) = (a ⊕ b) * c.
Since L is distributive, then
a ⊕ (b * c) = (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c) ...(1)
and a≤c⇒a⊕c =c ...(2)
1
a ≤ c ⇒ a ⊕ (b * c) = (a ⊕ b) * c.
Hence (L, *, ⊕) is modular.
But every modular lattice is not a distributive lattice as shown in the
adjoining figure 4.25. a b c
This lattice is not distributive because
a * (b ⊕ c) = a * 1 = a
(a * b) ⊕ (a * c) = 0 ⊕ 0 = 0.
This lattice is referred as M5. (Pentagonal lattice) 0
Fig. 4.25
THEOREM 4.16.2. The dual of distributive lattice is distributive.

Proof. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a distributive lattice. By principle of duality, the dual of any therorem
in a lattice is also a theorem. So by interchange * and ⊕ in the system (L, *, ⊕) we get (L, ⊕, *)
when is distributive lattice.
THEOREM 4.16.3. Every chain is a modular lattice.
Proof. Since we cannot find any triplet a, b, c in a lattice such that a > c and b is not
comparable with a or c. So every chain is a modular lattice.
THEOREM 4.16.4. A sublattice of a modular lattice is modular.
Proof. Let (S, *, ⊕) be a sublattice of a modular lattice (L, *, ⊕). If a, b, c ∈ S with a ≤ c,
then as S ⊆ L, so we have a, b, c ∈ L and a ≤ c and a * (b * c) = (a ⊕ b) * c ...(1)
Since S is closed under the operations * and ⊕, the result (1) holds in S. Hence sublattice
(S, *, ⊕) is modular.
Corollary. If a lattice has a pentagonal sublattice then it cannot be modular. (Pentagonal lattice
is not modular).
Proof. Let a lattice (L, *, ⊕) have a pentagonal sublattice. The pentagonal lattice is not modular.
So the lattice cannot be modular.
THEOREM 4.16.5. The homomorphic image of a distributive lattice is distributive.
Proof. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a distributive lattice and let f : L → M be a homomorphism, where
(M, ∧, ∨) is a lattice.
We have to show that M is distributive.
Let x, y, z ∈ M. Then there exist elements a, b, c ∈ L such that f (a) = x, f (b) = y, f (c) = z.
Now, x ∧ (y ∨ z) = f (a) ∧ (f (b) ∨ f (c))
= f (a) ∧ (f (b ⊕ c))
= f (a * (b ⊕ c))
= f ((a * b) ⊕ (a * c))
= f (a * b) ∨ f (a * c))
= (f (a) ∧ f (b) ∨ (f (a) f (c))
= (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z)
⇒ (M, ∧, ∨) is distributive.
THEOREM 4.16.6. If (L, *, ⊕) and (M, ∧, ∨) are two distributive lattices, then (L × M, ·, +)
is also distributive lattice.
Proof. For (a1, b1,), (a2, b2), (a3, b3) ∈ L × M,
where, a1, a2, a3 ∈ L and b1, b2, b3 ∈ M.
Now, (a1, b1) . {(a2, b2) + (a3, b3)}
= (a1, b1) . (a2 ⊕ a3, b2 ∨ b3)
= (a1 * (a2 ⊕ a3) , b1, (b2 ∨ b3))
= [(a1 * a2) ⊕ (a1 * a3), (b1 ∧ b2) ∨ (b1 ∧ b3)]
= (a1 * a2, b1 ∧ b2) + (a1 * a3, b1 ∧ b3)
= (a1, b1) . (a2, b2) + (a1, b1) . (a3, b3)
Similarly, by duality
(a1, b1) + ((a2, b2) . (a3, b3)) = ((a1, b1) + (a2, b2)) . ((a1, b1) + (a3, b3))
⇒ L × M is distributive.
PROBLEM 4.4
1. Find the complements of every elements of the lattice (Sn, D) for n = 75.
2. Show that in a lattice with two or more elements, no element is its own complement.
3. Show that a chain of three or more elements is not complemented.
4. Which of the two lattices (Sn , D) for n = 30 or n = 45 are complemented? Are these lattices
distributive?
5. Show that in a complemented, distributive lattice
a ≤ b ⇔ a * b′ = 0 ⇔ a′ ⊕ b = 1 ⇔ b′ ≤ a′.
6. Show that a lattice is distributive iff
(a * b) ⊕ (b * c) ⊕ (c * a) = (a ⊕ b) * (b ⊕ c) * (c ⊕ a).
7. Show that in a distributive lattice, the distributive law can be generalised as
FG ⊗ b IJ
n n FG * b IJ
n n
a*
H K
i =
i = ⊗ (a * bi) and a ⊕
i = H K
i =1
i = ∗ a ⊕ bi
i =
8. Show that in a bounded distributive lattice, the element which have complements form a sublattice.
❑❑❑
# Boolean Algebra and
Switching Circuits
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Boolean Algebra was originated by the English mathematician Goarge Boole (1815–1864) who, in
1954, published the book ‘an Investigation into laws of thought’’, on which the Mathematical Theories
and Probability are founded.
In this chapter, we shall observe a number of similarities between the concepts and the result
of set Theory and Boolean Algebra and we are going to generalise the concept and results of set
theory which will result in a mathematical system known as Boolean Algebra.
Now we consider a power set P(U) of a non-empty set U together with two binary operations
∪ (Cup), ∩ (Cap), and a unary operation, (complementation) and we observe the following properties:
(1) The power set P (U) is closed with respect to each of these three operations, i.e., for all
A, B ∈ P(U), A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A′ ∈ P(U).
(2) Each of the operations ∪ and ∩ is commutative that is, for all A, B ∈ P(U)
A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A
(3) Each of the binary operations ∪ and ∩ is associative.
That is, for all A, B ∈ P(U)
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C),
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
(4) Each binary operation is distributive over the other, that is, for all A, B, C ∈ P(U)
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C),
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
(5) There exist in P(U), distinct element φ and U, φ ≠ U such that
A ∪ φ = A and A ∩ U = A.
for every A ∈ P(U).
(6) For each element A in P(X) there exists an element A′ such that A ∪ A′ = U and A ∩ A′ = φ.
In this case, we say that the power set P(U) together with two binary operations ∪ and ∩, and
a unary operation is a Boolean Algebra. Now we give the definition.
112
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 113
Definition 5.1.1. A non-empty set B with at least two distinct elements with two binary operations
+ and · and a unary operations, is called a Boolean Algebra, denoted by (B, + , ·,′) if and only if the
following axioms are satisfied:
B (1) Commutative Property. Both binary operations are commutative, that is, for all a, b ∈ B
(1) a + b = b + a
(2) a · b = b · a
B (2) Associative Property. Both binary operations are associative, that is, for all a, b, c ∈ B
(1) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(2) (a · b) · c = a · (b · c)
B (3) Existence of Identity. There exist two elements 0 and 1 in B, 0 ≠ 1, such that
(1) a + 0 = 0 + a = a
(2) a · 1 = 1 · a = a
0 is the identity with respect to + and 1 is the identity with respect to ·
B (4) Distributive Property. Each binary operation is distributive over the other, that is, for
all a, b, c ∈ B
(1) a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c)
(2) a + (b · c) = (a + b) · (a + c)
B (5) Existence of Complement. For each element a ∈ B there exists an element a′ ∈ B such
that
a + a′ = a′ + a = 1, identity for ·
and a · a′ = a′ · a = 0 identity for + .
Here we wrote the symmetry of the axioms. If we interchange + and · and also interchanges
0 and 1 the same set of axioms are obtained. This property is referred to as the duality of a set of
axioms and is stated as our first theorem.
THEOREM 5.1.1. (Principal of Duality). Any theorems of Boolean Algebra remains valid if
+ is interchanged with · , and 0 is interchanged with I systematically in the theorem.
Example 5.1.1. The set B = {0, 1} with two binary operations + and · and a unary operation′
defined on B by the following operation tables is a Boolean Algebra. For it satisfies the following
properties:
+ 0 1 0 1 a a′
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
Table 1 Table 2
(1) Closure Property. Since every entry of the operation tables is in B, the set B is closed under
all three operations.
(2) Commutative Property. Since Tables 1 and 2 are symmetric, both operations + and · are
commutative.
(3) Associative Property. Both operations + and · are associative.
From the operation tables we have

(1 + 0) + 1 = 1 + 1 = 1 and 1 + (0 + 1) = 1 + 1 = 1
⇒ (1 + 0) + 1 = 1 + (0 + 1),
and (1 · 0) · 1 = 0.1 = 0 and 1 · (0 · 1) = 1 · 0 = 0
⇒ (1 · 0) · 1 = 1 · (0 · 1).
(4) Existence Identity. From the operation table, we have
0 + 0 = 0,
1 + 0 = 0 + 1 = 1,
and 0 · 1 = 1 · 0 = 0, 1 · 1 = 1
therefore 0 is the identity for the operation + and 1 is the identity for the operation ·
(5) Distributive Property. Each operation is distributive over the other, i.e.,
0 + (1 . 0) = 0 + 0 = 0
and (0 + 1) · (0 + 0) = 1 · 0 = 0
∴ 0 + (1 · 0) = (0 + 1) · (0 + 0)
and 1 · (1 + 0) = 1 · 1 = 1.
1·1+1·0 = 1+0=1
∴ 1 · (1 + 0) = 1 · 1 + 1 · 0.
(6) Existence of Complements. For 0 ∈ B there is an element I ∈ B such that
0 + 1 = 1 + 0 = 1, identity for ·
and 0 · 1 = 1 · 0 = 0, identity for +
∴ 0′ = 1 and 1′ = 0.
Hence the system (B, +, ·,) is a Boolean Algebra.
THEOREM 5.1.2. For any a ∈ B, a + a = a, a · a = a (Idempotent Law).
Proof. We have
L.H.S. = a + a = (a + a) · 1 By B3
= (a + a) · (a + a′) By B5
= a + (a · a′) By B4
= a+0 By B5
= a = R.H.S. By B3
Similarly, L.H.S. = a·a=a·a+0 By B3
= a · a + a · a′ By B5
= a · (a + a′) By B4
= a·1 By B5
= a = R.H.S. By B3
THEOREM 5.1.3. For any a ∈ B, (i) a + I = I, (ii) a · 0 = 0
Proof. (i) We have
L.H.S. = a + I
= a + a + a′ By B5
= (a + a) + a′ By B2
= a + a′ By Th. 5.1.2
= I = R.H.S. By B5
(ii) We have
L.H.S. = a·0
= a · (a · a′) By B5
= (a · a) · a′ By B2
= a · a′ By Th. 5.1.2
= 0 = R.H.S. By B5
THEOREM 5.1.4. For 0, 1 ∈ B,
(i) 0′ = 1
(ii) 1′ = 0
Proof. (i) We have
0′ = 0 + 0′ By B3
= 1 By B5
(ii) We have
1′ = 1 · 1′ By B3
= 0 By B5
THEOREM 5.1.5. For any a, b ∈ B,
(1) a + a · b = a
(Absorption Laws)
(2) a · (a + b) = a
Proof. (i) We have
L.H.S. = a + a·b
= a ·1+a·b By B3
= a · (1 + b) By B4
= a ·1 By Th. 5.1.3
= a = R.H.S. By B3
(ii) We have
L.H.S. = a · (a + b)
= (a + 0) · (a + b) By B3
= a + (0 · b) By B4
= a+0 By Th. 5.1.3
= a By B3
THEOREM 5.1.6. 0 and 1 are unique.
Proof. Let 0 and 01 be two identities with respect to the operation +. Then
0 + 01 = 01 + 0 = 01 (when 0 is the identity)
0 + 01 = 01 + 0 = 0 (when 01 is the identity).
It follows 0 = 01
Hence 0 is unique.
Similarly, Let 1 and I1 be two identities with respect to the operation. Then
1· 11 = 11·1 = 11 (when 1 is the identity)
I· 11 = 11 · 1 = I (when I1 is the identity).
It follows 1 = 11
Hence 1 is unique.
THEOREM 5.1.7. For each a ∈ B, a′ is unique.
Proof. Let a′ and a′′ be
two complements of a.
then a + a′= a′ + a = 1,
a · a′
= a′ · a = 0;
and a + a′′= a′′ + a = 1,
a · a′′
= a′′ · a = 0.
Now a′
= a′ · I
= a′ · (a + a′′). Since a + a′′ = 1
= a′ · a + a′ · a′′ By B4
= 0 + a′ · a′′ By B5
= a · a′′ + a′ · an Since a · a′′ = 0
= (a + a′) · a′′ By B4
= 1 · a′′ By B5
= a′′ By B3
∴ a′ = a′′
Hence the complement a′ for a ∈ B is unique.
THEOREM 5.1.8. For each a ∈ B, (a′)′ = a.
Proof. Since a′ is the complement of a, then
a + a′ = a′ + a = 1,
and a · a′ = a′ · a = 0 ...(1)
Let (a′)′ be the complement of a′. Then
a′ + (a′)′ = (a′)′ + a′ = 1,
and a′ · (a′)′ = (a′)′ · a′ = 0 ...(2)
From (1) and (2) it follows that a and (a′)′ are two complements of a′ but the complement of
each element of Boolean Algebra is unique.
Therefore a = (a′)′.
THEOREM 5.1.9. For a, b ∈ B
(1) (a + b)′ = a′ · b′
(2) (a · b)′ = a′ + b′ (De Morgan's Laws)
Proof. (i) For proving the complement of (a + b) is a′ · b′, we have to prove that
(1) (a + b) + a′ · b′ = 1,
and (2) (a + b) · a′ · b′ = 0.
Now (a + b) + a′ · b′ = (a + b + a′) · (a + b + b′) By B4
= (a + a′ + b)· (a + b + b′) By B1
= (1 + b) · (a + 1) By B5
= 1.1 By Th. 5.1.3
= 1.
and (a + b) · (a′ · b′) = (a ·(a′ · b′)) + (b·(a′ · b′)) By B4
= (a ·(a′ · b′)) + (b·(b′ · a′)) By B1
= (a · a′) · b′ + (b · b′) · a′ By B2
= 0 · b′ + 0 · a′ By B5
= 0+0 By Th. 5.1.2
= 0.
∴ (a + b)′ = a′ · b′
(ii) To show that the complement of (a · b) is a′ + b′, we have to show that
(1) (a · b) + (a′ + b′) = 1,
and (2) (a · b) · (a′ + b′) = 0.
Now (a · b) + (a′ + b′) = (a + (a′ + b′)) · (b + (a′ + b′)) By B4
= (a + (a′ + b′)) · (b + (b′ + a′)) By B1
= ((a + a′) + b′) · ((b + b′) + a′) By B2
= (I + b′) · (I + a′) By B5
= I. I By Th. 5.1.3
= 1.
and (a · b) · (a′ + b′) = (a · b) · a′ + (a · b) · b′ By B4
∴ = (b · a) · a′ + (a · b)·b′ By B1
= b · (a · a′) + a · (b · b′) By B2
= b·0+a·0 BY B5
= 0+0 By Th. 5.1.2
= 0.
∴ (a · b)′ = a′ + b′.
Example 5.1.2. For any a, b ∈ B, show that
(i) a + (a + b) = a + b
(ii) a · (a · b) = a · b
(iii) a · b = a ⇒ a · b′ = 0
(iv) a · b′ = 0 ⇒ a + b = b
(v) a + b = b ⇒ a · b = a
(vi) a + a′ · b = a + b
(vii) a′ + a · b = a′ + b
Proof. (i) We have
L.H.S. = a + (a + b)
= (a + a) + b By B2
= a + b = R.H.S. By Th. 5.1.2
(ii) L.H.S. = a · (a · b)
= (a · a) · b By B2
= a·b By Th. 5.1.2
(iii) We have a · b′ = (a · b) · b′ Since a · b = a
= a · (b · b′) By B2
= a·0 By B5
= 0 By Th. 5.1.3
(iv) We have a+b = (a + b) · 1 By B3
= (b + a) · 1 By B1
= (b + a) · (b + b′) By B5
= b + (a · b′) By B4
= b + 0 Since a · b′ = 0
= b By B5
(v) We have a·b = a · (a + b) Since a + b = b
= a·a+a·b By B4
= a+ a· b By Th. 5.1.2
= a By Th. 5.1.5
(vi) We have R.H.S. = (a + b)
= (a + b) · 1 By B3
= (a + b) · (a + a′) By B5
= (a + b) · a + (a + b) · a′ By B4
= a · a + a · b + a · a′ + b · a′ By B4
= a + a · b + 0 + a′ · b Since a · a′ = 0
= a + a′ · b = L.H.S. Since a + a · b = a
(vii) We have R.H.S. = a′ + b
= a′ · 1 + b · 1
= a′ · (a + 1) + b (a + a′) Since a + 1 = 1
a + a′ = 1
= a′ · a + a′ · 1 + b · a + b · a′ By B4
= a′ + b · a + b · a′ Since a′ · a = 0
= a′ + a · b + a′ · b By B1
= (a′ + a′ · b) + a · b By B1
= a′ + a · b Since a′ + a′ · b = a′ by
= L.H.S. Absorption Law
b = c ⇔ a + b = a + c and a · b = a · c for some a.
Proof. It is clear that
b = c ⇔ a + b = a + c and a · b = a · c for some a.
Now we show that

a + b = a + c and a · b = a · c ⇒ b = c
b = b · (b + a) By Th. 5.1.5
= b · (c + a) Since a + b = a + c
or b+ a= c+a
= (b · c) + (b · a) By B4
= (c · b) + (c · a) Since a · b = a · c
or b·a= c·a
= c · (b + a) By B4
= c · (c + a) Since b + a = c + a
= c. By Th. 5.1.5
REMARK. In Boolean Algebra the cancellation law does not hold, that is,
a+b = a+c ^b=c
and a·b = a·c ^b=c
This means that from a + b = a + c it does not follow that b = c and from a · b = a · c it does
not follow that b = c.
We shall now introduce another binary relations denoted by ⊆ and read ‘‘is included in’’.
Definition 5.1.2. a ⊆ b ⇔ a · b′ = 0
THEOREM 5.1.10. The relation ⊆ is a partial order relation in a Boolean Algebra.
Proof. Here we have to show that this relation is reflexive anti-symmetric, and transitive in
Boolean Algebra (B, + , . , ′ )
(1) Since for all a ∈ B, a · a′ = 0, a ⊆ a. Therefore ⊆ is reflexive
(2) For any two a, b ∈ B, a ⊆ b ⇒ a · b′ = 0 By Def.
⇒ a+b=b By Ex 5.1.2 (iv)
and b ⊆ a ⇒ b · a′ = 0 By Def.
⇒b+a=a By Ex. 5.1.2 (iv)
Therefore a⊆b⇒a+b=b
⇒ a = b + a = a + b = b.
and b⊆a⇒b+a=a
Hence ⊆ is anti-symmetric
(3) For any three elements a, b, c ∈ B,
a ⊆ b and b ⊆ c ⇒ a · b′ = 0 and By Def.
b · c′ = 0
⇒a+b=b By Ex. 5.1.2 (iv)
b+c=c
⇒c=b+c
= (a + b) + c Since b = a + b
= a + (b + c) By B2
=a+c Since b + c = c
⇒ a · c′ = 0 By Ex. 5.1.2 (iv)
⇒ a ⊆ c. By Def.
THEOREM 5.1.11. For all a ∈ B, a ⊆ I

Proof. We have a · I′ = a · 0 By Th. 5.1.4
= 0 By Th. 5.1.3
Hence a · I′ = 0 ⇒ a ⊆ I By Def. of ⊆
THEOREM 5.1.12. For all a ∈ B, 0 ⊆ a
Proof. We have a ∈ B and a′ ∈ B, and
0 · a′ = 0
⇒ 0 ⊆ a
From above theorems, we have 0 ⊆ a ⊆ I for all elements a of a Boolean Algebra. Sometimes
0 and I are called universal bounds.
THEOREM 5.1.13. For any a, b ∈ B
a ⊆ b ⇒ b′ ⊆ a′
Proof. We have b′·(a′)′ = b′ · a
= a · b′
= 0 Since a ⊆ b
b′ · (a′)′ = 0 ⇒ b′ ⊆ a′
Example 5.1.4. Prove that for every a, b ∈ B, where (B, + · ,.) is a Boolean Algebra
a + b is the least upper bound and a · b is the greatest lower bound of a and b.
Proof. Since for all a, b ∈ B
a + (a + b) = (a + a) + b By B2
= a+b By Th. 5.1.2
and b + (a + b) = (b + a) + b By B2
= b + (b + a) By B1
= (b + b) + a By B2
= b+a By Th 5.1.2
= a+b By B1
Therefore a + b is an upper bound of a and b. Let c be any upper bound of a and b. Then
a ⊆ c and b ⊆ c ⇒ a + c = c and b + c = c
Now (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
= a+c
= c
Thus a + b ⊆ c and, hence a + b in the least upper bound.
Similary, since
a + (a · b) = a and b + (a · b) = b.
a · b is a lower bound of a and b.
Let c be any lower bound of a and b. Then
c ⊆ a, c ⊆ b ⇒ c + a = a and c + b = b
Now c + (a · b) = (c + a) · (c + b)
= a·b
Thus, c ⊆ a · b ⊆ c and hence a · b the greatest lower bound of a and b.
Example 5.1.5. Using Boolean Algebra show that

(i) a · b + a · b′ + a′ · b + a′ · b′ = 1,
(ii) (a + b)(b + c)(c + a) = a · b + b · c + c · a,
(iii) pqr + pqr′ + pq′r + p′qr = pq + qr + rp.
Proof. (i) L.H.S. = a · b + a · b′ + a′ · b + a′ · b′
= a · (b + b′) + a′ · (b + b′) By B4
= a · 1 + a′ · 1 By B5
= a + a′ By B3
= 1 = R.H.S. By B5
(ii) L.H.S. = (a + b) · (b + c) · (c + a)
= {(a + b) · (a + c)} · (b + c) By B1
= {a + (b · c)} · (b + c) By B4
= a · (b + c) + (b · c) · (b + c) By B4
= a·b+a·c+ b·c·b+b·c·c By B4
= a·b+a·c+ b·b·c+ b·c By B1 and Th. 5.1.2
= a·b+a·c+ b·c+b·c By Th. 5.1.2
= a·b+a·c+ b·c By Th. 5.1.2
= a · b + b · c + c · a.
(iii) L.H.S. = pqr + pqr′ + pq′r + p′qr
= pq · (r + r′) + pq′r + p′qr By B4
= pq · 1 + pq′r + p′qr By B5
= pq + pq′r + p′qr By B3
= p · (q + q′ · r) + p′qr By B4
= p · ((q + q′) · (q + r)) + p′qr By B4
= p ·(1 ·(q + r)) + p′qr By B5
= p · (q + r) + p′qr By B3
= p · q + p · r + p′qr By B4
= p · q +(p + p′ · q) · r By B4
= p · q + (p + p′) · (p + q) · r By B4
= p · q + 1 · (p + q) r By B5
= pq + p · r + qr By B4
= pq + qr + rp By B1
PROBLEM 5.1
1. (a) Show that any non-empty set S, considered as a universal set, along with the empty set forms
a Boolean Algebra of two elements under the operations of set union, intersection, and
complementation.
(b) Show that the set of all subsets of a given set is a Boolean Algebra under the operations ∩, ∪,
and ′.
(c) Show that the set {a, b, c, d} together with the operations defined in
+ a b c d a b c d
a a b c d a a a a a
b b b d d and b a b a b
c c d c d c a a c c
d d d d d d a b c d
is a Boolean Algebra.
2. Why is there no Boolean Algebra having just three distinct elements.
3. Using Boolean Algebra prove the following identities:
(i) a + (a · b) = a · (a + b)
(ii) a + (a′ · b) = a + b
(iii) (a · b′) + (b · a′) = (a + b) · (a′ + b′)
(iv) (a + b + c + d) · (a + b + d) · (a + c) +[c·(b + d)]
(v) (x · y′) + [z·(x′ + y + w)] = z +(x · y′)
4. Prove that if a + x = b + x and a + x′ = b + x′, then a = b.
5. If a · x = b · x and a · x′ = b · x′, then prove that a = b.
6. If a · b = a · c and a + b = a + c, then prove that b = c.
7. Simplify:
(a) (a + b) · a′ · b′
(b) (a · b · c) + a′ + b′ + c′
(c) (a · b) + [c ·(a′ + b′)]
(d) [a + (a′ · b)] · [b + (b · c)]
(e) [(x′ · y′)′ + x] · (x + y′)′.
5.2 BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS

Let (B, + , · , ′) be a Boolean Algebra. By a constant we shall mean any symbol such as 0 and 1,
which represents a specified element of B. By a variable we shall mean a symbol which represents
an arbitrary element of B. Now we introduce Boolean functions which are expression consisting of
combinations by + and · of a finite member of elements of a Boolean Algebra B.
Definition 5.2.1. A Boolean function or a Boolean polynominal is an expression derived from a finite
number of applications of the operations +, ·, and ′ to the elements of a Boolean Algebra.
Since we are at present interested in the application of Boolean Algebra to switching net works,
the Boolean Algebra (B, +, ·, ), where B = {0, 1}, will be used.
Let 2a = a + a, 3a = a + a + a, and in general, if k is a positive integer, then ka = a + a
+ ... + a (k times), be the “sum” of k “Summands”. Also let a2 = a a, a3 = a · a · a, and in general,
if k is a positive integer, then ak = a · a ... a (k times) be the product” of k “factors”. Then by
Theorem 5.1.2.
ka = a and ak = a, for any positive integer k.
Therefore this important result can be summarised as no multiples or powers appear in the
Boolean polynomials. In one variable, there are only four Boolean polynomials; namely,
a, a′, a · a′ = 0, and a + a′ = 1
We shall now briefly state some definitions and theorems that are useful in switching networks.
Definition 5.2.2. A minimal Boolean polynominal in n variables x1, x2, ..., xn is the product of n
letters in which the ith letter is xi or x′i. For example, the minimal polynomial in two variables x1 and
x2 are:
x1 · x2, x′1 · x2, x1 · x′2, and x′1 · x′2
The minimal polynomial in three variables x1, x2, x3 are:
x1x2x3, x1x2x′3, x1, x′2x3, x′1x2x3,
x1x′2x′3, x′1x′2x3, x′1 x2x′3, x′1x′2x′3,
For a minimal polynomial in n variables there are two ways of selecting the first variable x1
or x′1, two ways of selecting the second variable x2 or x′2 ..., two ways of selecting the nth variable
xn or x′n. Therefore, there are 2n minimal polynomials in n variables.
5.3 NORMAL FORM

We consider an example and see that a given Boolean polynomial can be written uniquely as 0 or
as the ‘sum’ of minimal polynomials.
Let F be a Boolean polynomial given by
F = F(x, y, z) = [(x′ + y)′ + z] + [x′ · (x + z)].
The complement can be removed by De Margon’s Law and double complements can be removed
by Theorem 5.1.8.The result is an expression in complemented and uncomplemented letters connected
by · and +.
F = [(x′′ · y′) · z] + [x′ ·(x + z)] = [(x · y′) · z] + [x′ · (x + z)]
Next, any · outside a grouping containing a + can be expanded by distributive property.
F = [(x · y′) · z] + [(x′ · x) + (x′ · z)]
By associativity we have
F = (x · y′ · z) + (x′ · x) + (x′ · z)
Now F is written as groups of complemented and uncomplemented letters connected by ·, and
the groups are connected by +. Furthermore, it may be possible to simplify each group. For example,
if any group has the same letter occurring more than once, all but one occurrence may be dropped
since a · a = a. If a letter and its complement both occur in a group. The whole group can be dropped
since x·x′ = 0 and 0 + x = x. Hence
F = (x · y′ · z) + (x′ · z) = (x · y′ · z) + (x′ · z)
Finally, if a group X does not contain a letter, say x or x′, this letter can be introduced into the
group by replacing X by 1.x and then replacing 1 by x + x′ as follows:
x = 1 · x = (x + x′) ·x = (x · x) + (x′ · x)
Therefore F can be written as follows:
F = (x · y′ · z) + [(x′ · z) ·1]
= (x · y′ · z) + [(x′ · z) · (y + y′)] Since 2nd group does not contain y
= (x · y′ · z) +[(x′ · z · y) + (x′ · z · y′)] By Associative property
= (x · y′ · z) + (x′ · y · z) + (x′ · y′· z) By Commutative property
Now each group of the Boolean polynomial F consists of all letters complemented or
uncomplemented appearing only once connected by · and the groups connected by +. So the above
result is stated in the following theorem.
THEOREM 5.3.1. There is one and only one way to write a given Boolean polynomial as 0
or as the sum of minimal polynomials.
Definition 5.3.1. A Boolean polynomial is in canonical form or disjunctive normal form when it is
expressed as the sum of minimal polynomials.
In the above discussion the form
F = (x · y′ · z) + (x′ · y · z) + (x′ · y′ · z)
is a canonical form of the Boolean polynomial
F = F(x, y, z) = [(x′ + y)′ · z] + [x′ · (x + z)]
n
Since there are 2 minimal polynomials in n variables the canonical form of a Boolean polynomial
in n variables can have at most 2n distinct terms.
Definition 5.3.2. The canonical form containing all of these 2n terms is called the complete canonical
form or complete disjunctive normal form in n variables.
The question of the equality of two Boolean polynomials can be settled by simply expressing
the two functions in canonical form and seeing if they are the same.
We see that a complete canonical form in 3 variables x1, x2, x3 is identically 1. If x1, x2, x3 are
assigned values 1’s, then x′1, x′2, x′3 are assigned values 0’s. Then the complete canonical form in 3
variables.
= x1x2x3 + x1x2x′3 + x1x′2x3 + x′1x2x3 + x1x′2x′3 + x′1x′2x3 + x′1x2x′3 + x′1x′2x′3
= (1·1·1) + (1·1·0) + (1·0·1) + (0·1·1) + (1·0·0) + (0·0·1) + (0·1·0) + (0·0·0) = 1
Moreover, by simplification we can see the complete canonical form in 2 variables x and y is
identically I
(x · y) + (x · y′) + (x′ · y) + (x′ · y′) = {(x · y) + (x · y′)} + {(x′ · y) + (x′ · y′)}
= {x · (y + y′)} + {x′ · (y + y′)}
= x · I + x′ · I Since y + y′ = 1
= x + x′
= I Since x + x′ = 1
The canonical form in three variables x, y, z is identically I,
(x · y · z) + (x · y · z′) + (x · y′ · z) + (x′ · y · z) + (x · y′ · z′) + (x′ · y′ · z) + (x′ · y · z′)
+ (x′ · y′ · z′)
= {(x · y · z) + (x · y · z′)} + {(x · y′ · z) + (x · y′ · z′)} + {(x′ · y · z) + (x′ · y · z′)}
+ {(x′ · y′ · z) + (x′ · y′ · z′)}
= (x · y) (z + z′) + (x · y′) · (z + z′) + (x′ · y)(z + z′) + (x′ y) · (z + z′)
= {(x · y) + (x · y′) + (x′ · y) + (x′ · y′)} · (z + z′)
= {x · (y + y′) + x′ · (y + y′) Since z + z′ = 1
= (x + x′) · (y + y′)
=1·1 Since x + x′ = 1, y + y′ = 1
=1
Now we generalise this concept that the complete canonical form in n variables is identically1.
From this we shall define the complement of a Boolean polynomial.
Definition 5.3.3. Let F be a Boolean polynomial expressed in canonical form. Then the complement
F ′ of a Boolean polynomial F is the sum of all terms of the complete canonical form which do not
appear in the canonical form of F.
For example, consider the Boolean polynomial
F(x, y) = (x · y) + (x′ · y) + (x′ · y′)
The complete canonical form in 2 variables x, y is
(x · y) + (x · y′) + (x′ · y) + (x′ · y′).
Then F ′(x, y) = (x · y′)
THEOREM 5.3.2. If in the complete canonical form there are n variables, each variable is
assigned arbitraily the value 0 or 1, then just one term will have the value 1 while others will have
the value 0.
Proof. Let the values be assigned to the variables x1, x2, ... xn. The term whose value is 1
contains x1 if x1 is assigned value 1 or x1′ if x1 is assigned value 0, x2 if x2 is assigned value 1 or
x2′ if x2 is assigned value 0, ..., xn if xn is assigned value 1 or xn′ if xn is assigned value 0. Every other
term of the complete canonical form will have 0 at least one factor and, hence, has value 0. This
proves the theorem.
We consider a Boolean function
F = [(x + y′) · (x · y′ · z)′]′
= (x + y′)′ + ((x · y′ · z)′)′
= (x + y′)′ + (x · y′ · z)
= x′ · (y′)′) + (x · y′ · z)
= (x′ · y) + (x · y′ · z) a sum of products
and F = [(x + y′) · (x · y′ · z)′]′
= (x′ · y) + (x · y′ · z)
= [x′ + (x · y′ · z)] · [y + (x · y′ · z)]
= (x′ + x) · (x′ + y′) · (x′ + z) · (y + x) · (y + y′) · (y + z)
= 1 · (x′ + y′) · (x′ + z) · (x + y) · 1· (y + z)
= (x′ + y′) · (x′ + z) · (x + y) · (y + z)
= (x + y) · (y + z) · (x′ + z) · (x′ + y) a product of sums.
In this expression each bracket does not contain all three variables x, y, z. To make all variable
present in each group we add 0 in each group and see which variable is not present. In first bracket
z is not present, then replace 0 by z · z′.
F = (x + y + 0) · (y + z + 0) · (x′ + z + 0) · (x′ + y′ + 0)
= (x + y + (z · z′)) · (y + z + (x · x′)) · (x′ + z + (y · y′)) · (x′ + y′ + (z · z′))
= (x + y + z) · (x + y + z′) · (y + z + x) · (y + z + x′) · (x′ + z + y)
· (x′ + z + y′) · (x′ + y′ + z) · (x′ + y′ + z′)
= (x + y + z) · (x + y + z′) · (x′ + y + z) · (x′ + y′ + z) · (x′ + y′ + z′)
This expression is called dual canonical form or the conjunctive normal form of the Boolean
function
F = [(x + y′) · (x · y′ · z)′]′
In the expression of dual canonical form of the Boolean function F each group consists of all
letters complemented or uncomplemented appearing only once connected by + and the groups connected
by · so we have this concept in the following definition.
Definition 5.3.4. A Boolean polynomial is in the dual canonical form or the conjunctive normal
forms when it is expressed as the product of factors of letters such that each factor is a sum of all
letters complemented or uncomplemented appearing only once.
Definition 5.3.5. The dual canonical form containing 2n distinct factors is called the complete dual
canonical form of the complete conjunctive normal form in n variables.
Therefore, the dual canonical form if a Boolean function can have at most 2n distinct factors.
The complement F′ of Boolean Function F expressed in dual canonical form is the product of all
factors of the complete dual canonical form which do not appear in the dual canonical form F.
Example 5.3.1. Find the canonical and dual canonical form of a Boolean function.
F = [x + (x′ + y)′] · [x + (y′ · z′)′]
Solution. Here F = [x + (x′ + y)′] · [x + (y′ · z′)′]
= [x + (x′)′ · (y)′] · [x + ((y′)′ + (z′)′)]
= [x + (x · y′)] · [x + (y + z)]
= (x · 1 + x · y′) · (x + (y + z))
= x · (1 + y′) · (x + (y + z))
= x · 1 · (x + (y + z))
= x · (x + (y + z))
= x · x + x · (y + z)
= x+x ·y+x·z
= x+x ·z Since x + x · y = x
= x Since x + x · z = x
= x·1·1
= x · (y + y′) · (z + z′)
= (x · y + x · y′) · (z + z′)
= (x · y + x · y′) · z + (x · y + x · y′) · z′
= (x · y · z) + (x · y′ · z) + (x · y · z′) + (x · y′ · z′)
is the canonical form of the Boolean function F. Again
F = [x + (x′ + y)′] · [x + (y′ · z′)′]
= x
= x+0+0
= x + y · y′ + z · z′
= (x + y) · (x + y′) + (z · z′)
= [(x + y) + (z · z′)] · [(x + y′) + (z · z′)]
= (x + y + z) · (x + y + z′) · (x + y′ + z) · (x + y′ + z′)
is the dual canonical form of the Boolean function F. We observe that if we replace + by · among
groups and · by + in each group in the canonical form we get the dual canonical form of the Boolean
function F.
5.4 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS OF BOOLEAN/FUNCTIONS

The set of all Boolean functions which are formed by given Boolean variables is known as the set
of Fundamental Forms of Boolean functions.
For example. For any single Boolean variable x there are four following fundamental forms of
Boolean functions.
Variable x f1(x) f2(x) f2(x) f4(x)
1 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1
Thus f1(x) = 0, f2(x) = x, f3(x) = x′, f4(x) = 1

are four fundamental forms of Boolean functions.
Example 5.4.1. Express the Boolean function x5 + x2 · x′3 + x3 in fundamental form.
Solution. Given Boolean function
= x5 + x2x′3 + x3
= x + xx′ + x
= x + 0 + x = (x + x) + 0 = x + 0 = x = f2(x)
THEOREM 5.4.1. (Structure theorem for Boolean functions). Let x1, x2, ..., xn be n independent
n
Boolean variables. Then there are 22 fundamental forms of a Boolean function f (x1, x2, ..., xn) of
these n variables.
Proof. Let f (x) = f (x1, x2, ..., xn) be a Boolean function of n independent variable x1, x2, .., xn.
Since each variable has values 0 and 1, then the total numbers of ordered set of n variables (x1, x2,
..., xn) will be 2 × 2 × ... × 2 (n times) = 2n.
Now we calculate the all fundamental forms of f (x1, x2, ..., xn), where x1, x2, ..., xn are Boolean
variables.
Corresponding to the value 1 of n-tuples (x1, x2, ..., xn) the number of Boolean functions
n
=2 C 2 n .
Corresponding to the value of 1 of 2n–1, n-tuples and the value 0 of the remaining n-tuple, the
n
number of Boolean functions = 2 C2n–1 and so on. Similarly, corresponding to the vlaue 1 of 2n–r,
n
n-tuples and the value 0 of the remaining r n-tuples, the number of Boolean functions = 2 C2n – r,
and corresponding to the value 1 of n-tuple (x1, x2, ..., xn) and the value 0 of the remainging
n
2n –1, n-tuples, the number of Boolean functions = 2 C2n–r and corresponding to the value 0 of all
n
2n n-tuples, the number of Boolean functions = 2 C0.
Thus total number of Boolean functions
= 2nC + 2nC – 1 + ... + 2nC + ... + 2nC + 2nC
2 2n–1 2n–r 1 0
2n
∑ 2n n n
= Cr = (1 + 1) 2 = 2 2
r =0
Example 5.4.2. If a Boolean function f (x, y) is a function of two Boolean variables x, y, then
determine all its fundamental forms.
2
Solution. Since n = 2, there are 22 = 24 = 16 fundamental forms of f (x, y) which are shown
in the following table.
We know that x and y can assume 0 and 1 values. Therefore, there are only four possible
ordered pairs (x, y):
(1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 1), (0, 0).
(x, y) f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13 f14 f15 f16

(1, 1) 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
(1, 0) 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
( 0, 1) 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
(0, 0) 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
Here 1. f1(x, y) = 1
2. f2(x, y) = 1 if x≠0, y≠0
0 if x = 0, y = 0
⇒ f2(x, y) = x + y
3. f3(x, y) = 0 if x = 0, y = 1
= 1 if x ≠ 0, y ≠ 1
⇒ f3(x, y) = x + y′
4. f4(x, y) = 0 if x = 1, y = 0
= 1 if x ≠ 1, y ≠ 0
⇒ f4(x, y) = x′ + y
5. f5(x, y) = 0 if x = 1, y = 1
= 1 if x ≠ 1, y ≠ 1
⇒ f5(x, y) = x′ + y′
6. f6(x, y) = 1 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (1, 0)
= 0 if (x, y) = (0, 1), (0, 0)
⇒ f6(x, y) = 1 if x =1
0 if x =0
⇒ f6(x, y) = x
7. f7(x, y) = 1 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (0, 1)
= 0 if (x, y) = (1, 0), (0, 0)
⇒ f7(x, y) = 1 if y =1
0 if y =0
⇒ f7(x, y) = y.
8. f8(x, y) = 1 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (0, 0)
0 if (x, y) = (1, 0), (0, 1)
⇒ f8(x, y) = xy + x′ y′.
9. f9(x, y) = 1 if (x, y) = (1, 0), (0, 0)

0 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (0, 1)
⇒ f9(x, y) = xy′ + x′ y′= (x + x′). y′
= 1 y′ = y′
10. f10(x, y) = 0 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (0, 0)
1 (x, y) = (1, 0), (0, 1)
⇒ f10(x, y) = xy′ + x′ y.
11. f11(x, y) = 0 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (1, 0)
1 if (x, y) = (0, 1), (0, 0)
⇒ f11(x, y) = x′y + x′y′
= x′(y + y′)
= x′ 1 = x′
12. f12(x, y) = 0 if (x, y) = (1, 1) (1, 0), (0, 1)
1 if (x, y) = (0, 0)
⇒ f12(x, y) = x′y′
13. f13(x, y) = 0 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 0)
1 if (x, y) = (0, 1)
⇒ f13(x, y) = x′y
14. f14(x, y) = 0 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (0, 1), (0, 0)
1 if (x, y) = (1, 0)
⇒ f14(x, y) = xy′
15. f15(x, y) = 1 if (x, y) = (1, 1)
0 if (x, y) = (1, 0), (0, 1), (0, 0)
= f15(x, y) = xy
16. f16(x, y) = 0
we also see that
f8(x, y) = f15 + f12
f9(x, y) = f14 + f12
f10(x, y) = f14 + f13
f11(x, y) = f13 + f12
THEOREM 5.4.2. (Boolean Expansion Theorem). If there are x1, x2, ..., xn Boolean variables,
then any Boolean function can be expressed as
f (x1, x2, ..., xn) = f (1, 1, ..., 1) x1x2. xn
+ f (0, 1, 1, ...1) x1′x2x3 ... xn
+ f (0, 0, 1, ... 1) x1′x2′x3 ... x2 + ... +
+ f (0, 0 ..., 0) x1′x2′ ... xn′.
Proof. To prove the theorem we have to show that a Boolean function without constant term
can be expressed in disjunctive normal form.
Let f (x1, x2, ..., xn) be a Boolean function without constant term. If it has few terms of the form
(x + y)′ and (xy)′, then by De Morgan’s Law
(x + y)′ = x′ . y′ and (xy)′ = x′ + y′
Again we can remove brackets by applying distributive law for + and if in any term xi or xi′
are missing, then we multiply it by (xi + xi′).
In the end by using x + x = x, x . x = x the Boolean function can be expressed in disjunctive
normal form.
Therefore, the Boolean function can be written in the disjunctive normal form
f (x1, x2 ..., xn) = θ1x1x2 ... xn + θ2x1′x2 ... xn + ... + θn x1′x2′ ... xn′ ...(1)
where the value of θ is 0 or 1.
If x 1 = x2 = ... = xn = 1, then
f (1, 1, ..., 1) = θ1(1, 1, 1 ... 1) = θ1 ...(2)
If x 1 = 0, x2 = x3 = ... = xn = 1, then
f (0, 1, 1, ..., 1) = θ2(1. 1 ... 1) = θ2 ...(3)
If x 1 = x2 = ... = xn = 0, then
x1′ = x2′ = ... = xn′ = 1
f (0, 0, ..., 0) = θn (1. 1 .1 ... 1) = θn ...(4)
putting the values of θ1, θ2, ..., on form (2), (3), ... (4) in (1), we obtain
f (x1, x2, ..., xn) = f (1, 1, 1, ... 1) x1 x2 ... xn + f (0, 1, 1, ... 1) x1′x2x3 ... xn
+ f (0, 0, 1, 1 ... 1) x1′x2′x3 ... xn) + ... + f (0, 0 ..., 0) x1′x2′ ... xn′.
Example 5.4.3. Express (x, y, z) = x + yz′ in the form of Boolean expansion.
Solution. We prepare the truth table for the given Boolean function.
x y z f = x + yz′′ the form of

the value of θ xyz
1 1 1 1 xyz
1 1 0 1 xyz′
1 0 1 1 xy′z
1 0 0 1 xy′z′
0 1 1 0 x′yz
0 1 0 1 x′yz′
0 0 1 0 x′y′z
0 0 0 0 x′y′z′
By Boolean Expansion, we have

f (x, y, z) = f (1, 1, 1) xyz + f (1, 1, 0) xyz′ + f (1, 0, 1) xy′z + f (1, 0, 0) xy′z′ + f (0, 1, 1) x′yz
+ f (0, 1, 0) x′yz′ + f (0, 0, 1) x′y′z + f (0, 0, 0) x′y′z′
= 1.xyz + 1.xyz′ + 1.xy′z + 1.xy′z′ + 0.x′yz + 1.x′yz′ + 0.x′y′z + 0.x′y′z′

= xyz + xyz′ + xy′z + xy′z′ + x′yz′ ...(1)
This is Boolean expansion. By right hand side of it, we see that,
R.H.S. = xy.(z + z′) + xy′(z + z′) + x′yz′
= xy + xy′ + x′yz′
= xy + x′yz′ + xy′
= y(x +x′. z′) + xy′
= y((x + x′) . (x + z′)) + xy′
= y(x + z′) + xy′
= yx + yz′ + xy′
= x(y + y′) + yz′
= x + yz′
Thus (1) is the expansion of the given Boolean function.
Example 5.4.4. From the following table determine the Boolean function.
x y z θ=f the form of xyz
1 1 1 0 xyz
1 1 0 0 xyz′
1 0 1 1 xy′z
1 0 0 0 xy′z′
0 1 1 1 x′yz
0 1 0 1 x′yz′
0 0 1 1 x′y′z
0 0 0 0 x′y′z′
By Boolean Expansion, we have

f (x, y, z) = f (1, 1, 1)xyz + f (1, 1, 0)xyz′ + f (1, 0, 1) xy′z + f (1, 0, 0)xy′z′ + f (0, 1, 1)x′yz
+ f (0, 1, 0)x′yz′ + f (0, 0, 1)x′y′z + f (0, 0, 0)x′y′z′
= 0.xyz + 0.xyz′ + 1.xy′z + 0.xy′z′ + 1.x′yz + 1.x′yz′ + 1.x′y′z + 0.x′y′z′
= xy′z + x′yz + x′yz′ + x′y′z ...(1)
= x′y(z + z′) + (x + x′)y′z
= x′y + y′z ...(2)
which is a Boolean function of which (1) is the expansion of (2).
PROBLEM 5.2
1. Write the fundamental forms of the following Boolean functions:
(i) x11 + x6 + 1
(ii) x2(x′)6 + (x′)3 + (x′)2
(iii) x7 + x5.x1
2. Prove that there are sixteen fundamental forms of two independent Boolean variables.
3. Write the Boolean expansion of the Boolean function:
(i) f (x, y, z) = xz + x′y′z′
(ii) g(x, y, z) = xz′ + y′z
4. From the following table determine the Boolean functions g and h.
x y z g h
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
5.5 APPLICATION TO SWITCHING NETWORKS

A correspondence will be setup between the elements and operation of Boolean algebra and switching
network.
A switch is advice for opening or closing an electric circuit and it will be idealised as an
element that has only two stable states, either open or closed. Here we shall consider electric circuits
that has only switches and they are sometimes referred to simply as a network.
The simplest network consists of a wire containing single switch x indicated in diagram (1).
x Switch open
Switch closed
Fig. 5.1
When the switch is closed the current will flow and the current will not flow if the switch is
open. We will say that the switch has value 1 if it is closed and 0 if it is open. As there is only one
switch, the circuit has the same value as the switch has. This, the circuit has value 1 if the current
flows and 0 if the current does not flow.
Consider a network consisting of two switches x and y connected in series as shown in
diagram (2).
x y
Fig. 5.2
It is clear that the current will flow, that is, the network has value 1 if and only if both switch
are closed (i.e., both switches have value 1).
While the current will not flow, the network has value 0 if either switch is open (i.e., either
switch has value 0).
Let F represent the state of the series network. Then F = 1 if the network is closed and F = 0
if the network is open. Since the state of this network is completely determined by the state of two
switches, F must be a function of two variables x and y, therefore F = F(x, y). Thus, F(x, y) = 1
if both switches are closed and F(x, y) = 0 if either switch is open as indicated in the following
Table 1:
Table 1
Switches State of switches State of network
x closed, y closed x = 1, y = 1 F(x, y) = F(1, 1) = 1
x closed, y open x = 1, y = 0 F(x, y) = F(1, 0) = 0
x open, y closed x = 0, y = 1 F(x, y) = F(0, 1) = 0
x open, y open x = 0, y = 0 F(x, y) = F(0, 0) = 0
The function F(x, y) is called the switching functions of the network. To indicate symbolically
that the switches are connected in series we write
F(x, y) = x · y
then F(x, y) = x · y is the switching functions of two switches x and y connected in series.
In Table 2 the result of Table 1 are fused to indicate the switching function F(x, y) = x · y. This
Table suggest the ‘multiplication’· Table in Table 3. Note that 0 · 0 = 0, 0 · 1 = 0, 1 · 0 = 0, 1 · 1 = 1.
Table 2 Table 3
x y F(x1 y) • 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
Next let us consider a network consisting of two switches connected in parallel as indicated in
Figure 5.3.
Fig. 5.3
Let F(x, y) = x + y be the switching function of two switches connected in parallel, the network
is closed if either or both switches are closed, and open if both switches are open. This can be
indicated in the following Table :
x y F(x1 y)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
This suggests the addition and we note that 0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 1. Therefore,

we can write a Table for addition operation.
+ 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 1
Another similarity between a switching network and the elements of Boolean Algebra will be
observed if we denote switches having opposite states by x and x′. Thus, if x is open, x′ is closed
and if x is closed, x′ is open. This behaviour presented in tabular form in table can be compared with
the table giving the result of complementation on 0 and 1 in Boolean Algebra.
Table Table
x x′ a a′
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
We have seen in example 1. That the set B = {0, 1} with operations +, ·, and ′ forms a Boolean
Algebra of two elements.
We are now ready to set up a correspondence between a switching network and our mathematical
system, Boolean Algebra.
Boolean Algebra x x′ + · 0 1
q q q q q q
Switching Network x x′ connected connected open closed
in parallel in series
(+) (·) (0) (1)
With the help of this correspondence a Boolean function can be transformed in switching
network and a switching network can be expressed as a Boolean function. Two switching networks
S1 and S2 are equivalent, denoted by S1 ~ S2, if both are open or both are closed for the same state
of switches in S1 and S2.
Now we show that switching network does satisfy all axioms of Boolean Algebra with the help
of correspondence eastablished in the following table :
Boolean Algebra or Switching network
Switching Function
a b
B1 . a + b = b + a
b a
a·b=b·a a b b a
a
a
b
B2. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c b
c
c
a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c a b c a b c
b a b
B3. a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c a
c a c
a a a
a + (b · c) = (a + b) · (a + c)
b c b c
a
B4 . a + 0 = a a
0
a·1= a 1
a a
B5. a + a′ = 1 a a¢
a
a · a′ = 0
a¢
All theorems of Boolean Algebra can be applied to switching functions.
Let us apply Boolean Algebra to the simplification of switching networks. A given network,
with the help of correspondence set up, will be represented by its switching function, which may be
simplified using Boolean Algebra. Then this simplified expression can be reinterpreted as a switching
network. If these are fewer switches in the resulting network, then we shall say that the network has
been simplified.
Example 5.5.1. F(x, y) = x + x · y
= x ·1 + x · y
= x · (1 + y)
= x·1
= x
In the switching network two switches are indicated by the same letter x. This does not necessarily
mean that they are the same switch; only that they are always opened or closed together.
x
x y
Fig. 5.4
Example 5.5.2. F(x, y) = xy′ + xy
= x ·(y′ + y)
= x·1
= x
Here y and y′ may be different switches, so that the network of four switches may replaced by
one switch.
x y
x y
Fig. 5.5
Example 5.5.3. Replace the network of Boolean function.
F(a, b, c) = a · b · c + a · b′ · c + a′ · b′ · c
by simpler one.
Solution. F(a, b, c) = a · b · c + a · b′ · c + a′ · b′ · c
= c · [a · b + a · b′ + a′ · b′]
= c · [a · (b + b′) + a′ · b′]
= c · [a · 1 + a′ · b′]
= c · [a + a′ · b′]
= c · [(a + a′) · (a + b′)]
= c [1 · (a + b′)]
= c · (a + b′)
Since only one of the two switches b and b′ remains in the simplified diagram it can be
designated either by b′ or by b.
a b c a
a b′ c c
a′ b′ c b′
Fig. 5.6
Example 5.5.4. Replace the network

x r
z s
y t
Fig. 5.7
by switching function.
Solution. The corresponding function for this network consists of the product of three factors:
F(x, y, z, r, s, t) = (x + y)· z · (r + s + t)
Example 5.5.5. Replace the network :
r s′ t
By switching
t function
r′
s
Fig. 5.8
Solution. The corresponding function of this network consists of the sum of two factors:
F(r, s, t) = (r · s′ · t) + ((t + s) · r′)
Example 5.5.6. Discuss the possible networks consisting of three switches x, y, z.
Solution. There are four cases:
(i) If the switches are connected in series, the network is
x y z
Fig. 5.9
and the function is
F(x, y, z) = x · y · z
(ii) If the switches are connected in parallel. The network is
x
Fig. 5.10
and the function is
F(x, y, z) = x + y + z
(iii) If the switches are connected in series parallel connection, the network is
y
Fig. 5.11
and the function is

F(x, y, z) = x · (x + z)
(iv) If the switches are connected in parallel series, the newtwork is
x
y z
Fig. 5.12
and the function is
F(x, y, z) = x + (y · z)
Example 5.5.7. Replace the network
r t
s′ r′
s
t s t′
Fig. 5.13
by simpler one.
Solution. The Boolean function of this network is
F(r, s, t) = (r · t) + [s · (s′ + t) · {r′ + (s · t′)}]
= (r · t) + [s · {(s′ + t) · (r′ + (s · t′))}]
= (r · t) + [s · {(s′ + t) · r′ + (s′ + t) · (s · t′)}]
= (r · t) + [s · {(s′ + t) · r′ + s′ · s · t′ + t · s · t}]
= (r · t) + [s · {(s′ + t) · r′ + 0 + 0}]
= (r · t) + [s · (s′ + t) · r′]
= (r · t) + (s · s′ + s · t) · r′
= (r · t) + (0 + s · t) · r′
= r · t + s · t · r′
= (r + s · r′) · t
= (r + s) · (r + r′) · t
= (r + s) · I · t
= (r + s) · t
The simpler network is
r
Fig. 5.14
PROBLEM 5.3
1. Change the following Boolean functions to canonical form
(a) f (x, y, z) = [(x, y′)′ + z′] · [z + x′]′
(b) f (x, y, z) = (x′ + y)′ · (x + z)′ + (y · z)′.
2. Express each of the following in both canonical form and dual canonical form in three variables.
(a) x′ + y′
(b) (x · y′) + (x′ · y)
(c) (x + y) · (x′ + z′)
3. Express each of the following in both canonical and dual canonical form in the mininum number of
variables
(a) x + (x′ · y)
(b) [x · (y + z)] + [x · (y + z′)]
(c) (x + y + z) · [(x · y) + (x′ · z)]
(d) (x · y · z) + [(x + y)· (x + z)]
4. Write the switching functions, f, for each of the following.
z
y x y
x′
x y′
z y
x′
(i) (ii)
z
y
x′
x
y′
z
x′
(iii)
5. Draw a switching network that represents each of the following switching functions:
(a) f (x, y) = x · (x + y′) + x′ · y
(b) f (x, y, z, w) = xy (z + w′) + (x + z) · (x + w)
(c) f (x, y, z) = (x′ + y)′ · (x · z + y)
6. Establish the equivalence of the following networks.
x
y z x
(a)
x y
1
x y
x
x x
y x
(b) y
z z y
w z
w w
❑❑❑
$ Matrices
6.1 REVISION
Consider the following simultaneous linear equations :
2x + 3y + z = 7
2x + z = 5
y + 2z = 3
The coefficients of unknowns x, y, z on the left hand side form a rectangular array of numbers
2 3 1
2 0 1
0 1 2
in which we inserted a zero in the place of every missing unknown. In this we see that 2 3 1,
2 0 1, 0 1 2 are ordered sets of three numbers which we call them rows and if we change the order
of rows, then we have different array. Thus, above array of numbers has 3 ordered rows and each
row is an ordered set of three numbers such a rectangular array of numbers is called a matrix. It is
generally enclosed within the square brackets [ ] and thus,
LM 2 3 1 OP
MM 2 0 1 PP
N0 1 2 Q
is a 3 × 3 matrix.
In general, a system of m linear equations in n unknowns x1, x2, ...., xn has the form
a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + . . . + a2nxn = b2
®
am1x1 + am2x2 + . . . + amnxn = bn
Similarly, the rectangular array
LM a11 a12 L a1n OP
MM a|
21 a22 L a2 n
PP
Nam1 am2 L amn Q
of mn coefficient of n unknowns x1, x2, ..., xn is called an m × n matrix. Now we define the matrix.
140
MATRICES 141
Definition 6.1.1. A system of mn numbers arranged in the form of a rectangular array which has m
ordered rows and each row has n ordered elements is called an m by n matrix (written as m × n
matrix). Its elements are real or complex numbers. The matrices are denoted by capital letters such
as A, B, C etc. and its element by the symbol aij, where subscript i represents rows and j represents
columns and aij denotes the (i, j)th entry in A, that is, aij is an element of A which occurs at the
intersection of ith row and jth column. Thus, we can represent the matrix A = aij .
m×n
Definition 6.1.2. The number m of rows and the number n of columns of matrix A is called the size
or order of the matrix, and the size or order of the matrix is denoted by m × n and read as m by n.
For example,
LM 1 2 3OP
N4 6Q
The matrix
5
is a matrix of order 2 × 3 and the matrix
LM 1 2 OP
N2 3 Q
is of order 2.
Definition 6.1.3. An 1 × n matrix A is called a row matrix or row vector.
For example [a11 a12 ... a1n] is a row matrix.
Definition 6.1.4. An m × 1 matrix A is called a column matrix or column vector, column matrix has
n rows and only one column.
Definition 6.1.5. If m ≠ n, an m × n matrix A is called a rectangular matrix.
Definition 6.1.6. If m = n, an n × n matrix A is called a square matrix of order n. When A is a square
matrix of order n, then the elements a11, a22, ...., amn constitute the main diagonal.
Definition 6.1.7. If all elements of the matrix of any size are zero, it is called a null matrix or zero
matrix denoted by symbol O = [aij].
Definition 6.1.8. An m × n matrix which is obtained from an m × n matrix A by changing the sign
of all its elements is called the negative of A denoted by – A. For example if
LM –1 2 –3 OP
N2 Q
A = ,
1 0
LM 1 3O
0 PQ
–2
then –A =
N –2 –1
6.2 DIAGONAL, SCALAR, UNIT AND TRIANGULAR MATRIX

Definition 6.2.1. A square matrix of the form
LM a 11 0 0 L 0 OP
MM 0 a22 0 L 0 PP
MN 0M 0 0 L ann
PQ
is called diagonal matrix, denoted by diagonal [a11 a22 ... amn]. That is, in the diagonal matrix all
elements except diagonal elements are zero.
Definition 6.2.2. Square matrix of the form

LM a 0 L 0OP
MM 0 a L 0 PP
MN 0M 0 L aQ
P
is called a scalar matrix. That is, diagonal matrix having all diagonal elements equal is a scalar
matrix.
Definition 6.2.3. A diagonal matrix each of which diagonal elements is equal to 1 is called a unit
matrix, and denoted by In, where n is the order of the sqaure diagonal matrix. This is the identity
matrix.
LM 1 0 L 0OP
In = MM 0 1 L 0 PP
MN 0M 0 L 1Q
P
Definition 6.2.4. An n × n matrix of the form
LM a 11 a12 L a1n OP
MM 0 a22 L a2 n PP
MN 0M 0 L ann
PQ
is called a upper triangular matrix.
Definition 6.2.5. An n × n matrix of the form
LM a 11 0 L 0 OP
MM a 21 a22 L 0 PP
MN aM n1 an 2 L ann
PQ
is called a lower triangular matrix.
6.3 EQUAL MATRICES
Definition 6.3.1. Two matrices A = aij m × n and B = bij m × n are said to be equal, denoted by A =
B if and only if
(i) they have same size,
(ii) their corresponding elements are equal, i.e.,
aij = bij, for all i and j.
Example 6.3.1. The two matrices are equal
LM x + y a+b OP LM 5 –1 OP
N x−y a −b Q =
N1 3 Q
if x + y = 5, a + b = – 1, x – y = 1, a – b = 3.
MATRICES 143
Example 6.3.2. For matrices
LM 3 2 OP LM 3 2 OP , C = LM 3 2 OP,
0
A=
N1 1 Q
, B =
N1 1 0Q N1 0Q
D= M
L1 1O LM 3 3O
,F= M
L 3 2 OP
N0 0 PQ N0 P
1Q N 2/2 1 Q
, E =
we have the following relations A ≠ B, A = F, A ≠ C, A ≠ D, C ≠ D A ≠ E, C ≠ E. etc.
6.4 THE TRANSPOSE OF MATRIX : SYMMETRIC AND SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRIX

Definition 6.4.1. If A is m × n matrix, then transpose of A is denoted by A′ and is defined to be
n × m matrix whose first column is the first row of A, whose second column is the second row of
A, whose third column is the third row of A etc.
Example 6.4.1. The transpose of matrices
LM 2 3 OP LM 3 5 –2 OP
A= M1 PP
4 , B =
MM 5 4 1 PP
MN 5
1 3 5 ,C=
6 Q N −2 1 7 Q
LM 1 OP LM 3 OP
L2 OP
5 –2
and A′ = M 3
N
1 5
Q
6 , B′ =
MM 3 PP , C′ = MM 5 4 1 PP
4
N5Q N –2 1 7 Q
Definition 6.4.2. A sqaure matrix A is called symmetric if A = A′
Example 6.4.2
LM 1 4 5 OP
A = MM 4 –3 0 , PP
N5 0 7 Q
LM 1 5O
0 PP = A
4
then A′ =
MM 4 –3
N5 0 7 PQ
so A is symmetric.
It is easy to recognize symmetric matrix by inspection that the entries on the main diagonal are
arbitrary, but mirror images of entries across the main diagonal are equal.
1 4 5
4 –3 0
5 0 7
Definition 6.4.3. A square matrix A is called skew symmetric if A = – A′.

LM 0 1 2 OP
Example 6.4.3. If A = M –1 0 3 , PP
MN –2 –3 0 Q
LM 0 –2 O
–3 PP ,
–1
Then A′ = M 1 0
MN 2 3 0 PQ
LM 0 2O
3 PP = A.
1
and – A′ = –1
MM 0
N –2 –3 0 PQ
so A is skew symmetric matrix.
It is easy to recognize skew symmetric matrix by inspection that all diagonal elements are zero
and all symmetric pairs across the main diagonal would be negative of each other.
0 a b
–a 0 c
–b –c 0
6.5 ALGEBRA OF MATRICES

Additions of two matrices: If A and B are matrices of the same size, then sum A + B is the matrix
obtained by adding together the corresponding entries in the two matrices. Matrices of different size
cannot be added. That is, if A = aij m×n and B = bij m×n then
A + B = aij + bij m×n
LM 2 1 0OP , B = LM – 4 3 5OP , C = LM 1 1OP

Example 6.5.1. If A =
N –1 0 2Q N 2 2 0Q N 2 2Q
LM 2 + b–4g 1 + 3 0 + 5OP LM –2 4 5OP
then A+B =
N –1 + 2 0 + 2 2 + 0Q = N 1 2 2Q
while A + C and B + C are undefined.
REMARK. If A and B are matrices of the same size, then A – B is defined to be the sum
A + (– B).
LM 2 3 4 OP LM
0 2 7 OP
If A =
N1 2 1 Q N
and B 1 −3 5
Q
MATRICES 145
LM 2 3 4OP + LM 0 −2 −7 OP
Then A−B =
N1 2 1Q N−1 +3 −5 Q
LM 2 + 0 3 + b–2g 4 + b–7gO
P
=
N 1 + b–1g 2+3 1 + b–5g Q
LM 2 1 –3 OP
=
N0 5 –4 Q
We observe that A – B can be obtained directly by subtracting the entries of B from the
corresponding entries of A.
6.6 PROPERTIES OF ADDITION OF MATRICES

1. Closure property: The sum of two matrices A = aij m × n, B = bij m×n of the same size is again
a matrix of the same size. That is,
A + B = [aij] + [bij]
= [aij + bij]
= [cij] = C
2. Commutative law of addition: For two matrices A = aij m×n
and B = bij m×n
.
A+ B = B+A
L.H.S. = A + B = [aij] + [bij]
= [aij + bij] By addition of matrices
= [bij + aij] By commutative law of addition
= [bij] + [aij] in real numbers
= B + A = R.H.S.
3. Associative law of addition: For any three matrices A = aij m × n, B = bij m × n, C = cij m × n,
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
L.H.S. = (A + B) + C = [aij + bij] + [cij]
= [(aij + bij) + cij]
= [aij + (bij + cij)] Since + is associative in Real numbers
= [aij] + [bij + cij]
= A + (B + C) = R.H.S.
4. Existence of identity for addition: For all A = aij m × n,
there exists a null matrix O = [0ij]
of the same size such that
A + O = [aij] + [0ij] = [aij + 0ij] = [aij] = A
and similarly, O+A = A
so A+O = O+A=A
The null matrix is called the indentity for addition.
5. Existence of inverse for addition: For each matrix A = [aij], there exists a matrix – A =
– [aij] such that
A + (– A) = – A + A = 0
A is called the negative of A or inverse of A for addition of matrices.
6.7 SCALAR MULTIPLES OF MATRICES

Consider a matrix
LM a b c OP
A =
Np q rQ
LM a + a b + b c + c OP
N p+ p q+q r+r Q
Now, A+ A =
LM 2a 2b 2c OP
N 2 p 2q 2r Q
or 2A =
Thus, we define scalar multiplication.

Definition 6.7.1. If A is any matrix and k is any scalar, then the product kA is the matrix obtained
by multiplying each entry of A by k.
6.8 MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES

LM 4 OP
We consider a row matrix A = 1 2 3 and column matrix B = M 5 P , then the product AB is
MN 6 PQ
determined by the sum of the product of corresponding entries of A and B together, that is
LM 4 OP
AB = 1 2 3 MM 5 PP =1×4+2×5+3×6= 4 + 10 + 18 = 32.
N6Q
In the product AB, A is called prefactor and B post factor. We see that AB can be determined only
if the entries in A and B are equal or we can say that the number of columns in A = the number of
rows in B. Since the matrices are constituted of rows or columns, columns in A and rows in B to be
equal is an essential condition. Therefore we give the definition of multiplication.
Definition 6.8.1. If A is an m × n matrix and B is an n × p matrix, then the product AB is the
m × p matrix whose entries are determined as follows. To find (i, j)th entry of AB, single out row
i from A and column j from the matrix B. Multiply the corresponding entries of row i and column
j together and then add up the resulting products.
Example 6.8.1. Consider the matrices
LM 1 2 4OP LM 4 1 4 3 OP
A=
N2 Q
,B= MM 0 –1 3 1 PP
N2 Q
6 0
7 5 2
Since A is a 2 × 3 and B is 3 × 4, the product AB can be determined and AB is a 2 × 4 matrix. To
determine, for example (2, 3)rd entry of AB, we single out 2nd row of A and 3rd column of B. Then
we multiply the corresponding entries together and add up there products as follows:
LM 1 O LM 4 LM
1 4 3 OP OP
0 PQ MM 0 PP
2 4
N2 MM
–1 3 1 PP =
N2 N Q Q
6
7 5 3 26
MATRICES 147
(2.4) + (6.3) + (0.5) = 26

The entry of row 1 and column 4 of AB is computed as follows,
LM 4 LM OP OP
LM [1 O
1 4 3 13
2
0 PQ
4]
MM 0 –1 3 M 1 P P
N2 7 5 MN 2 PQ PQ
=
6
N2 26
(1.3) + (2.1) + (4.2) = 13

The computation of the remaining entries of AB are
(1.4) + (2.0) + (4.2) = 12
(1.1) + (2(–1) + (4.7) = 27
(1.4) + (2.3) + (4.5) = 30
(2.4) + (6.0) + (0.2) = 8

12 LM 27 30 13 OP
. . .
AB =
8 N –4 26 12 Q
(2 1) + (6 (–1)) + (0 7) = – 4
(2.3) + (6.1) + (0.2) = 12
MM a 21 a22 L a2n PP
In general, if A = MM aM ai 2 L a P
P
MM M PP
i1 in
MN a m1 am2 L a PQ
mn
LM b bp O
b p PP
11 b12 b1 j 1
and B = MM b
21 b22 b2 j 2
PP
MM bM b p PQ
N
n1 bn 2 bnj n
MM a 21 a22 L a2 n PP
Then (i, j)th entry of AB = MM Mai1 ai 2
L
ain PP
MN a m1 am2 amn PQ
LMb 11 b12 LM
L bij OP L b1 p OP
MMb 21 b22 MM
L b2 j PP L b2 p PP
MMbM M
L MN b
PP L b p PQ
P
N n1 bn 2 nj Q n
is equal to
LM b 1j OP
MM b2 j PP
L
cij = a i1 ai2 ain
MM M PP
MN b
nj
PQ
= a1i b1j + ai2 b2j + ..... + ainbnj
n
= ∑ aik bkf
k =1
the definition requires that the number of columns of the first factor A must be equal to the number
of rows of the second factor B in order to form the product AB. If this condition is not satisfied, the
product is undefined. If this condition is satisfied, then we say that A and B are conformable for the
product.
Example 6.8.2. Find the product AB and BA of matrices
LM 2 1 3 OP LM –3 1 OP
,B= M 2 P
A =
MN 4 –1 2 PQ 2×3 MN 0
5
2 PQ 3×2
Solution. Since A and B are conformable for the product AB and B and A are also conformable
for the product BA, AB and BA can be determined.
LM 2 1 3 OP LM –32 51 OP
Now, AB =
N 4 –1 2 Q MMN 0 2 PPQ
2×3
3×2
LM 2 × –3 + 1 × 2 + 3 × 0 2 × 1 + 1 × 5 + 3 × 2 OP
=
MN 4 × –3 + –1 × 2 + 2 × 0 4 × 1 + –1 × 5 + 2 × 2 PQ
LM –4 13 OP
N –14 3 Q
=
2×2
LM –3 1 OP L 2 1 3 O
and BA = MM 2 5 PP MN 4 –1 2 PQ
N 0 2Q 2×3
LM –3 ⋅ 2 + 1 ⋅ 4 –3 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ (–1) –3 ⋅ 3 + 1 ⋅ 2 OP
= MM 2 ⋅ 2 + 5 ⋅ 4 2 ⋅ 1 + 5 ⋅ b–1g 2 ⋅ 3 + 5 ⋅ 2 PP
N 0 ⋅ 2 + 2 ⋅ 4 0 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ b–1g 0 ⋅ 3 + 2 ⋅ 2 Q
LM –2 –4 7 OP
= MM 24 –3 16 PP
N 8 –2 4 Q 3× 3
Hence we notice that AB ≠ BA.

MATRICES 149
PROBLEM 6.1
1. Choose the correct answer
LM 1 O LM 3 OP , then
2 PQ
2 3 1 2
If A=
N0 1
and B =
N1 1 1 Q
(a) AB does not exists. (b) AB is a 2 × 2 matrix.
(c) AB is a 3 × 3 matrix. (d) AB is a 2 × 3 matrix.
(e) AB is a 3 × 2 matrix.
2. Choose the correct answer:
LM 2 O and B = LM –3 1 OP
2 PQ MM 2 PP
1 3
N4
If A = 5 , then
–1
N0 2 Q
AB is
LM – 4 13OP , LM – 4 10 OP ,
(a)
N –14 3Q (b)
N –14 3Q
LM 0 13 O LM – 4 13 O
(c)
N –14 3 PQ , (d)
N –14 0 PQ .
3. Put a tick (√) against the correct answer :
(a) If A and B are two matrices such that AB exists and AB = 0, A = 0 or B = 0
(b) If A, B, C are three matrices such that
AB = AC, then B = C
(c) If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then
(AB)2 = A2 ± 2AB + B2
(d) If A, B and C are conformable for addition, then
A+B = A+C⇒B=C
(e) If A and B are square matrices of the same order then
(A + B) (A – B) = A2 – B2 and AB = BA
4. Let A and B be 4 × 5 matrices and let, C, D, and E be 5 × 2, 4 × 2, and 5 × 4 matrices respectively.
Determine which of the following matrix expressions are defined. For those that are defined, give the
size of the resulting matrix.
(a) BA (b) AC + D (c) AE + B
(d) AB + B (e) E(A + B) (f ) E(AC).
5. Show that if AB and BA are both defined, then AB and BA are square matrices.
LM 3 –2 7 OP LM 6 –2 4 OP
MM 6 5 4 P B = M0 1 3 P
NM 7 5 QP
6. Let A = and
N0 4 9 PQ 7
then find,
(a) The first row of AB (b) The third row of AB
(c) The second row of AB (d) The first column of BA
(e) The third row of AA (f) The third column of AA.
L1 OP LM 1 5 2 OP LM 6 1 3 OP
C= M MM –1 PP MM –1 PP
4 2
N3 Q
7. Let , D= 0 1 ,E= 1 2
1 5
N3 2 4 Q N4 1 3 Q
determine the entry in row 2 and column 3 of C(DE).
8. Show that the product of diagonal matrices is again a diagonal matrix.
9. Find the product AB of two matrices.
(a) A = M
L1 OP , B = LM 10 2 0 OP
MM PP
–1 2
N3 1Q
–1 1
0
N1 2 –1 Q
LM 1 2O L0 1 OP
0 PP , B = MM 0 2
0
(b) A = M 3 1 P
MN 4 0 PQ MN 2 3 0 PQ
LM 2 1 3O
P
10. If A = M 1 –1 2 P
MN 1 2 1 PQ
show that A3 – 2A2 – 9A = 0, but
A2 – 2A –2I3 ≠ 0.
LM 0 1 0 OP
11. If A = MM 0 0 1 P,
P
MN p q r PQ
show that A3 = PI3 + qA + rA2.

LM 1 0 OP LM 0 1 OP ,
12. If I =
N0 1 Q and E =
N0 0 Q
prove that (aI + bE)3 = a3I + 3a2bE.
LM 0 1 0 OP LM 0 0 0 OP
13. If E = MM 0 0 1 ,F=PP MM 1 0 0 , PP
N0 0 0 Q N0 1 0 Q
calculate the matrices EF and FE, and show that
E2F + FE2 = E.
LM a b OP LM 1 0 OP ,
14. If A =
Nc d Q and I =
N0 1 Q
show that A2 – (a + d) A = (bc – ad) I.
15. If A and B are sqaure matrices, show that
(i) (A + B)2 = A2 + BA + AB + B2
(ii) (A – B)2 = A2 – AB – BA + B2
(iii) (A + B)(A – B) = A2 – AB + BA – B2
(iv) (A – B)(A + B) = A2 + AB – BA – B2.
MATRICES 151
6.9 INVERSE OF A MATRIX

Definition 6.9.1. If A is a sqaure matrix, and if a matrix B can be found such that AB = BA = I, then
A is said to be invertible and B is called the inverse of A.
Example 6.9.1. The matrix`
LM 3 5 OP LM 2 –5 OP
B =
N1 2 Q is an inverse of A =
N –1 2 Q
LM 2 OP L 3 OP = LM 1 0O
PQ MN 1 1 PQ = I
–5 5
Since AB =
MN –1 3 2Q N0
LM 3 OP LM 2 –5 O
P LM 1 0O
1 PQ = I.
5
and BA =
N1 2 Q N –1 3 Q =
N0
Example 6.9.2. The matrix
LM 1 4 0 OP
A = MM 2 5 0 PP
N3 6 0 Q
is not invertible. To see way, let
LM b 11 b12 b13 OP
B = MM b21 b22 b23 PP
Nb 31 b32 b33 Q
be any 3 × 3 matrix. Then third column of BA is
LM b11 b12 b13 OP LM 0 OP LM 0 OP
MM b b22 b23 PP MM 0 PP = M P
0
NM 0 PQ
21
Nb31 b32 b33 Q N0Q

LM 1 0O
0 PP .
0
Thus,
MM
BA ≠ I = 0 1
N0 0 1 PQ
THEOREM 6.9.1. If B and C are both inverses of the matrix A, then B = C.

Proof. Since B and C are inverses of A, then AB = BA = I and AC = CA = I. Then B = BI =
B(AC) = (BA)C = IC = C.
Hence the inverse of an invertible matrix is unique.
If A is invertible, then its inverse will be denoted by the symbol A–1.
Thus,
A · A–1 = A–1 · A = I
Example 6.9.3. Consider the 2 × 2 matrix
LMa b OP
A =
Nc d Q
If ab – bc ≠ 0, then
LM OP LM d −b OP
= M ad – bc PP
1 d –b ad – bc
A –1 =
ad − bc – c N a Q MN ad––cbc a
ad – bc Q
We varify that A · A–1 = A–1 · A = I2
THEOREM 6.9.2. If A and B are invertible matrices of the same size, then
(i) AB is invertible
(ii) (AB)–1 = B–1A–1.(Reversal Law of inverse)
Proof. We have (AB)(B–1A–1) = A(BB–1)A–1
= AIA–1 = AA–1 = I
and (B–1A–1)(AB) = B–1(A–1A)B
= B–1IB = B–1 B = I
This implies that AB is invertible and
(AB)–1 = B–1.A–1
Example 6.9.4. Consider the matrices
LM1 2 OP LM 3 2 OP , AB = LM 7 6 OP
A =
N1 Q
3 ,B= N2 2Q N9 8Q
1 L d –b O
Applying the formula A–1 = M
ad – bc N – c a PQ
, then
LM 3 –2 OP , B = LM 1 –13 OP ,
A–1 =
N –1 1 Q MN –1 2 PQ
–1
LM 49 –37 OP
(AB)–1 =
MN − 2 2 PQ .
LM 1 –13 OP L 3 –2 O LM 49 –37 OP
Also B–1.A–1 =
MN –1 2 PQ MN –1 1 PQ = MN – 2 2 PQ
therefore, (AB)–1 = B–1A–1
In the next section we shall show how to find inverses of invertible matrices whose size are
greater than 2 × 2.
PROBLEM 6.2
1. Use the formulae in example 6.9.4 to compute the inverses of the following matrices
LM
3 1 OP LM 2 –3 OP , C = LM 2 0 OP
N
A= 5
Q
2 , B= N4 4 Q N0 3 . Q
MATRICES 153
2. Varify that matrices A and B in exercise 1 satisfy the relationship (AB)–1 = B–1.A–1.
3. Let A be an invertible matrix whose inverse is
LM 3 4 OP
N5 6 Q
Find the matrix A.
4. Let A be an invertible matrix, and suppose that the inverse of 7A is
LM –1 2 OP
N4 –7 Q
Find the matrix A.
5. Let A be the matrix
LM 1 0 OP
N2 3 . Q
Compute A3, A–3, and A2 – 2A + I.
6.10 GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATION

Here we shall confine our attention to the study of functions defined from R × R to R × R, where
R × R is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), a, b are real numbers. Since each ordered pair (a, b)
represents a point in the plane, the function maps each point of the plane into some other point of
the same plane. This leads to the geometrical interpretation of the functions.
A function T defined from R2 to R2 is said to be linear transformation if for all u, v ∈ R2 and
a, b ∈ R
(i) T(u + v) = T(u) + T(v)
(ii) T(au) = aT(u).
or simply we can say that T is linear if
T(au + bv) = aT(u) + bT(v).
Example 6.10.1. Let T : R2 → R2 be the function defined by
T(u) = (x, x + y), where u = (x, y).
If u = (x1, y1) and v = (x2, y2), then
T(u + v) = T((x1, y1) + (x2, y2))
= T(x1 + x2, y1 + y2)
= (x1 + x2, x1 + x2 + y1 + y2)
= (x1, x1 + y1) + (x2, x2 + y2)
= T(x1, y1) + T(x2, y2)
and T(au) = T(a(x1, y1) = T(ax1, ay1)
= (ax1, ax1 + ay1)
= a(x1, x1 + y1) = aT(x1, y1) = aT(u)
Hence T is a linear transformation.
Example 6.10.2. Let A be a 2 × 2 matrix. If we use matrix notation for points in R2, then we
define a function T : R2 → R2 by
T(u) = A(u)
If u is 2 × 1 matrix, then Au is also a 2 × 1 matrix.

We see that for u, v, 2 × 1 matrices
T(u + v) = A(u + v) = Au + Av
and T(au) = A(au) = aA(u).
∴T is a linear transformation. We shall call the linear transformation in this example multiplication
by A. Linear transformation of this kind are called matrix transformation.
6.11 GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Here we shall consider a linear transformation from R2 to R2. If T : R2 → R2 is a linear trans-
LM a b OP is a standard matrix for T, then
formation and A =
Nc d Q
L x O L a b O L x O L ax + by O
T M y P = M c d P M y P = M cx + dy P
N Q N QN Q N Q
that is, multiplication by A maps the point (x, y) into the point (ax + by, cx + dy) in the plane.
y
ax + by, x + dy
x, y
O x
Fig. 6.1. T maps points to points.

Therefore we can say that every linear transformation T : R2 → R2 is a matrix transformation.
More precisely, we shall show that if T : R2 → R2 is any linear transformations, then we can find
a 2 × 2 matrix A such that T is multiplication by A. To find this, let
e 1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1)
be two points in the plane. Then every point in the plane can be expressed as linear combination of
e1 and e2.
For any (a, b) ∈ R2.
(a, b) = a(1, 0) + (0, 1)
= ae1 + be2
The points e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1) are called standard basis points or vectors for R2.
Let A be the 2 × 2 matrix having T(e1), T(e2) as its column vectors. (We shall assume that all
points are expressed column vector in matrix notation).
For example, if T : R2 → R2 is given by
F L x OI LM x + 2 y OP ,
T GH MN y PQJK =
N x–y Q
MATRICES 155
F L 1 OI = LM 1 + 2 ⋅ 0 OP = LM 1 OP
Then T(e1) = T GH MN 0 PQJK N 1 – 0 Q N 1 Q
L 0 O L 0 + 2 ⋅1 O L 2 O
= T M 1 P = M 0 – 1 P = M –1 P
and T(e2)
N Q N Q N Q
bg
T e1 b g
T e2
B B
1 2
A =
1 −1
More generally, if
LM a OP , T(e ) = L a O
T(e1) =
Na Q
11
21
MN a PQ
2
12
22
LM a a OP
11 12
then A =
Na a Q
21 22
Now we see that any linear transformation T : R2 → R2 is multiplication by A. We know that

(x, y) = xe1 + ye2
LM x OP
or
NyQ = xe1 + ye2
Therefore by linearity of T
F L x OI
T GH MN y PQJK = T(xe1 + ye2)
= xT(e1) + yT(e2) ...(1)

On the other hand
T(e1) T(e2)
LM x OP LM a a OP L x O = LM a 11 x + a12 y OP
N a a Q MN y PQ N a
11 12
A
NyQ =
21 22 21 x + a 22 y Q
LxO
AM P = x M
L a OP + y L a O
N a Q MN a PQ
11
NyQ
12
⇒
21 22
LxO
AM P
⇒
NyQ = x T(e1) + y T(e2)
LxO
AM P
LM x OP
⇒
NyQ = T
NyQ by (1)
That is, T is transformed by A.

We shall refer matrix A as standard matrix.
Example 6.11.1. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation that maps each point into its
symmetric image about y-axis. Find the standard matrix for T.
( –x, y) (x, y)
Fig. 6.2
Solution. Here T : R2 → R2 is given by
F L x OI LM – x OP
T GH MN y PQJK =
NyQ
L 1 O L –1 OP
TM P = M
Now T(e1) =
N0Q N 0 Q
L 0 O L– 0 O L 0 O
TM P = M 1 P = M1P
and T(e2) =
N1Q N Q N Q
Therefore standard matrix for T is
LM –1 0OP
A =
N0 1 Q
LM x OP LM –1 0OL xO
P LM – x OP .
N0 1QM yP
NyQ N Q NyQ
As a check A = =
So that multiplication by A maps the point (x, y) into symmetric image (– x, y) about the y-axis.
We shall pay attention to five types of plane linear transformations that have special importance:
rotation, reflections, expansions, compressions, and shears.
6.12 ROTATION y
Let θ be a fixed angle, and let T : R2 → R2 be linear transformation
which T maps the point (x, y) into the rotation point (x′, y′) through Q (x ¢, y¢ )
an angle θ.
In the plane P(x, y) is any point such that OP = r and ∠POX g
= φ. If OP is rotated through an angle θ, then the point P acquires P (x, y)
g
the new position Q′ (x′, y′) such that
q
OQ = r, ∠QOX = θ + φ f
x
O
Now x = r cos φ, y = γ sin φ
Fig. 6.3
MATRICES 157
and x′ = r cos (θ + φ),

y′ = r sin (θ + φ)
Let T : R → R be the linear transformation which maps the point (x, y) into the rotated point
2 2
(x′, y′), that is,

T : R2 → R2 is given by
F L x OI LM x′ OP
T GH MN y PQJK =
N y′ Q
for which we have to find out the standard matrix.
F L x OI LM γ cos bθ + φg OP
Now T GH MN y PQJK =
N γ sin bθ + φg Q
LM γ cos θ cos φ – γ sin θ sin φ OP
=
N γ sin θ cos φ + γ cosθ sin φ Q
LM x cos θ – y sin θ OP since x = γ cos φ
=
N x sin θ + y cos θ Q y = γ sin φ
LM cos θ – sin θ OP LM x OP
=
N sin θ cos θ Q N y Q
F L x OI AM P
LxO
or T GH MN y PQJK =
NyQ
is the linear transformation given by the standard matrix
LM cos θ – sin θ OP
A =
N sin θ cos θ Q
and it is called the rotation of R2 through the angle θ and the matrix
A =
N sin θ cos θ Q
is called rotation matrix.
6.13 REFLECTION
Reflection: A reflection about a line l through the origin is a transformation that maps each point
in the plane into its mirror image or symmetric image about the line l. It can be shown that reflections
are linear transformations. The most important cases are reflection about the coordinate axes and
about the line, y = x.
Example 6.13.1. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformations which maps each point into
symmetric image about x-axis. Find the standard matrix for T.
(x, y)
(x, – y)
Fig. 6.4
F L x OI LM x OP
T GH MN y PQJK =
N −y Q
F L 1O I =
GH MN0PQ JK
LM 1 OP
Now for T(e1) = T
N0Q
F L0O I
T G M1P J =
LM 0 OP
and T(e2) =
H N QK N –1 Q
therefore the standard matrix for T is
LM 1 0 OP
A =
N 0 –1 Q
LM 1 0 OP LM x OP LM x OP .
As a check
N0 –1 Q NyQ =
N –y Q
So that multiplication by A maps the point (x, y) into the point. (x, – y).
Example 6.13.2. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation that maps each point into
symmetric image about the line y = x. Find the standard matrix for T.
y=x
(y, x)
(x, y)
Fig. 6.5
MATRICES 159

F L x OI LM y OP
Now, T GH MN y PQJK =
NxQ
L1O
TM P
LM 0 OP
T(e1) =
N0Q =
N1Q
L0O
TM 1 P
LM 1 OP .
and T(e2) =
N Q =
N0Q
Therefore the standard matrix for T is
LM 0 1 OP
A =
N1 0Q
LM 0 OP L x O LM y OP .
Q MN y PQ
1
As a check,
N1 0
=
NxQ
6.14 EXPANSIONS AND COMPRESSIONS
Expansions and compressions: If the x-coordinate of each point in the plane is multiplied by
a positive constant k, then the effect is to expand or compress each plane figure in the x-direction.
If 0 < k < 1, the result is a compression and if k > 1, an expansion. We shall call such transformation
an expansion (or compression) in the x-direction with factor k. Similarly, if the y-coordinate of each
point is multiplied by a positive constant k, we obtain an expansion (or compression) in the y-
direction with factor k we see that if T : R2 → R2 is defined by
F L x OI L k x O,
T GH MN y PQJK = MN y PQ
LM x OP , L x′ O ,
Then for
N y Q MN y′ PQ
R| F L x O L x′ O I U| R L ax O L bx′ O UV
T S G a M P + bM P J V = T S M P + M
|T H N y Q N y′ Q K |W T N ay Q N by′ PQ W
= TM
L ax + bx′ OP
N ay + by′ Q
= M
L k bax + bx′g OP = L kax + kbx′ O
N ay + by′ Q MN ay + by′ PQ
L kax O L kbx′ O L kx O L kx′ O
= M ay P + M by P = a M ay P + b M
N Q N Q N Q N y′ PQ
F L x OI L x′ O
= aT G M PJ + bT M P
H N y QK N y′ Q
Therefore T is a linear transformation. So expansions and compressions along coordinates axes
are linear transformations.
Example 6.14.1. Let T : R2 → R2 is an expansion or compression in the x-direction with factor

k, then find standard matrix for T.
F L x OI LM kx OP .
T GH MN y PQJK =
NyQ
L1O
TM P
LM k ⋅1 OP = LM k OP
Then
N0Q =
N 0 Q N0Q
L0O
TM 1 P
LM k 0 OP = LM 0 OP .
and
N Q =
N 1 Q N1Q
LM k 0 OP .
A =
N0 1 Q
1 h
(— x, y)
2 (2x, y)
(x, y)
Initial figure 1
K=— K=2
2
(Compression) (Expansion)
Fig. 6.6
Similarly, the standard matrix for an expansion or compression in the y-direction is
LM 1 0 OP
N0 k Q
(x, 2y)
(x, y) 3
(x, — y)
4
Initial figure 3
K=2 K= —
4
(Expansion) (Compression)
Fig. 6.7
6.15 SHEARS
Shears: A shear in the x-direction with factor k is a transformation that moves each point (x, y)
parallel to the x-axis by an amount ky to the new position (x + ky, y). Under such a transformation,
MATRICES 161
points on the x-axis are unmoved since y = 0. However, as we progress away from the x-axis, the
magnitude of y increases, so that points farther from the x-axis move a greater distance than those
closer.
(x, y) (x + ky, y) (x + ky, y)
K>0 K<0
Fig. 6.8
A shear in the y-direction with factor k is a transformation that moves each point (x, y) parallel
y-axis by an amount kx to the new position (x, y + kx). Under such transformation points on the
y-axis remain fixed and points farther from the y-axis move a greater distance from those closer.
F L x OI = FG x + kyIJ in the x-direction with constant
We see that a shear T : R2 → R2 given by T GH MN y PQJK H y K
factor k is a linear transformation. For,
FG IJ FG IJ
x x′
HK H K
y , y′
R L x O L x ′ O UV = T RS L ax + bx ′ O UV
T Sa M P + b M
T N y Q N y ′ PQ W T MN ay + by ′ PQ W
R L (ax + bx′ ) + k (ay + by′ ) O UV
= SM PQ W
TN ay + by ′
= M
L ax + kay + bx′+ kby′ OP
N ay + by′ Q
L ax + kay OP + LM bx′+ xby′ OP
= M ay
N Q N by′ Q
L x + ky O L x′+ky′ O
= a M y P + b M y′ P
N Q N Q
F L x OI F L x′ OI
= aT G M PJ + bT G M P J
H N y QK H N y′ QK
Hence shear T is a linear transformation.
Example 6.15.1. If T : R2 → R2 is a shear in the x-direction with constant factor k, find the
standard matrix for T.
F L x OI LM x + xy OP
T GH MN y PQJK =
N y Q
F L 1 OI LM 1 + k ⋅ 0 OP = L 1 O
Then T(e1) = T GH MN 0 PQJK =
N 0 Q MN 0 PQ
F L 0 OI L 0 + k.1 O L k O
T G M 1 PJ = M 1 P = M 1 P.
and T(e2) =
H N QK N Q N Q
LM 1 k OP
A =
N0 1 Q
Similarly, the standard matrix for a shear in the y-direction with factor k is
LM 1 0 OP
Nk Q
A = .
1
6.16 TRANSLATION
Let T : R2 → R2 be a linear transformation that maps
(x + h, y + k)
(x, y)
Fig. 6.9
each point (x, y) of the plane into the point (x′, y′) such that x′ = x + h, y′ = y + k, where h and k
are constants. Therefore
FG x IJ = FG x + h IJ
T
H yK H y+k K
FG x′ IJ = LM 1x + 0 y + h OP
⇒
H y ′ K N 0 x + 1y + k Q
LM x OP
FG x′ IJ LM 1 0 h OP MM y PP
⇒
H y′ K =
N0 1 k Q N1Q
MATRICES 163
LM 10 h OP
It follows that the matrix
N0 1 k Q
is the standard matrix for this transformation known
as translation. But the standard matrix of square form is preferred. Therefore this matrix can be
written as 3 × 3 matrix.
1 0 hLM OP
0 1 k MM PP
0 0 1 N Q
As a check we see that
LM x′ OP LM 1 0 h OP LM x OP
MM y′ PP = MM 0 1 k PP MM y PP
N1Q N0 0 1 QN1Q
x′ = x + h
y = y+k
1 = 1.
Definition 6.16.1. If T is a transformation by an indentity matrix of order 2 which maps each point
onto itself, T is called an identity transformation. This transformation can be viewed as a rotation
through an angle 0°, or as shear along either axis with k = 0 or as a compression or expansion along
either axis with factor k = 1.
If finitely many matrix transformation from R2 → R2 are performed in succession, then the same
result can be obtained by a single matrix transformation. The following example makes this point
clear.
6.17 SUCCESSIVE TRANSFORMATIONS

Example 6.17.1. Suppose that the plane is rotated through an angle θ and then subjected to a shear
of factor k in the x-direction. Find the single matrix transformation that produces the same effect as
the two successive transformations.
Solution. The standard matrix for rotation is
N sin θ cos θ Q
and the point (x, y) is transformed by the rotation to the point (x′, y′) given by
LM x′ OP LM cosθ – sin θ OP LM x OP
N y′ Q =
N sin θ cos θ QN y Q ...(1)
Then point (x′, y′) transformed by the shear to the point (x″, y″) given by
LM x″ OP LM 1 k OP LM x′ OP
N y″ Q =
N0 1 Q N y′ Q
Since the standard matrix for shear is
LM 1 k OP
N0 1 . Q
LM x″ OP LM 1 k OP L cosθ – sin θ OP LM x OP
N y″ Q =
N 0 1 Q MN sin θ cos θ QN y Q by (1)
LM cos θ + k sin θ – sin θ + k cos θ OP LM x OP

=
N sin θ cos θ QN yQ
thus the rotation followed by shear can be performed by the single matrix transformation with the
matrix.
LM cosθ + k sin θ – sin θ + k cos θ OP
N sin θ cos θ Q
In general, if the matrix transformations
T1(u) = A1u, T2(u) = A2(u) ....... Tn(u) = Anu,
from R2 to R2 are performed in succession (first T1, then T2, etc.) then the same result is achieved
by the single matrix transformation T(u) = Au, where
A = An-1...... A2A1,
Example 6.17.2. Find standard matrix for the transformation from R2 to R2 that first shears with
a factor 2 in the x-direction and then reflects about y = x.
Solution. The standard matrix for shear is
LM 1 2 OP
A1 =
N0 1 Q
and the standard matrix for the reflection is
LM 0 1 OP
N1 Q
A2 =
0
so the standard matrix for the shear followed by reflection is
LM 0 1 OP LM 1 2 OP LM 0 1 OP
A = A2A1 =
N1 0 QN0 1 Q =
N1 2 Q
(b) The reflection followed by the shear is represented by the matrix
LM 1 2 OP LM 0 1 OP LM 2 1 OP
A1A2 =
N0 1 QN1 0 Q =
N1 0 Q
Since A1A2 ≠ A2A1, so that the effect of shearing and then reflecting is different from reflecting
then shearing. This is geometrically illustrated in the following figure :
(1, 2)
(5, 2)
(2, 1)
Reflection about Shear in the x-direction

y=x with K = 2
MATRICES 165
(1, 4)
(2, 1) (4, 1)
Shear in the x-direction Reflection about

with K = 2 y=x
Fig. 6.10
Example 6.17.3. Show that if T : R2 → R2 is multiplication by an elementary matrix, then the
transformation is one of the following:
(i) A shear along coordinate axis.
(ii) Reflection about y = x.
(iii) A compression along coordinate axis.
(iv) A expansion along coordinate axis.
(v) A compression or expansion along coordinate axis followed by a reflection about
coordinate axis.
Solution. If we apply elementary row operations to the 2 × 2 identity matrix, we get the
following elementary matrices
LM 1 0 OP LM
1 k 0 OP LM 1OP LM
k 0 OP LM
1 0 OP
Nk QN QN QN QN Q
, , , ,
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 k
LM 1 0 OP represents shear in the y-direction of factor k,

Here,
Nk 1 Q
LM 1 kO
N0 1 PQ represents shear in the x-direction of factor k.
LM 0 1O
N1 0 PQ represents reflection about y = x.
LM k 0O L1 0O
N0 1 PQ MN 0 k PQ
, represents compression or expansion.
along coordinate axes depending on whether 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 or k ≥ 1. If k < 0, k = – k1, where k1 > 0.

Then
LM k 0 OP LM –k 1 0 OP LM –1 0 OP LM k
1 OP
0
N0 1 Q =
N0 1 Q =
N 0 1Q N 0 1Q ...(1)
LM 1 0O LM 1 OP L1 0 O L1 0 O
k PQ = M 0 –1 P M 0 k PQ
0
and
N0 =
N0 –k1 Q N QN 1
...(2)
Since k1 > 0, the product in (1) represents a compression or expansion along x-axis followed
by a reflection about y-axis. The product (2) represents compression or expansion along the y-axis
followed by a reflection about the x-axis If k = – 1, (1) and (2) are simply reflections about the y
and x-axis, respectively.
6.18 INVERSE TRANSFORMATION

Let T : R2 → R2 be multiplication by an invertible matrix A, and suppose that T maps the point (x,
y) to the point (x′, y′). Then
LM OP
x LM x OP = LM x′ OP
N Q
T y = A
N y Q N y′ Q
LM x OP L x′ O
A M P
Since A–1 exists,
NyQ N y′ Q
= –1
It follows from these equations that if multiplication by A maps (x, y) to (x′, y′), then multiplication
by A–1 maps (x′, y′) back to the point (x, y). For this reason multiplication by A and multiplication
by A–1 are said to be inverse transformations.
Example 6.18.1. If T : R2 → R2 compresses the plane by a factor 1/3 in the y-direction, then
it is obvious that we must expand the plane by a factor 3 in y-direction to move each point back to
the original position. The standard matrix for compression by factor 1/3 in y-direction is
LM 1 0 OP
A =
N0 1/ 3 Q
and the standard matrix for the expansion by factor 3 in y-direction is
LM 1 0 OP
N0 Q
A1 =
3
We see that compression by a factor 1/3 in y-direction followed by an expansion by a factor
3 in y-direction is an identity transformation.
LM 1 OP LM 1 OP = L 1 OP
Q MN 0
0 0 0
Since, A 1A =
N0 3 QN0 1/ 3 1 Q
A–1 = A1
therefore expansion is the inverse transformation of compression.
Example 6.18.2. If T : R2 → R2 is multiplication by a matrix
A =
N sin θ cos θ Q
then the multiplication by A rotates the points in the plane through an angle θ. To bring a point back
to its original position, it must be rotated through an angle – θ, that is, if the (x, y) is mapped by A
on to the point (x′, y′), then
LM x′ OP LM cosθ – sin θ OP LM x OP
N y′ Q =
N sin θ cos θ QN y Q
LM x OP LM cosθ – sin θ O L x ′ O
–1
NyQ N sin θ cos θ PQ MN y ′ PQ

⇒ =
MATRICES 167
we see that (x′, y′) is brought back to the original point (x, y) by multiplication by
LM cos b–θg b g OP
– sin –θ
N sin b–θg cos b–θg Q
A1 =
LM cos θ sin θ O
=
N − sin θ cos θ PQ
LM cos θ sin θ O L cos θ – sin θ OP = L 1 OP .

cos θ PQ MN sin θ Q MN 0
0
and the product A 1A =
N – sin θ cos θ 1 Q
LM cos θ sin θ O
⇒ Multiplication by
N – sin θ cos θ PQ
is the inverse transformation of rotation by
N sin θ cos θ Q
Here we shall give two theorems that provide some insight into the geometric properties of
linear transformations.
THEOREM 6.18.1. If T : R2 → R2 is multiplication by an invertible matrix A, then the
geometric effect of T is the same as an appropriate succession of shears, compressions, expansions,
and reflections.
Proof. Since A is invertible, it can be reduced to the identity matrix by a finite sequence of
elementary row operations. An elementary row operation can be performed by multiplying on the left
by an elementary matrix, and so there exist elementary matrices E1, E2, ... Er such that
ErEr–1... E2E1A = I
⇒ A = E1–1E2–1.... Er–1–1 Er–1I
⇒ A = E1–1 E2–1.... Er–1

thus, A is the product of elementary matrices, since the inverse of an elementary matrix is also
elementary matrix. The elementary matrices E1–1 , E2–1...., Er–1 represent appropriate transformations.
This will be clear by the following example.
Example 6.18.3. Express
LM 1 2 OP
A =
N3 4 Q
as a product of elementary matrices, and then describe the geometric effect of multiplication by A
in terms of shears, compressions, expansions, and reflections.
Solution. A can be reduced to I as follows:
LM 1 2 OP
R2 – 3 R1
  →
1 LM 2 OP
– R2
2→
1
1
LM 2 OP
N3 4 Q 0 N –2 Q 0 N 1 Q
 
R –2 R
2 →
LM 1 0 OP
N0 Q
1
1
The three successive row operations can be performed by multiplying on the left successively
by elementary matrices
LM 1 0 OP LM 1 0 OP LM 1 −2 OP
E1 =
N –3 1 Q
, E2 =
MN 0 − PQ
1 , E3 =
2 N0 1 Q
Inverting these matrices
LM 1 0OP LM 1 0 OP LM 1 2OP
A = E1–1 E2–1 E3–1 =
N3 1QN0 –2 Q N 0 1Q
It follows that the effect of multiplying by A is equivalent to:
(1) Shearing by a factor of 2 in the x-direction.
(2) Then expanding by a factor of 2 in the y-direction.
(3) Then reflecting about the x-axis.
(4) Then shearing by a factor of 3 in the y-direction.
THEOREM 6.18.2. If T : R2 → R2 is multiplication by an invertible matrix, then:
(a) The image of a straight line is a straight line.
(b) The image of a straight line through the origin is a straight line through the origin.
(c) The images of parallel straight lines are parallel straight lines.
(d) The image of line segment joining points P and Q is the line segment joining the images
of P and Q.
(e) The image of three points lie on a line if and only if the points themselves do.
REMARK. It follows from parts (c), (d) and (e) that multiplication by an invertible matrix A
of order 2 maps triangles into triangles and parallelograms into parallelograms.
Example 6.18.4. Sketch the image of the sqaure with vertices A (0, 0), B (1, 0). C (0, 1) and
D (1, 1) under multiplication by
–1 2 LM OP
A = 2 –1 . N Q
Solution. Since
LM –1 2 OP LM 0 OP LM 0 OP , LM –1 2 OP LM 1 OP = LM –1 OP ,
N2 –1 QN0Q =
N0Q N 2 –1 QN0Q N 2 Q
LM –1 2 OL0O LM 2 OP , LM –1 2 OL1O LM 1 OP .
N2 –1 PQ MN 1 PQ =
N −1 Q N 2 P M
–1 Q N 1 Q P =
N1Q
the image is a parallelogram with vertices (0, 0), (–1, 2), (2, –1), and (1, 1).
MATRICES 169
(–1, 2)
C D (1, 1) (1, 1)
(0, 1)
A
(0, 0) B (1, 0) (0, 0)
(2, –1)
Fig. 6.11
LM 3 1 OP
Example 6.18.5. According to theorem 6.18.2 the invertible matrix A =
line y = 2x + 1 into other line. Find its image.
N2 1 Q maps the
Solution. Let (x, y) be a point on the line y = 2x + 1 and Let (x′, y′) be its image under
multiplication by A. Then.
LM x′ OP LM 3 1 OP LM x OP
N y′ Q =
N2 1 QN yQ
LM x OP LM 3 1 OP LM x′ OP
–1
⇒
NyQ =
N 2 1 Q N y′ Q
LM x OP LM 1 –1 OP LM x′ OP
⇒
NyQ =
N –2 3 Q N y′ Q
⇒ x = x′ – y′
y = – 2x′ + 3y′
Substituting in y = 2x + 1, we get
– 2x′ + 3y′ = 2(x′ – y′) + 1
⇒ 5y′ = 4x′ + 1 Y R
4 1 Q
⇒ y′ = x′ +
5 5
which is the required equation.
Example 6.18.6. Prove that two 2-D rotations of P (x, y)
the object about the origin, commute, that is, R1 R2 =
R2 R1. q2
q1
Solution. Let R1 be the rotation of an object at
f
P(x, y) through an angle θ1 which is given by rotation X
O
matrix.
LMcos θ 1 – sin θ1 OP Fig. 6.12
R1(θ1) =
N sin θ
1 cos θ1 Q
and attains the position Q. It is again rotated through an angle θ2 to reach the point R by rotation
matrix
LMcos θ – sin θ OP
2 2
R2(θ2) =
N sin θ cosθ Q
2 2
LMcos θ – sin θ OP LMcos θ – sin θ OP

2 2 1 1
R2(θ2) R1(θ1) =
N sin θ cosθ Q N sin θ cos θ Q
2 2 1 1
LM cos θ cosθ – sin θ sin θ – sin θ cos θ – cos θ sin θ OP

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
=
N cosθ sin θ + sin θ cos θ – sin θ sin θ + cos θ cos θ Q
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
LM cosbθ + θ g – sinbθ + θ g OP
N sin(θ + θ ) cosbθ + θ g Q = R(θ + θ ).
1 2 1 2
= 1 2
1 2 1 2
Similarly, if we rotate an object first through an angle θ2 and then rotate through an angle θ1,
the resultant matrix is
cos θ1 – sin θ1 LM
cos θ 2 – sin θ 2 OP LM OP
R1(θ1) R2(θ2) =
sin θ1 cos θ1 N
sin θ 2 cos θ 2 QN Q
LM cosbθ + θ1 g b
– sin θ 2 + θ1 g OP
b g Q = R(θ
2
=
N sin(θ 2 + θ1 ) cos θ 2 + θ1 2 + θ1) = R(θ1 + θ2)
Hence, R1 R2 = R2 R1.
Example 6.18.7. Describe the transformation that rotates an object point, Q(x, y), θ° about a
fixed centre of rotation P(h, k).
Solution. We determine the transformation Rθ, P in three steps.
(1) Transtate the point P to the origin by translation matrix
LM 1 0 –h OP Q¢ (x¢, y¢)
T−v = M0 1 –k PP
MN 0
Q (x, y)
0 1 Q q°
(2) Rotate through an angle θ° about the origin by the
rotation matrix.
OP LM OP
P (h, k)
LM
cos θ – sin θ cos θ − sin θ 0
Rθ = sin θ
N cos θ = sin θ cos θ 0
0 0 1
Q MMN PP
Q
(3)Translate P back to (h, k) by the matrix
LM cos θ − sin θ 0 OP
Tv = M sin θ 0P .
MM cos θ
P Fig. 6.13
N 0 0 1 PQ
So we have transformation matrix
LM 1 0 h OP LM cos θ − sin θ 0 OP LM 1 0 −h OP
R ,P = M 0 1 k PP MM − sin θ cos θ 0 PP MM 0 1 −k PP
θ
MN 0 0 1 Q N 0 0 0 Q N0 0 1 Q
LM cosθ – sin θ – h cos θ + k cos θ + h OP
= M PP .
sin θ cos θ – h sin θ – k cos θ + k
MN 0 0 1 Q
MATRICES 171
Example 6.18.8. Perform a 45° rotation of triangle A(0, 0), B(1, 1) C(5, 2) (a) about the origin
(b) about P(–1, –1).
Solution. We represent the triangle by a matrix formed from the homogeneous coordinates of
the vertices.
LM
A B C OP
MM 0 1 5P
2 P
MN 01 1
1 1Q
P
LM cos 45° – sin 45° OP LM 2 – 22 0
OP
M P
0 2
(a) The rotation matrix is MM sin 45° cos 45° 0 PP =
MM 22 2 0P
N 0 0 1 Q MN 0
2
0 1PQ
P
so the coordinates of A′B′C′ can be determined by
LM A′ B′ C′ OP
LM 2 OP L 0 OP MM 0 3 2 P
P0P MM 0
– 22
2 P
0 1 5 0
[ABC] = M 2 2P
2
MM 2 MM P
P1PQ MMN 1 P 7 2 P
[A′B′C′] = Rθ 2 1 =
1 PQ MM 0 2 P
2
MN 0
2
0 1
MN 1 1 1 PQ
P
F 3 2 , 7 2I
Thus A′ =(0, 0), B′ = 0, 2 , = C′ =e j GH 2 2 JK .
(b) The rotation matrix is given by
LM 1 –1 O L 2 O
0P L 1 OP
0
M
PP M – 22
P MM
0 1
MM 0 P
2
–1 P M 2 0P M
1P
M P
R45°, p = Tv·R45·T−V = 1 2 0 1
MM P MM P
1 PQ MM 0 P
2 2
N0 1PQ N 0 1 PQ
0
N 0 0
LM 2 – 2 –1 P
O
MM 2 2
PP
=
MM 22 2
e 2 – 1j P
MN 0
2
PP
0 1 Q
LM 2 O LM A B C OP
–1 P M
5 PP
– 2
MM 2 2
PP M 0 1
MM 22 e 2 – 1j P M
M P
2 P
and [A′B′C′]= R45°, p [ABC] = 2
2
P M 0 1
PP
NM 0 0 1 PQ MM 1 1
N 1 PQ
LM –1 FH 3 –1 2 –1 IK OP
= M
M 2
P
2 – 1j e2 2 – 1j F 9 2 – 1I P
MM e H2 K PP
MN 1 1 1 PQ
e e jj e e jj FG 3 9 I
2 – 1J .
Thus A′ = –1, 2 – 1 , B′ = –1, 2 2 – 1 , C′ =
H2 2 – 1,
2 K
Example 6.18.9. Magnify the triangle with vertices A(0, 0), B(1, 1) at C(5, 2) to twice its size
while keeping C (5, 2) fixed.
Solution. We can write the required transformation matrix as
S22·C = Tv.S2,2.T-v
LM 1 0 OP LM 2 5 0 0 OP LM 1 0 –5 OP
= MMN 00 1
0
PPQ MMN 00
2
1
2
0
0
1
PPQ MMN 00 1
0
–2
1
PPQ
LM 2 0 –5 O
2 –2 P .
=
MMN 00 0 1 PQ
P
LM 2 0 –5 O L 0 OP
2 –2 P M 0
1 5
So [A′B′C′] = S22,c [ABC] =
MMN 00 0
PM
1 PQ MN 1
1
1
2
1
PPQ
LM –5 –3 5 O
2P
=
MMN –21 0
1 1 PQ
P
Thus, A′ = (–5, –2), B′ = (–3, 0) C′ = (5, 2).
Example 6.18.10. Find the form of matrix for reflection about a line L(y = mx + b) with slope
m and y intercept (0, b). Y
Solution. We perform the reflection of a point about L
the line L in following steps:
(1) Translate B(0, b) to the origin (0, 0).
(2) Rotate by – θ° so that L falls on x-axis.
B
(3) Mirror reflect about x-axis. (0, b)
(4) Rotate back by θ° q
X
(5) Translate back to B.
So, in transformation notation, we have
ML = Tv Rθ Mx R−θ T−v
LM 1 0 0 OP LM cos θ – sin θ 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP Fig. 6.14
= MM 0 1 b PP MM sin θ cos θ 0 PP MM 0 –1 0 PP
N0 0 1 QN 0 0 1 QN0 0 1 Q
MATRICES 173
LM cos θ sin θ 0OP LM 1 0 OP 0

MM – sin θ cos θ 0 PP MM 0 1 P –b
N 0 0 1QN0 0 1 PQ
LM cos 2θ sin 2θ –b sin 2θ O
MM sin 2θ – cos 2θ bbcos 2θ + 1g PP
=
N 0 0 1 PQ
1 – tan 2 θ 2 tan θ 1 – m2
Since, tan θ = m, then cos 2θ = , sin 2θ = or cos 2θ = ,
1 + tan 2 θ 1 + tan 2 θ 1 + m2
2m
sin 2θ = .
1 + m2
So the required matrix of reflections about L is
LM 1 – m 2
2m –2bm OP
MM 1 +2mm 2
1 + m2
m2 – 1
1 + m2 PP
MM 1 + m PP
ML = 2b
2
1 + m2 1 + m2
N 0 0 1 Q
Example 6.18.11. Reflect the diamond shaped polygon whose vertices are A(–1, 0), B(0, –2),
C(1, 0) and D(0, 2) about
(a) The horizontal line y = 2
(b) The vertical line x = 2 (0, 2)
(c) The line y = x + 2.

Solution. (a) The line y = 2 is parallel to x-axis at a
distance 2 units from it which cut y-axis at the point (0, 2). If
we translate the point (0, 2) to the origin, then line y = 2 falls
on x-axis. Then we take reflection about x-axis and translate
back to the point (0, 2). So the reflextion matrix is
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
ML = TV MX T–V = M0 1 2 PP MM 0 –1 0 PP MM 0 1 –2 PP Fig. 6.15
MN 0 0 1 QN0 0 1 QN0 0 1 Q
LM 1 0O
4 PP
0
= M0 –1
MN 0 0 1 PQ
We represent the vertices of the polygon by the homogeneous coordinate matrix.
LM A B C D OP
V = MM –1 0 1 0 PP
MN 01 –2
1
0
1
2
1
PQ
To reflect the polygon we have
LM 1 0 0 OP LM –1 0 1 0 OP LM A′ B′ C′ D′ OP
[A′ B′ C′ D′] = M .V = M
0
MN 0
–1 4 PP MM 0 –2 0 2 PP = MM –14 0 1 0 PP
L
0 1 QN 1 1 1 1 Q M 6 4 2
PQ
N1 1 1 1
Thus A′ = (–1, 4), B′ = (0, 6), C′ = (1, 4), D′ = (0, 2).
(b) To find the matrix for reflection about the line x = 2.
Which cuts x-axis at (2, 0), we translate (2, 0) to the origin, then
the line falls on y-axis. Then we take reflection about y-axis and
translate origin back to (0, 2). So the required matrix for reflection x=2
about the line x = 2 is

ML = TV MY T–V
LM1 0 2 OP LM–1 0 0 OP LM1 0 –2 OP
MM0 PP MM 0 PP MM0 PP
(2, 0)
ML = 1 0 1 0 1 0
N0 0 1 QN0 0 1 Q N0 0 1 Q
LM–1 4O
0 PP
0
= MM 0 1 Fig. 6.16
N0 0 1 PQ
LM – 1 0 4 OP LM – 1 0 1 0 OP LM 5 4 3 4 OP
MM 0 1 0 P MM 0 –2 0 2 P = M
0 –2 0 2 P
1 QP 1 QP NM 1 1 QP
Finally, ML.V =
N0 0 N 1 1 1 1 1
Thus, A′ = (5, 0), B′ = (4, –2), C ′ = (3, 0), D′ = (4, 2).
(c) To find out the reflection matrix about the line L
Y
2
y = x + 2 which cuts y-axis at B(0, 2) and inclined at x+
=
angle of 45° with x-axis. We perform the following steps: y
(1) Translate B(0, 2) to the origin by T−V

(2) Rotate the line through an angle –45° by R–45° (0, 2)
so that the line L coincides with x-axis.
(3) Take the reflections about axis by Mx 45°
X
(0, 0)
(4) Rotate back through angle 45° by R 45°
(5) Translate origin back to B by TV
Thus, the required matrix for reflection about L is
given by Fig. 6.17
ML = TV R45 Mx R–45°T–V
LM 1 0 0 OP LM cos 45° – sin 45° 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM cos 45° sin 45° 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP

=
MM 0 1 2 PP MM sin 45° cos 45° 0 PP MM 0 –1 0 PP MM − sin 45° cos 45° 0 PP MM 0 1 –2 PP
N0 0 1QN 0 0 1QN0 0 1Q N 0 0 1 Q N0 0 1 Q
MATRICES 175
LM 1 0 OP LM 1 – 1 LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 1
OP OP L 1 OP
PP MM 0
0 0 0 0 0
M P MM 2 2
MM 0 –1 0 PP MM 21 12
P P
= M0 1 2P 0P 0 M –2 P
MM PP PP MM − 2 2 PP M
1 1 1
MM P MM P
1 PQ 1 Q MN 0 1 PQ
2 2
N0 0 N 0 0 1Q N0 0 1QN 0 0 0
LM 1 OP L 1 0O L 1 2 O
PP MM 2 2 – 2 PP
1 1
PP MM 0
– 0 0
= M 1
M 2 2
–1 0 P M 1
2 M − 2 P
MM 2 PP M M 2 P
1 1
PP M 2 2 –
P
1 Q MN 0
2
N0 0 0 1Q N 0 0 1 Q
LM 1 0OL 1
PP MM 2 – 2 O LM 0 1 –2 OP
2 P
– 1 1
= M 1
M 2 2 2
PP = M 1 0 2 P
2PM 1 MM PP
MM 2 PP MM 2 2 P
1 – 1 2
N 0 0
2
1QN 0 0
2
1 Q
P MN 0 0 1 PQ
The required coordinates of A′, B′, C′, D′ can be obtained as
LM 0 1 –2 OP LM –1 0 1 0 OP LM –2 –4 –2 0 OP
[A′ B′ C′ D′] = ML.V =
MMN 10 0
0
2
1
PPQ MMN 01 –2
1
0
1
2
1
PPQ =
MMN 11 2
1 1
3 2
1
PPQ
Thus, A′ = (–2, 1), B′ = (–4, 2) C′ = (–2, 3), D′ = (0, 2)
Example 6.18.12. Find the transformation matrix that transforms a given square ABCD to half
its size with centre still remaining at the same position. The coordinates of the square are A(1, 1),
B(3, 1), C(3, 3) and D(1, 3) centre at (2, 2).
1
Solution. Here Sx = Sy = and v = 2i + 2j
2
We know that scaling with respect to given point is given by
Ssx, sy , P = Tv· Ssx, sy T–v
LM 1 0 2 OP LM 21 0 0
OP L 1
MM 0
0 –2 OP LM 1 OP
2 P MM 0 P
0 1
MM 0 0P M –2 P MM 2 P
PM P 1P
= 1 1 1 = 1
MN 0 1 PQ M 0
PM 1 PQ
MM 00 P
1 PQ N 0 1 PQ
2
N
2
0
N 0 0 0
Now the transformed points A′ B′ C′ D′ are given by

[A′ B′ C′ D′] = Ssx,sy, P. [ABCD]
LM 1 OP LM A B C DOP L 3 OP
MM 2
5 7 3
MM 20
0 1
P MM 1 3 3 1P
P = M3
2 2 2
PP
1P MM 1 3P
1 3 5 5
MM P PP MM 2 PP
=
1 3 2 2 2
1 PQ
2
N0 0 MN 1 1 1 1Q N1 1 1 1Q
FG 3 , 3IJ , B′ = FG 5 , 3IJ , C′ = FG 7 , 5 IJ , D′ = FG 3 , 5IJ .

Thus, A′ =
H 2 2K H 2 2K H 2 2K H 2 2K
Example 6.18.13. Prove that simultaneous shearing in both directions (x and y), is not equal to
the composition of pure shear along y-axis followed by pure shear along y-axis.
Solution. The matrix for shearing in both directions (x and y) is
LM 1 a OP
Nb 1Q
Sa,b = ...(1)
The matrix for shearing in x-direction

LM 1 a OP
N0 1Q
Sa,0 =
and the matrix for shearing in y-directions

LM 1 0 OP
Nb Q
S0,b = .
1
According to the question Sa followed by Sb we have
LM 1 0 OP LM 1 a OP = LM 1 a OP
Nb QN0 Q Nb Q
S0,b · Sa,0 = ab + 1 ...(2)
1 1
From (1) and (2), we get Sa, b ≠ S0, b · Sa, 0.
Example 6.18.14. Give the explicit form of the 3 × 3 matrix representing the transformation:
Scaling by factor 2 in the x-direction and then rotating about (2, 1).
Solution. To do this question, we perform the following steps:
LM 2 0 0 OP
(1) Consider the scaling matrix S2, 0 = MM 0 1 0 PP .
N0 0 1 Q
LM 1 0 –2 OP
(2) Translate the point (2, 1) to (0, 0) by T–v =
MM 0 1 –1 . PP
N0 0 1 Q
LM cosθ – sin θ 0 OP
(3) Rotate it through an angle + θ by MM sin θ cos θ 0 PP
N 0 0 1 Q
LM 1 0 2 OP
(4) Translate back origin to the point by T−v = M0 1 1 PP .
MN 0 0 1 Q
Thus the required matrix for the transformation is
= Tv Rθ T–v S2, 0
MATRICES 177
LM 1 0 2 OP LM cosθ – sin θ 0 OP LM 1 0 – 2 OP LM 2 0 0 OP
MM
= 0 1 1
PP MM sin θ cos θ 0 PP MM 0 1 – 1 PP MM 0 1 0 PP
N0 0 1QN 0 0 1Q N 0 0 1 Q N 0 0 1 Q
LM 1 0 2 OP LM cosθ – sin θ 0 OP LM 2 0 – 2 OP
MM
= 0 1 1
PP MM sin θ cos θ 0 PP MM 0 1 – 1 PP
N0 0 1QN 0 0 1Q N 0 0 1 Q
LM 1 0 2 OP LM 2 cos θ 0 –2 cos θ + sin θ OP

= M 0 1 1 P M 2 sin θ – sin θ –2 sin θ – cos θ P
MN 0 0 1 PQ MN 0 0 1 PQ
LM 1 0 2 OP LM 2 cosθ 0 –2 cosθ + sin θ OP
= M
0 1 1 P M 2 sin θ – sin θ –2 sin θ – cos θ P
MN 0 0 1 PQ MN 0 0 1 PQ
PROBLEM 6.3
1. Find the Standard matrix of each of the following Linear transformations.
F L x OI = L 2 x – y O F L y OI = L x O
(a) T GH MN y PQJK MN x + y PQ (b) T GH MN x PQJK MN y PQ
F L x OI L x + 3 y O
T G M PJ = M
F L x OI L 4 x + 3 y O
(c)
H N y QK N y PQ (d) T G M PJ = M
H N y QK N 2 x – y PQ
2. Find the standard matrix for the plane Linear transformation T : R2 → R2 that maps a point (x, y)
into (as shown in the figure),
(a) its reflection about the line y = –x (b) its reflection through the origin
(c) its orthogonal projection on the x-axis (d) its orthogonal projection on the y-axis.
(x, y)
(x, y)
(a) (b)
(x, y )
(c) (d)
Fig. 6.18
3. For each part of Exercise 2, use the matrix you have obtained to compute to T(2, 1).
4. Sketch the image of the rectangle with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 2), and (0, 2) under:
(a) a reflection about the x-axis;
(b) a reflection about the y-axis;
(c) a compression of factor k = 1/4 in the y-direction;
(d) an expansion of factor k = 2 in the x-direction;
(e) a shear of factor k = 3 in the x-direction;
(f) a shear of factor k = – 2 in the y-direction.
5. Sketch the image of the square with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1) and (1, 1) under multiplication by
LM –3 0OP.
A=
N0 1Q
6. Find the matrix that rotates a point (x, y) about the origin through:
(a) 45° (b) 90° (c) 180° (d) 270° (e) – 30°
7. Find the matrix that shears by
(a) a factor of k = 4 in the y-direction;
(b) a factor of k = – 2 in the x-direction.
8. Find the matrix that compresses or expands by:
(a) a factor of 1/3 in the y-direction
(b) a factor of 6 in the x-direction.
9. In each part, describe the geometric effect of multiplication by the given matrix
LM 3 0OP LM 1 0 OP , LM 1 4 OP .
N0 Q N0 Q N0 Q
(a) , (b) (c)
1 –5 1
10. In each part, find a single matrix that performs the indicated succession of transformations
1
(a) Compress by a factor of in the x-direction, then expands by a factor of 5 in the y-direction.
2
(b) Expands by a factor of 5 in the y-direction; then shears by a factor of 2 in the y-direction.
(c) Reflects about y = x; then rotates through an angle 180°.
11. In each part, find a single matrix that performs the indicated succession of operations.
(a) Reflects about the y-axis; then expands a factor of 5 in the x-direction; and then reflects about
y = x.
MATRICES 179
(b) Rotates through 30°, then shears by a factor of 2 in the y-direction and then expands by a factor
of 3 in the y-direction.
12. Express the matrix as a product of elementary matrices, and then describe the effect of multiplication
by the given matrix in term of compression, expansions, reflections, and shears.
LM 2 0 OP , LM 1 4OP ,
N0 3Q N2 Q
(a) (b)
9
LM 0 –2 OP , LM 1 –3 O
N4 0 Q N4 6 PQ
(c) (d) ,
13. By matrix inversion, show that:

(a) The inverse transformation for a reflection about y = x is a reflection about y = x.
(b) The inverse transformation for a compression along an axis is an expansion along that axis.
(c) The inverse transformation for a reflection about an axis is a reflection about that axis.
(d) The inverse transformation for a shear along an axis is a shear along that axis.
14. Find the equation of the image of the line y = – 4x + 3 under multiplication by
LM 4 –3 OP
A=
N3 –2 Q
15. In parts (a) through (e) find the equation of the image of the line y = 2x under:
(a) shear of factor 3 in the x-direction;
1
(b) a compression of factor in the y-direction;
2
(c) a reflection about y = x;
(d) a reflection about the y-axis;
(e) a rotation of 60°.
16. Find the matrix for a shear in the x-direction that transforms the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (2, 1),
and (3, 0) into a right triangle with the right angle at the origin.
17. (a) Show that multiplication by
LM 3 1OP
A=
N6 2Q
maps every point in the plane onto the line y = 2x.
(b) It follows from (a) that non-collinear points (1, 0), (0, 1), (– 1, 0) are mapped on a line.
6.19 COMPLEX NUMBERS IN THE FORM OF A MATRIX

If we solve the equation x2 + 1 = 0, then the solution of this equation is x = ± –1 and –1 is not
a real number since we have not read to find out the square root of any negative real number. So
we extend the system of real numbers to some bigger system so that the equation of the type
x2 + a2 = 0 will have solutions in the extended system known as complex number system. Hence
–1 is represented by the symbol i. It is called purely imaginary number and any number of the from
α + iβ, where α, β are real numbers is called a complex number.
Now we have to justify that a complex number α + iβ can be represented by a 2 × 2 matrix
LMα β OP
N Q
. For this we shall establish a one to one correspondence between the set of complex
–β α
numbers and the set M2 of all 2 × 2 matrices with their elements real numbers which preserve the
operation of addition and multiplication.
To obtain our goal we defined a function f : C → M2 by
LM α β OP
f(α + iβ) =
N –β Q
α , α, β real.
For α + iβ, γ + iδ∈C,
f(α + iβ) = f(γ + iδ)
LM α βOP LM γ δ OP
⇒
N –β αQ =
N –δ γ Q
⇒ α = γ, β=δ
⇒ α + iβ = r + iδ.
Therefore f is a one to one mapping.
LM α β OP
Moreover for each matrix
N –β α Q there exists a complex number (α + iβ) such that
LM α β OP
f(α + iβ) =
N –β α Q
Thus, f is a one to one correspondence between C and M2.
Again f(α + iβ) + (r + iδ) = f(α + γ) + i(β + δ)
LM a + γ β+δ OP
=
N –bβ + δg α+γ Q
LM α β OP LM γ δ OP
=
N –β α Q +
N –δ γ Q
= f(α + iβ) + f(γ + iδ)
and f(α + iβ) (r + iδ) = f(αγ – βδ + i(αδ + βγ)
LM αγ – βγ αδ + βγ OP
=
N –bαδ + βγ g αγ – βδ Q
LM α β OP LM γ δ OP
=
N –β α Q N – δ γ Q
= f(α + iβ) f(γ + iδ)
LM α −β OP
Moreover, b g
f α + iβ = f(α – iβ) =
Nβ α Q
f bα + iβg + bγ + iδg = c
f α+ γ +i β+δ b gh
= f(α + γ – i(β + δ))
LM α + γ – β+δb g OP
=
N β+δ α+γ Q
MATRICES 181
LM α −β OP + LM γ −δ OP
=
Nβ α Q Nδ γ Q
= f bα + iβg + f bγ + iδg
f((α + iβ)(γ + iδ) = f bαγ − βδg + i bαδ + βγ g

= f(αγ – βδ) – i(αδ + βγ)
LM αγ − βδ –bαδ + βγ g OP
=
N αδ + βγ αγ + βδ Q
LM α –β OP LM γ –δ OP
=
Nβ α QNδ γ Q
= f bα + iβg f bγ + iδg
Thus, f preserve the operation of addition, multiplication and the unary operation of conjugation
of complex numbers and Matrices. This one to one correspondence suggest that a complex number
LM α β OP LM α β OP
α + iβ =
N –β α Q
, i.e., α + iβ is equivalent to 2 × 2 matrix
N –β α Q .
LM 1 0O
P L 0 1 OP .
,i=0+i= M
So particularly, 1 = 1 + i0 =
N0 1Q N –1 0 Q
Let P(x, y) be any point in plane R2
Let y
x = r cos θ, y = γ sin θ
Then
x2 + y2 = γ 2 P (x, y)
⇒ OP = γ
y g
tan θ =
x y = g sin q
FG y IJ
⇒ θ = tan–1 H xK q
O x = g cos q f (g, 0) x
y
i.e., ∠POX = θ = tan–1
x Fig. 6.19
Then x + iy = γ cos θ + iγ sin θ
LM γ cos θ γ sin θ OP
=
N – γ sin θ γ cos θ Q
LM cos θ sin θ OP LM γ 0 OP
N – sin θ QN0 Q
=
cos θ γ
This shows that a point Q(γ, 0) is rotated through an angle θ and the point Q(γ, 0) acquires the
new position P(x, y). This rotation through an angle θ is given by the matrix
LM cos θ sin θ OP
N – sin θ cos θ Q
=
De Moivre’s Theorem: This theorem is very useful in multiplying any number of complex
numbers, any integral power of a complex number or to find out any nth root of a complex number.
A complex number of magnitude 1 can be written as cos θ + i sin θ.
De Moivre’s theorem says that
(cos θ + sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
LM cos θ sin θ OP
Since, cos θ + i sin θ =
N – sin θ cos θ
,
Q
then (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
LM cos θ sin θ OP n
LM cos nθ sin nθ OP
N – sin θ cos θ Q =
N – sin nθ cos nθ Q ...(1)
q
O P (1, 0) x
Fig. 6.20
To prove (1) Let P(1, 0) be any point on OX. P1(x′, y′) is the new position of P after rotation
through an angle θ.
LM x′ OP LM cos θ sin θ OP LM 1 0 OP
N y′ Q =
N – sin θ cos θ QN0 1 Q
then [(x′, y′)] is rotated through an angle θ and acquires a new position (x2, y2) then
LM x OP
2 LM cos θ sin θ OP LM cos θ sin θ OP LM 1 0 OP
Ny Q
2
=
N – sin θ cos θ Q N – sin θ cos θ QN0 1 Q
LM cos θ sin θ O
2
=
MATRICES 183
(x2, y2) is again rotated through an angle θ and reaches new point (x3, y3). Then
LM x OP = LM cos θ sin θ OP LM x OP 2
N y Q N – sin θ cos θ Q N y Q
3
3 2
= M
L cos θ sin θ O L cos θ sin θOP 2
N – sin θ cos θ PQ MN – sin θ cos θ Q
= M
L cos θ sin θ O
3
If the point P(1, 0) is rotated through an angle θ n times successively. Then P(1, 0) acquires
the final position Pn(xn, yn) where
LM x OP = L cos θ sin θ OP n
N y Q MN – sin θ
n
Q
...(1)
n cos θ
On the other hand if the P(1, 0) is rotated through an angle nθ, then P reaches the point
Pn(xn, yn)
LM x OP = LM cos nθ
n sin nθ OP LM 1 0 OP
N y Q N – sin nθ
n
cos nθ QN0 1 Q
= M
L cos nθ sin nθ O
N – sin nθ cos nθ PQ
...(2)
From (1) and (2) it follows that
LM cosθ sin θ OP n
LM cos nθ sin nθ OP
N – sin θ cosθ Q
=
N – sin nθ cos nθ Q
Thus it proves the De Moivre’s Theorem.
❑❑❑
7 Rank and Equivalence
7.1 THE CONCEPT OF A RANK
In the present chapter the square submatrix of a matrix A which are defined to be either A or any
matrix remaining after certain lines are deleted from A, are of particular importance to us. For
example, the 3 × 4 matrix.
LM 1 2 –1 3 OP
A= M 2 4 –4 7 PP
MN –1 –2 –1 –2 Q
has 4 square submatrices of maximum order 3,
LM 1 2 –1 OP LM
1 2 3 OP
i.e., MM 2 4 –4
, PP MM
2 4 7
,PP
N –1 –2 –1 QN
–1 –2 –2 Q
LM 1 3 O L 2 3 O
7 PP MM 4 7 PP
–1 –1
MM 2 –4 –4
–2 PQ MN –2 –2 PQ
, ,
N –1 –1 –1
and it has many square submatrices of order 2 as
LM 1 2 OP
N2 4 . Q
Now we recall the definition of a minor of a given matrix that the determinant of a submatrix
of order r of a given matrix will be called a (determinant) minor of order r of the matrix.
Definition 7.1.1. The rank of a matrix A is the order say r, of its largest non-zero minor.
In this definition, all minors of this order r may be non-zero, only some may be non-zero, or
only the one may be non-zero. But every minor of order (r + 1) must be zero. Thus, A matrix is said
to be of rank r if and only if it has at least one (determinant) minor of order r which is not zero,
but it has every minor of order (r + 1) which is zero. A matrix is said to be of rank zero if and only
if all its elements are zero.
Thus the rank r of an m × n non-zero matrix A is a positive number which is less than and equal
to the minimum of m and n i.e., r ≤ min (m, n). By this the rank of a non-singular matrix A of order
n is always n. The rank of a matrix A may be denoted by ρ(A).
184
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 185
Example 7.1.1. Find the rank of the matrix

LM 2 1 –1 OP
A = MM 0 3 –2 . PP
N2 4 –3 Q
Solution. It is a sqaure matrix of order 3. Therefore, the minor of it of largest order is the
determinant |A| of order 3. That is
2 1 –1
0 3 –2 = 2(–9 + 8) – 0(–3 + 4) + 2(–2 + 3)
2 4 –3 = –2–0+2=0
Here the minor of order 3 is zero. Therefore ρ (A) ≠ 3, ρ (A) < 3.
Now we consider the minors of A of order 2 and the minor of order 2.
2 1
0 3 = 6 – 0 = 6 ≠ 0.
By the definition, the rank of A = 2.

LM 1 2 3 4 OP
A = MM 2 4 6 8 PP
N3 6 9 12 Q
Solution. The matrix A is of order 3 × 4. So it has 4 sqaure sub-matrices of largest order 3.
LM 1 2 3 OP LM 1 2 4 OP
A1 = MM 2 4 6 ,PP A = M2
MN 3
4 8 , PP
N3 Q Q
2
6 9 6 12
LM 1 4 O LM 2 4 O
8 PP , 8 PP ,
3 3
A3 = MM 2 6 A = M4 6
N3 12 PQ MN 6 12 PQ
4
6 9
Now we compute the minors of A1, A2, A3 and A4.
1 2 3 1 2 3
A1 = 2 4 6 =2 1 2 3 = 0,
3 6 9 3 6 9
1 2 4 1 2 4
A2 2 4 8 =2 1 2 4 = 0.
=
3 6 12 3 9 12
Similarly, A3 = 0, and A4 = 0.
So the rank of A cannot be 3. It will be less than 3, i.e., ρ(A) < 3.

Now we compute the minors of order 2.
It is clear that every minor of order 2 of the elements of square submatrices A1, A2, A3 and A4
is zero. So ρ(A) ≠ 2, ρ(A) < 2 therefore ρ(A) = 1.
LM 1 0 0 OP
A = MM 0 1 0 PP
N0 0 1 Q
Solution. It is obvious that A is a non-singular matrix of order, 3 and
LM 1 0 0 OP
A = MM 0 1 0 PP = 1 ≠ 0.
N0 0 1 Q
Hence ρ(A) = 3.
Example 7.1.4. The rank of the transpose of a matrix is the same as that of the original matrix.
i.e., ρ(A) = ρ(A′)
Solution. Let A = [aij]m × n be an m × n matrix of rank r. Then A′ is the transpose of A of order
n × m i.e., A′ = [aji]n × m. Therefore there exists a non-singular square submatrix Mr of A. It shows
that the matrix M′r is also a non-singular submatrix of A′.
i.e., Mr = M ′r ≠ 0.
Hence, ρ(A′) ¦ r ...(1)
Now we consider a square submatrix Ar+1 of A of order (r + 1).
Since, ρ(A) = r, Ar +1 = 0. Then A′r+1 is a square submatrix of A such that A′ r +1 =0
∴ ρ(A′) r. Hence ρ(A′) = r.
Example 7.1.5. Prove that three points (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) in the plane are collinear if and
only if the rank of the matrix
LM x 1 y1 1OP
MM x 2 y2 PP
1 is less than 3.
Nx 3 y3 1 Q
Proof. Since the points (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) in a plane are collinear, they lie on a line.
Let the equation of the line be
ax + by + c = 0 ...(2)
Since (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) lie on (1), then
ax1 + by1 + c = 0 ...(3)
ax2 + by2 + c = 0 ...(4)
ax3 + by3 + c = 0 ...(5)
Eliminating a, b, c from (3), (4) and (5), we get

x1 y1 1
x2 y2 1
=0
x3 y2 1
This show that the rank of matrix
LM x1 y1 1 OP
MM x
2 y2 PP
1 is always less than 3.
Nx3 y3 1 Q
PROBLEM 7.1
1. Determine the rank of the following matrices:
LM 1 2 3 OP LM 2 3 4 OP
(i)
MMN 20 3
2 2
PPQ
4 , ρ(A) = 3 (ii)
MMN –13 1
2 2 PQ
P
2 , ρ(A) = 2
LM 1 3 O
LM 1 a b 0OP
7 P , ρ(A) = 2 MM 01 PP
2
c d 1
(iii)
MMN 23 4
10 PQ
P (iv) , ρ(A) = 2
MN 0 PQ
a b 0
6
c d 1
LM 1 0 2O
LM 1 OP
1 3P
–1
MM 22 P , ρ(A) = 2
7 1
0
(v)
3 1P
(vi)
MMN 24 3
P
4 ,ρ(A) = 3
7 PQ
MN 3 4 2 PQ
4
5
5
LM 1 3 O
LM 2 OP , ρ(A) = 2.
6 P , ρ(A) = 1
2
–1 3 15
(vii)
MMN 24 4
8 12 PQ
P (viii)
N3 2 0 21 Q
2. Show that A, A, A* have the some rank.
7.2 ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATIONS

To find the rank of a matrix by the direct application of the definition would be very tedious except
in the simplest cases. We therefore investigate some methods of altering a matrix in such way that
the rank remains the same but is simpler to determine. These methods are based on the following
types of three operations which are called elementary transformation of a matrix.
(a) The interchange of any two ith and jth rows (columns) denoted by R(i, j) C(i, j).
(b) The multiplication of all elements of ith row (column) by the some non-zero constant k
denoted by k Ri (kCi).
(c) The addition to the ith row (column) of an arbitrary multiple of the jth row (column),
denoted by
Ri + kRj (Ci + kCj)
The inverse of an elementary transformation is defined to be the operation which transforms the
transformed matrix by elementary transformation to the original matrix. That is, if we apply the
1
elementary transformation Rij to a matrix A, then Rji, is the inverse of Rij. Similarly, R is the
k i
inverse of kRi and Ri–kRj Ri is the inverse of Ri + kRj. Thus we have the inverse of an elementary
transformation is an elementary transformation of the same type.
7.3 EQUIVALENT MATRICES

Definition 7.3.1. Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent, A ∼ B, if the matrix B can be
obtained from the matrix A by applying the elementary transformations to A and A can be obtained
from B by applying the elementary transformation to B.
7.4 ELEMENTARY MATRICES

Definition 7.4.1. A matrix obtained from the unit matrix by applying to it any of the three elementary
transformation is called an elementary matrix.
THEOREM 7.4.1 When an elementary transformation is applied to a matrix, there results a
matrix of the same rank. That is, equivalent matrices have the same rank.
Proof. We have three elementary transformation. So this result will be proved in three stages :
Case I. In the case of interchange of ith and jth rows (columns) of a matrix A.
Proof. Let r be the rank of a given matrix A. Then there exists a minor of order r of the matrix
A which is not zero. Let this minor be Mr. Now we get the matrix B by interchanging ith and jth rows
of A. Then the matrix B has the minor Mr. If the minor Mr contains ith and jth row, then the
interchange of ith and jth row will change Mr into — Mr, which is not zero. If Mr does not contain
ith and jth row, then Mr is unaltered which shows the rank of B is also r.
Case II. In the case of multiplication of the elements of ith row of the matrix A by non-zero
constant k.
Proof. Let r be the rank of the matrix A. Then there exists a minor of order r of the matrix A
which is not zero. Let this minor be Mr. Now we get a matrix B by multiplying ith row of A by k.
Then the matrix B has the minor Mr. If the minor contains ith row, then multiplication of ith row by
k will change Mr into kMr, which is not zero and if it does not contain ith row, then Mr remains
unchanged which shows the rank of B is also r.
Case III. In the case of addition to the elements of a row the product by any number of the
corresponding elements of any other row of a matrix A.
Proof. Let A be a matrix aij of order m × n and let m < n. Again let m be the rank of A.
Then the minor of order m is not zero and the operation Ri + kRj does not alter the minor, which
shows that by applying this elementary transformation the rank of A is not changed.
If P(A) < m. Then,
Let r, r′ be the ranks respectively of A and B which is obtained by adding to the elements of
the ith row of A the product by k of the corresponding elements of its jth row.
Now we consider a minor B0 of B of order (r + 1) and the corresponding placed minor A0
of A. Here we have three possibilities:
(1) If B0 contains both ith and jth row, then

B0 = A0
(2) If B0 does not contain ith row, then
B0 = A0
(3) B0 contains ith row but not jth row. The elements of ith row of B will be
ais + kajs, where s = 1, 2,.......... r.
Therefore, B0 = A0 + k C0
where C0 is the determinant which is obtained by replacing ith row by k times of jth row of the
matrix A thus C0 is also a minor of order (r + 1) of the matrix A. Since the rank of A is r, then
every minor of order (r + 1) is zero.
So A0 = 0 and C0 = 0 consequently B0 = 0.
So we have
r′ r
Also we can see in the similar manner
r r′
which shows r = r′.
Hence elementary transformations do not alter the rank of a matrix.
LM 1 2 –1 3 OP
A = MM 2 4 –4 7 PP
N –1 –2 –1 –2 Q
Solution. We have
LM 1 OP
2 –1 3 R2 – 2 R1 1 2 –1 3 LM OP
A = M 2 4 –4 7 ~ PP
0 0 –2 1 MM PP
MN –1 Q
–2 –1 –2 R3 + R1 0 0 –2 1 N Q
LM 1 3O
1 PP
2 –1
R –R M0 0 –2
∼ NM 0 0 QP
By 2 3
0 0
All third order submatrices of the last matrix are singular. But the minor of order 2
–1 3
–2 1 = –1 + 6 = 5 ≠ 0
Hence, ρ(A) = 2.

LM 1 3 4 5 OP
A = MM 3 9 12 3 PP
N1 3 4 1 Q
Solution. We have
LM 1 3 4 5 OP C –∼3C LM 1 2 1 0 0 4 OP
A = M 3 9 12 3 P C – 4C M 3 0 0 0 PP
MN 1 3 4 1 PQ C – C MN 1 3
4
1
1
0 0 0 Q
C
LM 1 4 0 0 OP 1 R LM 1 4 0 0 OP
∼ M
( 2 ,4 )
3 0 0 0P3 M 1 2 0 0 0 PP
NM 1 0 0 0 PQ MN 1
∼ 0 0 0 Q
R –R M
L 1 4 0 0 OP
∼ M
3 2
1 0 0 0P
MN 0 0 0 0 PQ
It is clear that all third order submatrices of this last matrix are singular.
But one minor of order 2
1 4
1 0 = 0 – 4 = –4 ≠ 0
Hence ρ(A) = 2.
Example 7.4.3. Determine the rank of the matrix
LM 1 2 3 1 OP
A = MM 2 4 6 2 PP
N1 2 3 2 Q
LM 1 1 O R – 2R L 1 OP
2 PP MM 0
2 3 2 1 2 3 1
Solution. We have A = MM 2 4 6 ∼ 0 0 0 PP
N1 2 3 2 PQ R – R MN 0
3 1 0 0 1 Q
LM1 1O
1PP
2 3
R(2, 3) =
MM0 0 0
N0 0 0 0PQ
It is clear that all third order submatrices of the last matrix are singular.
But we have a minor of order 2.
LM 3 1 OP
N0 1 Q = 3 – 0 = 3 ≠ 0.
Hence, ρ(A) = 2.
PROBLEM 7.2
1. Find the rank of the following matrices:
LM 1 3 4 OP3 LM 8 1 3 6 OP
(a) A = M 3 9 12 9 P (b) A = MM 0 3 2 2 PP
MN –1 –3 –4 –3 PQ N –8 –1 –3 4 Q
LM 6 8 O LM 2 –1 O
–1 PP –4 PP
1 3 3 –1
(c) A = M MM 1
4 2 6 –1 –2
MM 10 7 P
P
(d) A =
–2 P
N 16
3
4 12
9
15 Q
MN 63 1
3 0
3
–7 Q
P
LM 3 –2 0 –1 –7 OP LM 4 −2 OP
(e) A = M PP
3 0
0 2 2 1 −5
MM 1 (f) A = MM 3 4 −1 −3 P
PQ 5 PQ
−2 −3 −2
N −7
1
−7
N0
1
1 2 1 −6
LM 1 1 1 −1 OP
(g) A = M 1 2 3 4 PP
MN 3 4 5 2 Q
2. Given that A has rank r, prove that not all submatrices of any orders less than r can be singular.
3. Under what conditions, if any, will the rank of the matrix
LM 1 0 0 OP
MM 0 h−2 2 PP
A= 0
MN 0 h −1
0
h+2
0
PQ
be less than 3, and what will that rank be ?
4. If the m × n matrices A and B are of rank rA and rB respecitvely, show that the rank of A + B can not
exceed rA + rB.
5. Show that the rank of a matrix whose elements are 1’s is 1.
6. Show that the rank of a Skew-symmetric matrix cannot be 1.
LM 0 a OP
Hint. Let A =
N −a 0 , Q A = a2, ρ(A) = 2
∴ ρ(A) > 1
7.5 NORMAL FORM

Every non-zero matrix of rank r, can, by a finite sequence of elementary transformations, be reduced
to the one of the forms.
LM I.. OP r LM I.. ..: 0..OP
r
MN 0 PQ , [I : 0], r
MN 0 : 0PQ or Ir
where r is its rank and Ir is an identity matrix of order r. The above given four forms are called as
Normal form or Canonical form of the given matrix A.
We get the normal form of the matrix A by subjecting to A the elementary transformations in
the following manner:
(1) We first use the elementary transformation of the type (a), if necessary, to obtain a non-
zero element (preferable a 1) in the first row and the first column of the given matrix.
(2) We divide the first row by this element, if it is not 1.
(3) We substract appropriate multiples of the first row from other rows so as to obtain zeros
in the remainder of the first column.
(4) We substract appropriate multiples of the first column from the other columns so as to
obtain zeros in the remainder of the first row.
(5) We repeat steps (1) to (4) starting with element in the second row and the second column.
(6) We continue thus down the “main diagonal”, either until the end of the diagonal is reached
or until all the remaining elements in the matrix are zero.
The final matrix then has one of the forms.
LM I.. OP
r LM I.. ..: 0..OP
r
MN 0 PQ , [I : 0],r
MN 0 : 0PQ or Ir
We know that elementary transformation do not alter the rank or order of the matrix. Therefore
the rank of the normal form will be the same as the rank of a given matrix A.
Example 7.5.1. Reduce the following matrices to their normal forms and find their ranks.
LM 8 1 3 6 OP LM 1 4 3 2 OP
(1) MM 0 3 2 2 PP (2) MM 1 2 3 4 PP
N –8 1 –3 4 Q N2 6 7 5 Q
LM –2 –1 –3 –1 OP LM 2 3 −1 −1 OP
MM 1 2 3 −1 P MM 13 −1 −2 −4 PP
1 P
(3) (4)
MN 10 0 1
P MN 6 1 3 −2
PQ
1 1 −1 Q 3 0 −7
Solution.
(1) We have
LM 8 1 3 6 OP R + R LM 8 1 3 6 OP 1
A= MM 0 3 2 2 PP ∼ MM 0 3 2 2 PP ~ 8 C
3 1
1
N −8 −1 −3 4 Q N 0 0 0 10 Q
LM 1 1 3 6 OP C − C LM 1 0 0 0 OP 1
2 1
= MM 0 3 2 2 PP C −∼3C MM 0 3 2 2 PP ∼ 3 C
3 1 2
N 0 0 0 10 Q N 0 0 0 10 Q
C4 − 6C1
LM 1 0 0 0 C3 − 2C2 1 0 0 0 OP LM OP b g
MM 0 PP MM PP
C 3,4
= 1 2 2 ∼ 0 1 0 0
∼
N0 0 0 10 C4 − 2C2 0 0 0 10 Q N Q
LM 1 0O
P L1 M 0O
C M P
0 0 0 0
1
MM 0 1 0 0 P 10 M 0 3 1 0 M 0 P = [I ®0]
0 PQ
~ M
M 0 PQ
= 3
N0 0 10 N0 0 1
Hence ρ(A) = 3.
(2) We have
LM 1 4 3 OP
2 R2 – R1 1 LM 4 3 2 OP
A= MM 1 2 3 4 ∼ PP 0 MM –2 0 2 PP
N2 6 7 Q
5 R3 − 2 R1 0 N –2 1 1 Q
C2 – 4C1
∼
1 LM 0 0 0OP1
− C2
1 LM 0 0 0 OP
C − C3
C3 − 3C1
0 MM −2 0 2 PP
2 0 MM 1 0 2 2
∼ PP
C4 − 2C1
0 N −2 1 1 Q
~ 0 N 1 1 1 Q
LM 1 0 0 0 OP
C4 − 2C2
1 LM 0 0 0OP
C4 − C3
1 LM 0 0 M OP
0
MM 0 1 0 2 PP 0 MM 1 0 0 PP 0 MM 1 0 M 0PP
N0 Q N Q N Q
~ ~
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 M 0
= [I3: 0]. Hence ρ(A) = 3

(3) We have
LM −2 −1 −3 OP LM 1 0 1 1 OP R − R
−1
A= MM 1 2 3 PP b g MM 1 2 3 −1 PP ∼
−1 R 1,3 2 1
MN 10 0
1
1
1
1
PQ MN −02 −11 −13 −−11 PQ R + 2 R
−1
~
3 1
LM 1 0 1 1 O
P C −C M
L 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 00 2 2 −2 P
1 P
C −C M
3
0 2 1
2 −2 P
M 0 −1 −1 1 PP
MN 0 −1 −1
P ∼ M
4 1
1 1 −1 Q N 0 1 1 −1 Q
1 LM 0 0 0 O
P R +R M
L 1 0 0 0 OP
1
R2 0 MM 1 1 −1 P
P ∼ M
M
0 1 1 −1 P
3 2
2 0 P
~ 0
0
MN −1
1
−1
1
1
P
−1 Q
R −R M
N 0 0 0 0 PQ
0 0 0
4 2
LM 1 0 M 0 0 OP
~
MM 0 1 M 0 0 P LM I M 0 OP
L P
2
C4 + C2
MM L0 L L L
P = MM L L L PP
C3 − C2
MN 0
0 M 0 0 P N0 M 0 Q
0 M 0 0 PQ
Hence ρ(A) = 2.
(4) We have
LM 2 3 −1 −1 OP LM 1 −1 −2 −4 OP
1 −1 −2 −4 P Rb1, 2g M 2
A= M
3 −1 −1 P
MM 3 1 3 −2 PP ∼ MM 3 1 3 −2 PP
N 6 3 0 −7 Q N 6 3 0 −7 Q
R − 2 R L 1 −1 −2 −4 O C + C L 1 0 0 O
M P M 7 PP
2 1 2 0 1
R − 3R M 0 5 3 7 P ∼ M 0 5 3
MM 0 4 9 10 PP C + 2C MM 0 4 9 10 PP
3 1
∼ 3 1
4 R − 6R N 0
1 9 12 17 Q C + 4C N 0 9 12 17 Q
4 1
LM 1 0 0 0 OP R − 4 R LM 1 0 0 0 OP
R − R M 0 1 −6 −3 P 3
M 0 1 −6 −3 P
2
∼ M0 4
MN 0 9 129 1710 PPQ R − 9 R MMN 00 00 6633 2244 PPQ
2 3
∼
4 2
C + 6C M
L 1 0 0 0 OP 1 C LM 1 0 0 0 OP
C + 3C M
0 P 33 M 0 1 0 0 P R − 2 R
3 2 3
0 1 0
MM 0 0 33 22 PP 1 ∼ MM 0 0 1 1 PP ∼
4 3
4 2
∼
MN 0 0 66 44 PQ 22 C MN 0 0 2 2 PQ
4
LM 1 0 0 0 OP C − C LM 10 01 00 MM 00 OP
MM 0 1 0 0 PP ∼ MM 0 0 1 M 0 PP LM LI OP
4 3
3 M 0
MN 00 00 10 10 PQ MM L L L L PP = M L L PP
MN 0 0 0 M 0 PQ MN 0 M 0 Q
Hence ρ(A) = 3.
PROBLEM 7.3
1. Reduce the following matrices to their normal forms and hence obtain their ranks.
LM 6 1 3 8 OP LM 3 −1 −1 3 OP
(i) MM 16 4 12 15 PP (ii) MM −1 −4 −2 −7 PP
MN 45 3
2
3
6
4
−1 Q
P MN −21 −11 33 00 PQ
ρ(A) = 3. ρ(A) = 4.
LM 1 1 2 3 OP LM 6 1 3 8 OP
(iii) MM 1 3 0 3 PP (iv) MM 4 2 6 −1 PP
MN 111
−2 −3
2
−3
3Q
P MN 10 3 9 7
16 4 12 15 Q
P
ρ(A) = 3. ρ(A) = 2.
LM 0 1 2 3 4 OP
LM 1 1 1 −1 OP MM 1 1 2 3 3 PP
(v) MM 1 2 3 4P (vi)
MM 23 23 20 21 21 PP
N3 2 PQ
MN 4 3 2 1 0 PQ
4 5
ρ(A) = 2. ρ(A) = 4.
LM 2 3 −1 −1 OP LM 3 −3 0 −1 −7 OP
MM 31 −1 −2 −4
P MM 0 2 2 1 −5 PP
−2 P
(vii) (viii)
MN 6
1
3
3
0 −7 PQ
MN 01 −2
1
−3
2
−2
1
1
−6
PQ
ρ(A) = 3. ρ(A) = 4.
LM 1 2 −1 3 OP LM 4 3 0 −2 OP
(ix) MM −2 −4 4 −7 P (x)
MM −73 4 −1 −3
PP
N 1 2 1 2 PQ N −7 1 5 Q
ρ(A) = 2. ρ(A) = 2.
LM 6 1 3 8 OP LM 1 1 2 3OP
(xi) MM 16 4 12 15 PP (xii) MM 1 3 0 3 PP
MN 45 3
2
3
6
4
−1 Q
P MN 11 −2
1
−3
2
−3
3Q
P
ρ(A) = 3. ρ(A) = 3.
2. Give an example to show that the normal form of a product of two matrices is not necessarily the
product of their normal form.
3. Give an example to show that the rank of a product of matrices may be less than the rank of any other
factor.
4. Show that it is possible, by using only row operations, to reduce a matrix A to an equivalent matrix
[aij] such that aij = 0 if i > j. If A has rank r, then no more than r of the elements aij, may differ from
zero.
5. Prove that not every matrix A can be reduced to a normal form by row transformation only.
Hint. Exhibit a matrix which cannot be reduced to a normal form.
7.6 ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATION BY MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

Here we shall see an important thing that the elementary transformations of a given matrix can be
brought by pre or post-multiplying it by suitably chosen square matrices of very simple types.
THEOREM 7.6.1. To effect any elementary transformation on a given matrix A, we may first
perform the same elementary transformation on an identity matrix of appropriate order, then pre-
multiply A by the result if the operation is on rows, post-multiply if it is on columns.
Proof. Suppose first that we wish to interchange the second and third rows of a given 3 × 4
matrix. This can be done by first interchanging 2nd and 3rd row of unit matrix and pre-multiplying
the given matrix by it. That is
LM 1 0 0 OP LM a 11 a12 a13 a14 OP LM a 11 a12 a13 a14 OP
MM 0 0 1 PP MM a 21 a22 a23 a24 PP = MM a31 a32 a33 a34 PP
N0 1 0 QNa 31 a32 a33 a34 Q Na 21 a22 a23 a24 Q
on the other hand, the interchange of 2nd and 3rd columns is effected by interchanging 2nd and 3rd
columns of unit matrix and post-multiplying the given matrix by it. Thus
LM a a12 a13 a14 OP LM1 0 0 0 OP LM a OP

MM0 P
11 11 a13 a12 a14
0 1 0
MM a a22 a23 a24 PP 0P
= MM a a23 a22 a24 PP
MN00 P
21
Na Q
21
Na Q
1 0
1Q
31 a32 a33 a34 31 a33 a32 a34
0 0
From this, it is obvious that a 1 on the diagonal leaves the corresponding (row, column)
unaltered, but an off-diagonal 1 selects the elements of the (row, column) corresponding to the
(column, row) in which that 1 situated.
Next suppose we wish to multiply a row or a column by a constant k:
LM 1 0 0 OP LM a 11 a12 a13 OP LM a 11 a12 a13 OP
MM 0 k 0 PP MM a 21 a 22 a 23 PP = MM ka 21 ka22 ka23 PP
N0 0 1 QNa 31 a 32 a 33 Q Na 31 a32 a33 Q
LM a OP LM 0O LM a OP
0 PP
11 a12 a13 1 0 11 a12 ka13
MM a a22 a23 . 0 PP MM 1 MM a a22 ka23 PP
k PQ
and 21 = 21
Na 31 a32 a33 0 QN 0 Na 31 a32 ka33 Q

Finally, to add, say, k times of third row to second row, or k times of third column to a second,
we have
LM 1 0 0OP LM a 11 a12 a13 OP LM a11 a12 a13 OP
MM 0 1 k PP MM a 21 a22 a23 . PP = MMa 21 + ka 31 a22 + ka 32 a23 + ka33 PP
N0 0 1 QNa 31 a32 a33 Q N a31 a32 a33 Q
LM 1 0O
0 PP LM a OP
0 0
LM a a OM0 a2 + ka 3 a3 a4
b PQ M 0
a2 a3 1 0 1
0P Nb Q
and 1 4 =
Nb b2 + kb3
. b3 b4
MN 0 P
b2 b3 k 1 1
1 4
0 0 1Q
Here an off-diagonal k in the ij-position of the pre- or post multiplier adds to the ith row
(jth column) of the multiplied k times its jth row (ith column).
From above discussion we conclude that any elementary row transformation on a given matrix
can be accomplished by pre-multiplying it by a suitable elementary matrix and any column
transformation can be accomplished by post multiplying it by suitable elementary matrix.
THEOREM 7.6.2. If A and B are equivalent matrices then there exists non-singular matrices
C and D such that B = CAD.
Proof. Since A and B are equivalent matrices, then B is obtained from A by applying to A a
sequence of elementary row and column transformations. But elementary row transformation can be
accomplished by pre-multiplying A by elementary matrices of appropriate order and elementary
column transformation can be accomplished by post-multiplying A by elementary matrices of
appropriate order.
Hence, C1.C2..CrAD1D2...Ds = B
∴ CAD = B.
where C = C1.C2...Cr,
and D = D1.D2...Ds.
Since elementary matrices are non-singular, C and D are non-singular.
COROLLARY 1. Every non-singular matrices can be expressed as a product of elementary
matrices.
Proof. Let A be a non-singular matrix of order n and In be the identify matrix of order n. Since
A and In are equivalent, we have
A = C1.C2...CrInD1D2...Ds
= C1C2...D1D2...Ds.
COROLLARY 2. If A is m × n matrix of rank r, then there exists two non-singular matrices
C and D of order m and n respectively such that
LM I
r M 0 OP
CAD = MM L M L .PP
N0 M 0 Q
Proof. By a sequence of elementary row and column transformations A can be reduced to the
LM Ir M 0 OP
normal form M L M L PP
MN 0 M 0 Q LM I r M 0 OP
So we can say the matrices A and M L M L PP are equivalent.
MN 0 M 0 Q
But elementary row and column transformations can be effected by pre-and post-multiplying A
by elementary matrices.
So we have
LM I
r M 0 OP
C1C2...CpAD1D2...Dq = MM L M L PP
N0 M 0 Q
LM I r M 0 OP
CAD = MM L M L PP
N0 M 0 Q
where C = C1C2...Cp,
D = D1D2...Dq,
and each Ci and Dj are elementary matrices. Since elementary matrices are non-singular, C and D are
non-singular.
Example 7.6.1. For the following matrices, find non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ
is in the normal form:
LM 1 1 2 OP LM 1 −1 2 −1 OP
(i)
MM 1 2 3 PP (ii)
MM 4 2 −1 2 PP
N0 −1 −1 Q N2 2 −2 0 Q
LM 1 OP LM 3 −1 1O
1 PP
2 3 2
MM 3 2 1 P MM 1 4 6
2P 1P
(iii) (iv)
MN 21 3
1 3Q
P MN 77 −11
2
−6
12 3Q
P
Solution. We write A = IAI, i.e.,
LM 1 1 2 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
A= M1 PP = MMN 00 PP A M PP
1 0 0 1 0
MN 0
2
−1
3
−1 Q 0 1 Q MN 0 0 1 Q
Now we reduce the matrix A on the left hand side to the normal form by applying elementary
transformations. In reducing the matrix A on the left hand side to the normal form. If we apply any
elementary row (column) transformation, the same elementary row (column) of transformation will
be applied to the prefactor (post-factor) of A on the right hand side.
Applying C2 – C1, C3 – 2C1
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 −1 −2 OP
MM 0 PP A M0 PP
MM 1 1 1 PP = 1 0
MN 0
1 0
Q
N0 −1 −1 Q N0 0 1 Q 0 1
Applying R2 – R1
LM 10 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 −1 −2 OP
MM −1 PP A M0 PP
MM 0
1 1 PP = 1 0
MN 0
1 0
Q
N0
−1 −1 Q N 0 0 1 Q 0 1
Applying C3 – C2
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 −1 −1 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP = MM −1 1 0 PP A MMN 00 1 −1 PP
Q
N0 −1 0 Q N0 0 1 Q 0 1
Applying R3 + R2
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 −1 −1 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP = M −1
MN −1
1 0 PP A MMN 00 1 −1 PP
Q
N0 0 0 Q 1 1 Q 0 1
Thus we have the required normal form.
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 −1 −1 OP
Where P = M −1
MN −1
1 0 PP and Q = MM 00 1 −1 PP
1 1 Q N 0 1 Q
(2) We write A = I3 AI4
LM 1 OP LM 1 OP
LM 1 0 0 0OP
−1 2 −1 0 0
MM 0 1 0 0 P
A= M
4 2 −1 2 PP =M
0 1 0 PP 0P
MN 2 2 −2 0 Q MN 0 0 1 Q
A 0
MN 0 0
0
1
0 1Q
P
Applying C2 + C1, C3 – 2C1, C4 + C1
LM 1 OP LM 1 OP LM 1 1 −2 1 OP
M0 PP
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0
MM 4 6 −9 6 PP = MM 0 1 0 P A M0
N2 2Q N0 1 PQ MN 0 PQ
0 1 0
4 −6 0
0 0 1
Applying R2 – 4R1, R3 – 2R1
LM 1 OP LM 1 OP LM 01 1 −2 1OP
PP A MM 0 P
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0
MM 0 6 −9 6 = PP MM −4 1 0
0P
N0 Q N −2 Q MN 0 P
0 1
1Q
4 −6 2 0 1
0 0
1
Applying R
6 2
LM 1 0 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 1 −2 1 OP
MM 0 1 −
3
1 PP = MM − 23 1
0 PP M0
A M0
1 0 0 PP
MN 0
2
4 −6 2 PQ MN −2
6
0 1 PQ MN 0 0
0
1
0
0
1
PQ
3
Applying C3 + C , C – C2,
2 2 4
LM 1 1 −1 OP
LM 1 0O LM 1 0 0 OP MM 0 2
0
PP
0 PP = M − 2
0 0
MM 0 1 0
MM 3
1
0 PP MM 0
1 3 −1
PP
−2 PQ
A 2
N0 4 0
N −2
6
0 1 PQ MMN 0 0 1 0
P
0 0 1 PQ
Applying R3 – 4R2
LM 1 1 OP
LM 1 0O
LM 1 0 0OP MM
1 −
2
0
P
−1 P
0 PP = MM − 3 0P
0 0 3
A M PP
2 1 0 1
MM 0 1 0
MM 2 PP MM 0 2
−2 PQ
6
N0 0 0
1P
0P
MM PP
−2 0 1
N 3 3 Q
N0 0 0 1Q
1
Applying – R,C
2 3 (3, 4)
LM 1 1OP
LM 1 0 0O
PP MM 0
1 0 −
PP
LM 1 0O
2
0 0 M
M 2
0 PP = M −
1
0P A M
1 −1
3
PP
MM 0 1 0 M
MM 31 MM 0 2
N0 0 PQ 1P 1P
6
− P
0 1 M
MM PP
1 0 0
N −3 3 2 Q
N0 0 1 0Q
This is the required normal form, where
LM 1 OP
LM 1 OP
1
1 0 −
0 0
MM 2
PP
M 2
P= M −3
1 P
0 P, Q = M 0 1 −1
3
PP
MM 1 6
1P
MM 0 2
1P
N −3
1
3
−
2 Q
P MM
0 0
PP
N0 0 1 0Q
(3) We write A = I4AI3.
LM 1 2 3 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
MM 3 2 1 PP = MM 0 1 0 0 PP A M0 1 0 PP
MN 21 3
1
2
3
PQ MN 00 0
0
1
0
0
1
PQ MN 0 0 1 Q
Applying R2 – 3R1, R3 – R1, R4 – 2R1
LM 1 2 3 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 0 −4 −8 PP MM −3 1 0 0 PP LM 01 0 0 OP
MN 00 −1
PQ = MN −−21 PQ A MMN 0 PP
1 0 1 0 1 0
−3 −3 0 0 1 0 1 Q
Applying C2 – 2C1, C2 – 3C1

LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0OP L 1 −2 −3 OP
M0
= M
0P
MM 0 −4 −8 P −3
MM −1
1 0
0P
A M PP
−1 P
1 0
MN 00 1
−3 −3 Q
P N −2
0
0
0
0 1Q
P MN 0 0 1 Q
1
Applying – R
4 2
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 3 LM 1 OP
MM 0 2 PP 0 PP
−2 −3
1
PP A MM 0 P
1 0
MM PP = MM 4 4
1 0P
MM 0 1 −1
PP MM −1 0 1 0
PP MMN 0 1 1 PQ
P
MN 0 −3 −3 PQ MN −2 0 0 0 PQ
Applying R3 – R2, R4 + 3R2
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 0 2 PP
MM 3 0P
P L1 −1 −3 OP
PP A MM 0
1 0
1
MM PP = MM 47 4
1 0 PP
MM 0 0 −3
PP MM – 4 –1
4
1 0
PP MN 0 1 1 Q
MN 0 0 3 PQ MN 41 3
4
0 1P
Q
Applying C3 – 2C2
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 0 0 PP
MM 3 1 0P
P L1 OP
PP A MM 0
0 –2 1
PP = MM – 47
1
MM 4
1 −2 PP
MM 0 0 −3
PP MM 41
–1
4
1 0
PP MN 0 1 −1 Q
MN 0 0 3 PQ MN 4 3
4
0 1P
Q
1
Applying – R
3 3
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 0 0 PP MM 3 0P
P L1 OP
PP A MM 0
1 1 0 –2 1
MM PP = MM 74 4
1 −2 PP
PP MN 0 Q
1 −1
MM 0 0 1
PP MM 12 12 3
0 1 −1
MN 0 0 3 PQ MN 14 3
4
0 1P
Q
Applying R4 – 3R3
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 0 0 PP
MM 3 0P
P L1 OP
PP A MM 0
1 0 –2 1
1
MM PP = MM 74 4
1 −2 PP
PP MN 0 Q
1 −1
MM 0 0 1
PP MM 12 12 3
0 1 −1
MN 0 0 0 PQ MN – 46 2
4
1 1P
Q
This is the required normal form, where
LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 3 1 0 0P
P LM 1 –2 1 OP
P= M PP , Q = M 0 PP
4 4
−2
MM 12
1
7 1 −1 0
PP MN 0 1 −1 Q
MM – 6
12 3
1P
N 4 Q
2 1
4
(4) We write A = I4 AI4.
LM 3 −1 OP L 1 OP L 1 OP
PP = MM 0
2 1 0 0 0
PP A MM 0
0 0 0
MM 1 4 6 1 1 0 0
P
MM 0
1 0 0
P MM 00 0P
A=
MN 77 −11 −6 1
3Q
P N0
0 1 0
1Q
0 1
P
2 12 0 0
N 0 0 1Q
Applying R (1, 2)
LM 1 4 6 1 OP LM 0 1 0 0OP LM 1 0 0 0OP
MM 3 −1 2 1 PP = MM 1 0 0 0 P M0 1 0 0 P
0P A M0 0P
MN 77 −11
2
−6
12
1
3Q
P M
N0
0 0
0
1
0 1Q
P MN 0 0
0
1
0 1Q
P
Applying R2 – 3R1, R3 – 7R1, R4 – 7R1
LM 1 OP LM 0 OP L 1 OP
PP A MM 0
4 6 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
MM 0 −13 −16 −2 PP MM 1 −3 0 0 1 0 0 PP
PQ MM 00
=
MN 00 −39 −48 −6
PQ MN 00 −7 1 0 0 1 0
PQ
−26 −30 −4 −7 0 1 N 0 0 1
Applying C2 – 4C1, C3 – 6C1, C4 – C1
LM 1 OP L 0 OP L 1 − 4 − 6 −1 OP
PP = MM 1 PP A MM 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
MM 0 −13 −16 −2 −3 0 0 1 0 0 PP
MN 00 −39 −48 −6
−26 −30 −4
PQ MMN 00 −7
−7
1
0
0
1
PQ MMN 00 0
0
1 0
0 1
PQ
1
Applying – C
13 2
LM 1 0 0 0 OP L 0
MM
1 0 0 OP LM 1 + 4 −6 −1 OP
MM 0 −2 P P 0 PP
MM 0 13
0P
P
PP = MM
1 −16 −3 0 1
PP A MM PP
1
MM –
13
0
MM 0 3 −48 −6
PP MM 0 −7 1 0
PP MM 0 0 1 0P
P
MN 0 −4 PQ
MM 0 1 PQ MN 0 1 PQ
2 −30 N −7 0 0 0
Applying C4 + 2C2, C3 + 16C2
LM 1 0 0 0 OP LM 0 1 0 0 OP LM 1 4 − 14 − 5 OP
MM 0 0 PP MM 1 0 PP
MM 13
1
13 13
PP
−3 0 – 16 – 2
M PP
1 0
MM P=M P M
0 –
13 13 13
0P M0 0P
A
MM 0 3 0
PP MM −7 1
PP MM 0 0 1 0P
PP
MN 0 2 2 0 PQ MN 0 −7 0 1 PQ MN 0 0 0 1Q
LM 1 0 0 0 OP LM 0 1 0 0 OP LM 1 4 − 14 − 5 OP
MM 0 0 PP MM 1 −3 0 0 PP
MM 0 13
– 1
13
– 16
13
– 2
PP
A M PP
1 0
MM P = MM P MM 0
13 13 13
0P 0P 0P
MM 0 0 0
PP MM −3 2 1
PP MM
0 1
P
MN 0 0 2 0 PQ MN −2 −1 0 1 PQ
N0 0 0 1 PQ
1
Applying R, R
2 4 (3, 4)
LM 1 0 0 0 OP LM 0 1 0 0 OP LM 1 4 − 14 − 5 OP
MM 0 MM 0 13 13 13
PP
0 PP MM 1 0 PP – 1 – 16 – 2
A M PP
1 0 −3 0
MM P = MM 1 PP MM 0
13 13 13
0P 0P
1
MM 0 0 1
PP MM −1 −
2
0
2P
P MMN 0
0 1
P
MN 0 0 0 0 PQ MN −3 2 1 0 PQ 0 0 1 PQ
This is the required form, where
LM 0 1 0 0 OP LM 1 4 − 14 − 5 OP
MM 1 −3 0 0 PP
MM 0 13
– 1
13
– 16
13
– 2
PP
P= M , Q= M PP
1 PP
13 13 13
MM −1 1 MM 0 0P
2 P
− 0 0 1
MM −3 2
P MM P
N 2 1 0 PQ N0 0 0 1 PQ
PROBLEM 7.4
1. Find non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in the normal form for the following matrices,
A.
LM 1 1 1 OP LM 3 2 −1 5 OP
(a) M 1 −1 1P , (b) MM 5 1 4 −2 P ,
MN 3 1 1 PQ N1 −4 11 −19 PQ
LM 1 OP LM 0 1 2 3O
3 2 1 PP
0
MM 0
2 1 2
0
(c) M 2 PP 0 5 6P
1 2 1 , (d) ,
MN 1 5 4 3 Q MN 21 0
0 4 2 8Q
P
LM 1 2 −2 3 OP LM 2 1O
(e) M
2 5 −4 6 PP MM 1
2 2 5
1 3 −1 P ,
P
MM −1 −3 −2
,
PQ
(f ) 1
4 PQ
N2 4
2
−1 6
N3 5 4 2
2. Find the rank of A, B and A + B when

LM 2 –3 4 OP LM 1 2 1OP
A = M −1 −1 1 PP MM −3 −6 PP
−3 .
MN 4
and B =
−1 −2 Q N5 10 5 Q
THEOREM 7.6.3. If A be an m × n matrix of rank r then there exists a non-singular matrix
P of order m such that ρ(PA) = ρ(A).
Proof. We know that there exists two non-singular matrices P and Q such that
LM I r M 0 OP
PAQ =
MM L M L PP ...(1)
N0 M 0 Q
Since Q is non-singular, it can be written as the product of elementary matrices, i.e.,
Q = Q1.Q2...Qp.
Therefore (1) becomes
LM I r M 0 OP
PAQ.Q2...Qp =
MM L M L PP ..(2)
N0 M 0 Q
Again multiplying (2) by Qp–1, Qp–1–1...Q1–1 on the right we get
LM I M 0 OP
PA =
MM L M L PP Q p
–1
, Qp–1–1...Q1–1
N0 M 0 Q
LM G OP, where G is a matrix of order r × n and

=
N 0 Q the rank of G must be r because post
multiplication by elementary matrices does not alter the rank.
Here ρ(PA) = ρ(G) = ρ(A).
THEOREM 7.6.4. The rank of a product of two matrices can not exceed the rank of either
matrix i.e.,
ρ(AB) ρ(A) and ρ(AB) ρ(B)
Proof. Let r, r1 and r2 be ranks of the matrices AB, A and B respectively.
Now there exists a non-singular matrix P such that
ρ(PAB) = ρ(AB) = r
LM G OP
and PA =
N0Q
where G is a matrix of rank r1 with r1 non-zero rows.
LM G OP B.
Therefore PAB =
N0Q
LM G OP B has at the most r
Where
N0Q 1
non-zero row.
since G has γ1 rows.

Which shows ρ(PAB) r1
or r r1
or ρ(AB) ρ(A)
Again ρ(AB) = ρ(AB)′
= ρ(B′A′)
ρ(B′) = ρ(B)
Hence ρ(AB) ρ(B)
Corollary 1. The rank of matrix does not alter by premultiplication (or post-multiplication) with
any non-singular matrix.
Proof. Let P be a non-singular matrix
and
Let R = PA
–1
P R = A
Now ρ(R) = ρ(PA) ρ(A)
ρ(A) = ρ(P–1 R) ρ(R)
Hence ρ(A) = ρ(R)
THEOREM 7.6.5. If the m × p matrix A is of rank r and if p × n matrix B is such that AB
= 0, the rank of B can not exceed p–r.
Proof. Since A is a matrix of rank r, there exist non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ
is a normal term, i.e.,
LM I r M 0 OP
PAQ =
MM
N= L M L PP
N0 M 0 Q
then A = P–1 NQ–1
⇒ AB = P–1NQ–1 B
⇒ P–1 NQ–1 B = 0 since AB = 0
⇒ P P–1 NQ–1 B = P. 0
⇒ NQ–1 B = 0.
Since A is m × p, Q is of order p and Q–1 B is of order p × n, NQ–1 B = 0 implies that the first
r-rows of Q–1 B must be zeroes while the remaining p–r rows may be arbitrary. Thus the rank of
Q–1 B and, hence, the rank of B can not exceed p–r. This proves the theorem.
Example 7.6.2. If A is of order n and rank n–1, then prove that adj A is of rank 1.
Proof. Since A is of rank n –1, there is at least one non-zero cofactor, and
A = 0.
Now A.(adj A) = A I = 0 since A =0

Then by the above theorem 7.6.5 rank of
adj A = n − (n –1) since ρ(A) = n –1
or ρ(adj A) = 1.
Example 7.6.3. If from a square matrix A of order n and rank rA. a submatrix B consisting of
s rows (columns) of A are selected, then prove that
rB ¦ rA + s – n,
where rB is the rank of B.
Proof. Since A is of rank rA, then the normal form of A has n –rA rows which have all their
elements zeroes. Similarly the normal form of B has s – rB rows whose elements are zeroes.
Clearly n –rA ¦ s –rB
⇒ rB ¦ rA + s – n.
Example 7.6.4. Show that equivalence of matrices is an equivalence relation.
Proof. Let A, B be any matrices of order m × n. If there are non-singular matrices P and Q such
that
A = PBQ,
then we say that A is equivalent to B and denote it by A ∼ B.
We see that:
(1) Reflexivity: For any matrix A of order m × n, there are two identity matrices Im and In such
that
A = Im A In,
where P = Im, Q = In.
So every matrix is equivalent to itself.
(2) Symmetry: For two m × n matrices A and B

A ∼ B ⇒ A = PBQ
for some non-singular matrices P and Q
⇒ P–1AQ–1 = B
⇒ B ∼ A.
(3) Transitility: For any three matrices A, B, C of the same order m × n.
A ∼ B, B ∼ C ⇒ A = PBQ
and B = P1CQ1, P, Q, P1, Q1 are non-singular
⇒ A = P(P1CQ1)Q
⇒ A = (PP1) C(Q1Q)
⇒ A∼C
Since PP1 and Q1Q are non-singular.
Hence the equivalence of matrices is an equivalence relation.
PROBLEM 7.5
1. Let S be symmetric and non-singular matrix. Prove that there exists a non-singular matrix C such that
S–1 = C1C
[ Hint. There exist non-singular matrices C and D such that
CSD = I. ]
2. Prove that if A is non-singular, it can be reduced to normal form by row transformation only and also
by column transformation’s only.
3. Show that A*, A* A, and AA* all have the same rank.
4. Show that if A is a real m × n matrix (m n) which has rank m, then the rank of AA′ is m, so that
AA′ is in fact a non-singular matrix, symmetric matrix of order m. If A has rank <m, AA′ is singular.
5. If A is of order m × n and if B is a non-singular matrix of order n, then the product P = AB has the
same rank as A.
[Hint P = AB
ρ(P) = ρ(AB) ρ(A) ...(1)
Since B is non-singular
P = AB ⇒ PB–1 = A.
ρ(A) = ρ(PB–1) ρ(P) ...(2)
Hence from (1) and (2)
We have ρ(A) = ρ(P) ]
7.7 COMPUTATION OF THE INVERSE OF MATRIX BY ELEMENTARY

TRANSFORMATION
Let A be a non-singular matrix of order n. The matrix, A can be reduced to In by a sequence of
elementary row transformations. Therefore there exist elementary matrix E1, E2, ...., En such that
E1E2... En A = In.
or BA = In,
where B = E1E2... En.
Since E1, E2,..., En one non-singular, so is B.

Hence A–1 = B.
In practice we write A = IA and we reduce A on the left to In by elementary row transformation
and apply the same row transformation to I, prefactor of A on the right hand side. Consequently we
have
I = BA,
where B is the inverse of A.
Example 7.7.1. Compute the inverse of the following matrices:
LM 1 −2 OP LM 2 OP LM 0 1 2 2OP
(1) MM −1
2
3 0 , PP (2) MM 0
4
1
3
1 PP , (3) MM 1 1 2 3 PP
N 0 −2 1 Q N2 2 1 Q MN 23 2
3
2
3
3
3Q
P
Solution. (1) We have A = I3A
LM 1 2 −2 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
A = MM −1 3 0 PP = MM 0 1 0 PP A
N 0 −2 1 Q N0 0 1 Q
Applying R2 + R1
LM 1 2 −2 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
MM 0 5 −2 PP = M1 1 1 PP
NM 0
A
N0 −2 1 Q 0 1 Q
Applying R1 + R3
LM 1 0 −1 OP LM 1 0 1 OP
MM 0 5 −2 PP = M1 1 0 PP A
N0 −2 1 Q MN 0 0 1 Q
Applying R2 + 2R3
LM 1 0 −1 OP LM 1 0 1 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP = M1 1 2 PP
MN 0
A
N0 −2 1 Q 0 1 Q
Applying R3 + 2R2
LM 1 0 −1 OP LM 1 0 1 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP = M1 1 2 PP
NM 2
A
N0 0 1 Q 2 5 Q
Applying R1 + R3
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 3 2 6 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP = M1 1 2 PP
MN 2
A
N0 0 1 Q 2 5 Q
LM 3 2 6 OP
Hence, A –1
= MM 1 1 2 PP
N2 2 5 Q
(2) We have A = I3A
LM 2 4 3 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
A = MM 0 1 1 PP = M0
MN 0
1 0 PP A
N2 2 −1 Q 0 1 Q
Applying R3 – R1
LM 2 4 OP
3 LM 1 0 0 OP
MM 0 1 1P = M 0 1 0 P
− 4 PQ MN−1 1 PQ
A
N0 −2 0
Applying R1 – 4R2 R3 + 2R2

LM 2 0 −1 OP LM 1 −4 0 OP
MM 0 1 1 PP = M 0 1 0 A PP
N0 0 −2 Q MN −1 2 1 Q
F 1 I
+ G– R J
Applying R1
H 2 K 3
LM 2 0 0 OP LM 3 −5 –1 OP
= M 0 PP A
2 2
MM 0 1 −1 PP MM 1 0
N0 0 −2 Q N −1 2 1Q
P
1 1
Applying R, – R
2 1 2 3
LM 3 5 OP
1
LM 1 OP
– –
0 0 M
= M 0
4 2
0P
P
4
MM 0 1 1 PP MM 1
1
P A
N0 0 1 Q –1 P
NM 2 −1
2 QP
Applying R2 – R3
LM 3 –5 –1 OP
LM 1 0 0 OP MM – 41 2 4
PP
MM 0 1 0 PP =
MM 2 2 1
PP A.
N0 Q
2
0 1
MN 12 −1 –1
2 PQ
LM 3 –5 –1 OP
MM – 41 2 4
1
PP
Hence A–1 =
MM 2 2
2 PP
MN 12 −1 –
1
2 PQ
(3) We have A = I4 A
LM 0 1 2 2OP L 1 OP
MM 0
0 0 0
MM 1 1 2 3P 1 0 0P
A = 3P = M0 1P
A
MN 23 2 2
3Q
P M0 0 1
P
3 3 N 0 0 1Q
Applying R (1, 2)
LM 1 1 2 3 OP LM 0 1 0 0OP
MM 0 1 2 2 PP = MM 01 0 1 0
0P
P A
MN 23 2
3
2
3
3
3Q
P MN 0 0
0
1
0 1Q
P
LM 1 1 2 OP
3 LM 0 1 0 0OP
MM 0 1 2 2P = M
1 0 0 0 PA
−3 P MM 0 0P
MN 00 0 −2
−6 Q
P −2 1
P
0 −3 N0 −3 0 1Q
Applying R1 – R2, R4 – 2R3
LM 1 0 0 1OP LM − 1 1 0 0 OP
MM 0 1 2 2 P MM 1 0 0 0 P
−3 P 0 P
= A
MN 00 0
0
−2
1 0Q
P MN 00 −2
1
1
−2 1Q
P
Applying R2 – 2R4, R3 + 2R4
LM 1 0 0 1 OP L −1 OP
PP = MM 1
1 0 0
MM 0 1 0 2 −2 4 −2 PP
PQ MM 00
A
MN 00 0 0 −3 0 −3 2
PQ
0 1 0 N 1 −2 1
1
Applying – R
3 3
LM 1 0 0 1 OP LM −1 1 0 OP0
MM 0 PP M 1 −2 P
= M P A.
1 0 2 −2 4
MN 00 0 0 1
PQ MM 0 0 1 –2 P
3P
0 1 0
MN 0 1 −2 1 PQ
Applying R1 – R, R2 – 2R3
LM −1 1 −1 2 OP
LM 1 0 0 0O MM 1 3
PP
1 0 0 PP
2
MM 0 = M
−2 2 –
PP A
0 0 1P
3
MN 00 P MM 0 –2 PP
0 1 0Q
0 0
MM 3
N 0 1 −2 1 PQ
Applying R(3, 4)
LM −1 2 O
3P
1 −1
LM 1 0 0 0O
P MM P
– P
2
MM 0 1 0 0P
M 1 −2 3
3P
0 1 0P MM 0 PA
=
MN 00 0 0 1Q
P 1 −2 1P
MM P
– P
N 0 3Q
0 0 2
LM −1 2 O
3P
1 −1
MM P
3 –2 P
Hence A–1 = MM 1 −2
3P
P
MM 0 1 −2 1P
P
MN 0 0 0 –2 P
3Q
PROBLEM 7.6
Compute the inverse of the following matrices:
LM 1 −3 OP LM −1 0 −2 2 OP
2. A = M
1P
2
−2 1 0
A = M2 PP
1.
MN 1
0 0
MM 1 −1 P
P
Q
0 2
4 1
N −4 1 −3 1Q
LM −1 −3 3 −1 OP LM 1 OP
A= M PP
2 1
1 1 −1 0
4. A = M 2 P
3.
MM 2 −5 2 −3
P MN 0
−1 1
2 PQ
N −1 1Q
1
1 0
PROBLEM 7.7
Objective Type Questions:
LM 1 x x2 OP
A= MM 1 y y2 PP , where x ≠ y ≠ z.
MN 1 z z2 PQ
ρ(A) is (a) 1, (b) (2), (c) 3, (d) 4
If A is a square matrix of order 4 with rank 2 and B is a square matrix of order 4 whose rank is 4.
Then the rank of AB is
(a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 4 (e) 6.
If A is a non-singular matrix of order 3 and B is a non-zero singular matrix of order 3 in which every
minor of order 2 is zero, then the rank of AB is
(a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 4, (e) 6.
If A is a row matrix of order 1 × n and B is a column matrix of order n × 1, then the rank of
AB is
(a) 1, (b) n, (c) n –1, (d) n2.
LM 1 3 3 OP LM 5 0 0 OP
If A = M1 4 3P , B = M0 2 0P
MN 1 3 4 PQ MN 0 0 3 PQ
LM 1 0 0O
P LM 1 0 0 OP
C = M0 0 1 P , and D = M 0 1 0 P
NM 0 1 0 QP MN 0 0 −3 QP
then the rank of ABCD is
(a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 4.
6. Mark each of the following true or false
(a) ρ(A) = ρ(A′)
(b) ρ(A) = ρ(–A)
(c) ρ(A) = ρ( A ) = ρ(A*)
(d) ρ(AB) ρ(B)
(e) ρ(AB) ρ(A)
(f) ρ(A) + ρ(B) ¦ ρ(A + B)
(g) ρ(A + B) = ρ(A) + ρ(B) –3 if A and B are square matrix of order 3.
7. Fill in the blanks:
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 2 3 OP
(a) If A = MM 0 1 PP
0 , ρ(A) = ... (b) If A = MM 2 3 PP
4 , ρ(A) = ...
N0 0 1 Q N1 1 1 Q
LM 1 1 1 1OP LM 2 OP
(c) If A = M PP
3 4
1 1 1 1
If A = M 0 2 P , ρ(A) = ...
MM 1 1 1 1
, ρ(A) = ...
P
(d)
MN 0
0
8 PQ
N1 1 1 1Q
0
LM 0 2 3 OP
(e) If A = M 0 4 PP
6, , ρ(A) = ...
MN 0 6 9 Q
8. Mark each of the following : (True or False)
(a) The rank of non-singular matrix of order n is n–1.
(b) The rank of an m × n matrix whose elements are unity is 1.
(c) If A is a non-singular matrix of order n and B is an n × p matrix of rank r, then the rank of AB
is r.
(d) If A is a square matrix of order n and of rank n–1, then the rank of adj A is 1.
(e) Equivalance of matrices is symmetric, transitive but not reflexive.
(f) The Elementary matrices are non-singular.
(g) Every non-singular matrix can be written as the product of elementary matrices.
(h) A non-singular matrix A of order n is equivalent to an identily matrix In.
(i) The matrices A, BA, AC, and ABC, where B and C are non-singular, all have the same rank.
(j) The rank of the product two matrices can exceed the rank of either factor.
(k) If A is an m × n (m n) matrix of rank m, then AA′ is matrix of rank m.
❑❑❑
& Linear Equations
8.1 SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND CONSISTENCY
In the present chapter we shall discuss how to find the solutions of a system of m linear equations
in n unknowns, where m > n, m = n, m < n. Let such a system be
a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + a2nxn = b2
®
am1x1 + am2x2 + ... + amnxn = bm
which can be represented by the matrix equation
AX = B
LM a11 a12 ...a1nOP LM x 1 OP

where A = MM a21 a22 ...a2 n PP , X = MM x 2 PP ,
MN am1M am2 ...amn Q
P MN xM
n
PQ
LM b 1 OP
B = MM b 2 PP
MN bM
m
PQ
The matrix A is the coefficient matrix, X column matrix of n unknown x1, x2,........,xn and B
column matrix of m constants.
Definition 8.1.1. The matrix [A, B] which is obtained by placing the constant column matrix B to
the right of the matrix A is called augmented matrix.
Here all coefficients aij′s and all constants bi′s belong to the field of real or complex numbers.
Definition 8.1.2. Any set of values of x1, x2,....., xn which satisfy the system A is called the solution
of the system.
Definition 8.1.3. If the system has one or more solutions, the system is called consistent. If it has
no solution, the system is called inconsistent.
The solution of the system of linear equations depends very much on the ranks of the matrices
A and [A, B].
214
LINEAR EQUATIONS 215
Definition 8.1.4. If ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = r, then r is called the rank of the system.
One method of finding a solution for a set of equations is known as the triangular method. In
this procedure, one equation is used to eliminate one unknown from each of the other equations. The
process is then repeated on the new set of equations with this first unknown to obtain equation
without two unknowns. This technique is repeated over and over until one equation with only one
unknown is obtained.
This process will yield a new system of equation called equivalent system of equations with the
solution as the original system.
The new equivalent system of equations can be obtained from this original system of equations
by the following three operations:
(a) By inter changing any two equations in the system.
(b) By multiplying an equation by a non-zero constant.
(c) By adding a constant multiple of equation to an other equation.
These three operation one called elementary operations. This technique can be carried out more
efficiently by utilizing the language of matrices. The elementary operations are readily adaptable for
use with the augmented matrix. We note that each row of this matrix contains all the coefficients and
constant of the given equations of the system. Thus instead of referring to an equation one can apply
the elementary operation to the row vectors of the augmented matrix and accumplish the same result,
since these elementary operations are the same as elementary row transformations.
Now by these elementary transformations we have to reduce an augmented matrix to a triangular
matrix or to a particular matrix known as row reduced Echelon matrix.
Definition 8.1.5. An m × n matrix A is called an Echelon matrix if
(a) The first non-zero entry in each non-zero row of A is equal to 1.
(b) Each column of A which contains the leading non-zero entry of some row has all its other
entries 0.
(c) Every row of A which has all entries zero occurs below every row which has non-zero
entry.
(d) If rows 1, 2,..., r are the non-zero rows of A and if the leading non-zero entry of row i
occurs in columns k,
i = 1, 2,...,r, then k1 < k2 <... < kr.
Example 8.1.1. The matrix
LM 0 1 −3 0
1 OP
(1) A = MM 0 0 0 1
2
2 PP is an Echelon matrix.
MMN 0 PP
Q
0 0 0 0
LM 1 0 0 0 OP
(2) I4 = MM 0 1 0 0 PP is an Echelon matrix.
MN 00 0
0
1
0
0
1
PQ
LM 1 0 0 0 OP
(3) A =
MM 0 1 −1 0 PP is not an Echelon matrix.
N0 0 1 0 Q
LM 0 2 1 OP
(4) A = MM 1 0 −3 PP is not an Echelon matrix.
N0 0 0 Q
Definition 8.1.6. The number of non-zero rows of an Echelon matrix is the rank of the matrix.
Example 8.1.2. In above example
(1) ρ(A) = 2
(2) ρ(I4) = 4
Now we shall prove a very important theorem which will determine whether the system AX =
B has a solution or not.
THEOREM 8.1.1. A system AX = B of m linear equation in n unknowns is consistent if and
only if the coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix [A, B] have the same rank.
Proof. Since A is sub matrix of the matrix [A, B],
then ρ(A) (ρ[A, B]).
Now by applying the elementry row transformations to the augmented matrix [A, B], we reduce
the matrix [A, B] to the row reduced Echelon matrix R
LM 1 0 LLL 0 LM β1 OP
i.e., R = MM 0 1 0 LM β2 PP
MN 0: 0
:
0 LM M
PQ
LM 0 0 LLL 1 L: βr OP
rth row
MM : : : : : PP
N0 0 0 L: βm Q
If at least one of βr +1, ......, βm is not zero, then the number of non-zero rows in the coefficient
matrix is not equal to the number of non-zero rows in the augmented matrix.
Hence A, and [A, B] do not have the same rank i.e.
ρ(A) < ρ([A, B])
which shows at least one of equations βj = 0, j = r + 1,..., m which is false. So the system is
inconsistent.
If all βr + 1 = βr + 2 = ... = βm = 0.
then ρ(A) = ρ([A, B])
which shows that the system has one or more solutions.
Again, if ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = r = n, then it has unique solution.
And if ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) < n, then it has infinite solutions.
Note: This method is applied to the system to get its solution in the following cases:
(1) When we have the system of n linear equations in n unknowns i.e., AX = B, where A is a sqaure matrix
and |A| = 0, then here Cramer’s rule would fail and we shall do by the above method. We shall apply it even
if |A| ≠ 0.
(2) When we have the system of m linear equations in n unknowns in both cases m < n and m > n.
8.2 SOLUTION OF n LINEAR EQUATIONS IN n UNKNOWNS

Example 8.2.1. Show that the following equations are consistent and find their solution.
x1 – x2 + x3 = 2
3x1 – x2 + 2x3 = –6
3x1 + x2 + x3 = – 18
Solution. The system of equations can be represented by the matrix equation.
LM 1 −1 1 OP LM x1 OP LM 2 OP
MM 3 −1 2 PP MM x
2 PP = MM −6 PP
N3 1 1 QN x 3 Q N −18 Q
where the augmented matrix,
LM 1 −1 1 M 2 OP
[A, B] = MM 3 −1 2 M −6 PP
N3 1 1 M −18 Q
Now we consider the matrix,
LM 1 −1 1 M OP
2 R2 – 3R1
[A, B] = MM 3 −1 2 M −6 PP
∼
N3 1 1 M Q
−18 R3 − 3R1
LM 1 −1 1 : 2 OP 1 R
MM 0 2 −1 : −12 PP 2 ∼ 2
N0 4 −2 : 24 Q
LM 1 −1 1 : 2O R +R
P ∼ 1 2
MM 0 1 −
1
: −6 P
N0 24 PQ R − 4 R
2
4 −2 : 3 2
LM 1 0
1
−4
OP
MM 0 2
1
−6 P
P
MM 0 1 –
2
0P
P
MN PQ
0 0
Hence ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]), therefore the system is consistent and it has infinite solutions.
Now we can write it as

LM 1 1 OP
MM 0
0
2
PP LM xx 1 OP LM −4 OP
PP MMN x PP MM −6 PP
1
MM 0 1 – =
N 0Q
2
2
Q
MN PQ
0 0 3
1
which gives x1 + x = –4
2 3
1
x2 – x3 = – 6
2
1
or x1 = – 4 – x
2 3
1
x 2 = – 6 + x3
2
LM x OP LM − 1 λ −4
OP
If x3 = λ, then MM x
1
PP = MM 21 λ −6 P
P has infinite values as λ varies.
MM 2 λ PP
2
Nx 3 Q N Q
Example 8.2.2. Show that the following system of equations is inconsistent.
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 2
2x1 + 4x2 + 3x3 = 3
3x1 + 6x2 + 5x3 = 4.
Solution. The system can be written as AX = B. Here the augmented matrix is
LM 1 2 1 : OP
2 R2 – 2 R1 LM 1 2 1 : 2 OP
[A, B] = MM 2 4 3 : 3 PP
∼ MM 0 0 1 : −1 PP
N3 6 5 : Q
4 R3 − 3R1 N0 0 2 : −2 Q
LM 1 3O
−1 PP
R1 – R2 2 0 :
∼ MM 0 0 1 :
R3 − 2 R2 N0 0 0 : 0 PQ
Which shows the coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix [A, B] have the same rank.
Hence the system is consistent. We can write the system as.
LM 1 2 0 OP LM x1 OP LM 3OP
MM 0 0 1 PP MM x
2 PP = MM−1PP
N0 0 0 QN x 3 Q N 0Q
which gives
x1 + 2x2 = 3
x3 = – 1
∴ x 1 = 3 – 2x2
So the solution is
LM x1 OP LM 3 –2λ OP
MM x PP = MM PP
λ if x = λ
N Q
2
Nx Q
2 2
3
−1
∴ The system has infinite solutions as λ varies.
Example 8.2.3. Show that the following system:
2x + 6y = – 11
6x + 20y – 6z = – 3
6y – 18z = –1
is inconsistent
Solution.
LM 2 6 0 OP LM x OP LM −11 OP
MM 6 20 −6 PP MM y PP = MM −3 PP
N0 6 −18 QN zQ N −1 Q
Now we consider the augmented matrix,
LM 2 6 0 M −11 1OP
MM 6 20 −6 M PP
R
−3 2 1
N0 6 −18 M −1 ∼ Q
LM 1 3 0 :
11 O
− P
MM 6 20 −6 :
2 R
−3 P
P 2 − 6 R1
MM 0 P
−1 PQ
∼
N 6 −18 :
LM 1 11 OP LM 1 3 0 M
11 O
− P
MM 0
3 0 M −
PP
2 1 R2 MM 0 1 −3 M
2
P
15 P
MM 0
2 −6 M 30 2
∼PP MM 0 P
−1 P
N 6 −18 M −1 Q N 6 −18 M
Q
R1 − 3R2 LM 1 0 9 M −
101 OP
∼ MM 0 1 −3 M
2
15
PP
R − 6 R MM 0 −91 PQ
P
3
N 2 0 0 M
Here the coefficient matrix has the rank 2 and the augmented matrix has the rank 3. Therefore
the system is inconsistent.
Example 8.2.4. Solve the following equations
x +y +z = 9
2x + 5y + 7z = 52
2x + y – z = 0
Solution. We can write the system of equation in the form of matrix equation AX = B, where
the coefficient matrix.
LM 1 1 1 OP
A = MM 2 5 7 PP
N2 1 −1 Q
and the augmented matrix
LM 1 1 1 OP : 9
[A, B] = MM 2 5 7 PP : 52
N2 1 −1 Q : 0
LM 1 9 O R – 2R
7 : 52 PP
1 1 : 2 1
Now [A, B] =
MM 2
5 ∼
N21 −1 , 0 PQ R − 2 R 3 1
LM 1 1 1 M 9 OP
MM 0 3 5 M 34 PP R + R 1 3
N 0 − 1 − 3 M − 18 Q ∼
LM 1 0 −2 M −9 O
PP 1 R LMM
1 0 −2 M −9 O
PP R + R
MM 0 34 P
PP ∼ MMM 3 P
2 3 2
3 5 M 3 0 1 5 M 34
MM 3
PP ∼
N0 −1 −3 M −18 Q N 0 − 1 −3 M −18 Q
LM 1 0 −2 M −9 O
PP – 3 R LM 1 0 −2 M −9 OP
MM 0 5 M 34
P 4 MM 0 1 53 M 343 PP
3
MM 1
3 3 P
P ∼ MMN 0 0 1 M 5 PPQ
MN 0 0 −4
3
M − 20 P
3 Q
R + 2R L 1 0 0 M 1 O
1
∼
3
MM 0 1 0 M 3 PP
R − R MN 0 0 1 M 5 PQ
5
2 3
3
So ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = 3.
Thus the system is consistant and has unique solution. So we have
LM 1 0 0 OP LM x OP LM 1 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP MM y PP MM 3 PP
N0 0 1 QN zQN5Q
which gives
x = 1, y = 3, z = 5.
Example 8.2.5. Investigate for what values of λ and µ the simultaneous equations.
x+ y+z=6 U|
x + 2 y + 3z = 10 V| have
x + 2 y + λz = µ W
(i) no solution; (ii) unique solution; (iii) infinite solutions.
Solution. The system of equation is represented by the matrix equation AX = B, where the
coefficient matrix
LM 1 1 1 OP
A = MM 1 2 3 PP , and
N1 2 λ Q
the augmented matrix
LM 1 1 1 : 6 OP
[A, B] = MM 1 2 3 : 10 PP
N1 2 λ : µ Q
We know
(1) If ρ(A) ≠ ρ([A, B]), then the system has no solution.
(2) If ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = 3, i.e., the number of columns of A, then, the system has unique solution.
(3) If ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) < 3, then the system has infinite solutions.
Now we consider augmented matrix
LM 1 1 1 : 6 OP R 2 − R1 LM 1 1 1 : 6 OP
[A, B] = MM 1 2 3 : 10 PP ∼ MM 0 1 2 : 4 PP
N1 2 λ : µ QR3 − R1 N0 1 λ −1 : µ−6 Q
R1 − R2 LM 1 0 −1 : 2 OP
∼ MM 0 1 2 : 4 PP
R3 − R2 N0 0 λ − 3 : µ − 10 Q
From this matrix it is clear that
if λ – 3 = 0, and µ –10 ≠ 0, then
ρ(A) = 2, ρ([A, B]) = 3
ρ(A) < ρ([A, B]).
(1) Hence when λ = 3, and µ ≠ 10, then the system has no solutions.
(2) If λ –3 ≠ 0, and µ – 10 ≠ 0, then ρ(A) = 3 = ρ([A, B]). Hence the system has unique solution.
(3) If λ – 3 = 0 and µ – 10 = 0, i.e.,
λ = 3, µ = 10, then
ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = 2.
Thus the system has infinite solutions.
8.3 SOLUTION OF m LINEAR EQUATION IN n UNKNOWS WITH m < n AND m > n

Example 8.3.1. Solve the system
x1 + 2x2 = 1
–3x1 + 2x2 = –2
–x1 + 6x2 = 0.
Solution. Here in this case we have the coefficient matrix
LM 1 2 OP
A = MM −3 2 PP
N −1 6 Q
and the augmented matrix
LM 1 2 M OP
1 R2 + 3R1 LM 1 2 M 1 OP
[A, B] = MM −3 2 M −2 ∼PP MM 0 8 M 1 PP
N −1 6 M Q
0 R3 + R1 N0 8 M 1 Q
LM 1 1 O R − 8R L 1 3O
2 M
P 3
MM 2 0 M
4 P
MM 0 1P 1P
1
R
8 2 1 M
8P
∼ MM 0 1 M
8 PP
~ MMN 0 P
1 PQ R − 2 R M 0 0 PQ
8 M 1 N2 0 M
Here ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = 2. The system is consistent.
Since ρ(A) = number of columns of A. Thus it has unique solution. Thus the resultant matrix
gives
LM 1 OP L x O LM 3 OP
MM 41 PP
0
MM 0 1 PP MN x PQ
1
=
N0 0 Q 2
MM 80 PP
N Q
3 1
or x1 =
,x =
4 2 8
Example 8.3.2. Show that the system of equations
2x1 – x3 + x2 = 4
3x1 – x2 + x3 = 6
4x1 – x2 + 2x3 = 7
– x1 + x2 – x3 = 9
is inconsistent.
Solution. The system can be written in the form of matrix equation. AX = B. Here the augmented
matrix is
LM 2 −1 1 M 4 OP
MM 3 −1 1 M 6 P1 R
P2
[A, B] =
MM 4 7 P ∼
1
MN − 1
−1 2 M
P
1 −1 M 9 PQ
LM 1 − 1 1 M 2 OP R – 3R 2 1
MM 3 −21 21 M 6 PP R – 4 R
MM 4 −1 2 M 7 PP ∼
3 1
MM PP
N −1 1 −1 M 9 Q R +R
4 1
LM 1 − 1 1 M 2 OP R + R
MM 0 21 – 21 M 0 PP ∼
1 2
MM 2 2 PP
MM 0 1 0 M −1 PP R − 2 R 3 2
MN 0 21 − 21 M 11 PQ R − R 4 2
LM 1 0 0 M 2 OP
MM 0 21 − 12 M 0 PP 2 R2
MM 0 0 1 M −1 PP ∼
MM P
N 0 0 0 M 11 PQ
LM 1 0 0 M 2 OP LM 1 0 0 M 2 OP
MM 0 1 −1 M 0 PP R + R MM 0
2 3 1 0 M −1 P
P
MM 0 0 1 M −1 PP ∼ MM 0 0 1 M −1 P
P
MN 0 0 0 M 11 PQ MN 0 0 0 M 11 PQ
Here the augmented matrix [A, B] has rank 4 while the coefficient matrix A has rank 3. Hence
the system is inconsistent.
Example 8.3.3. Find the solution of the system.
5x1 – 3x2 – 7x3 + x4 = 10
– x1 + 2x2 + 6x3 – 3x4 = – 3
x1 + x2 + 4x3 – 5x4 = 0.
Solution. Here we have the augmented matrix
LM 5 −3 −7 1 M 10 OP R(1, 3)
MM −1 2 6 −3 M −3 P
0 PQ
[A, B] =
N 1
~
1 4 −5 M
LM 1 1 4 −5 M OP
0 R2 + R1
MM −1 2 6 −3 M −3 ∼ PP
N 5 −3 −7 1 M Q
10 R3 − 5R1
LM 1 1 4 −5 OP 1
0
MM 0 3 10 −8 −3 P 3
P∼
R 2
MN 0 −8 −27 26 10 PQ
LM 1 1 4 −5 0O
PR − R
MM 0 1
10
−
8
−1 P
PP ∼
1 2
MMN 0 3 3
−8 −27 26 10 PQ
LM 1 0 2
−
7 M 1O
PP –3R
MM 0 3 3
1 10 − 8 M −1 P
3
MM 3 3 PP ∼
MN 0 0 −
1 14 M
3 3
2P
Q
LM 1 0 2
−
7 M 1O R − 2 R
PP 3
MM 0
1 3
3 3
1 10 − 8 M −1 P
MM 3 3 PP ∼
MN 0 0 1 −14 M −6 P R − R
Q 32
10
3
LM 1 7 M 5O
44 M 19 PP
0 0
MM 0 1 0
N0 0 1 −14 M −6 PQ
which shows ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]).
Hence the system is consistent and has infinite solutions.
And we have
LM 1 0 0 7 OP LM xx 1 OP LM 5 OP
MM 0 1 0 44 PP MM x 2 PP = MM 19 PP
N0 0 1 −14 Q MN x 3
4
PQ N −6 Q
which gives x1 + 7x4 = 5
x2 + 44x4 = 19
x3 – 14x4 = –6,
If x4 = λ,
LM x 1 OP LM 5 –7λ OP
then
MM x 2 PP = MM 19 −44λ PP
MN xx
3
4
PQ MN −λ6 +14λ
PQ
has infinite solutions as λ varies.
Example 8.3.4. Show that the system.

x1 – 2x2 + x3 – x4 = –1
3x1 – 2x3 + 3x4 = –4
5x1 – 4x2 + x4 = –3
Solution. In this case the augmented matrix
LM 1 −2 1 −1 M OP
−1 R2 − 3R1
[A, B] = MM 3 0 −2 3 M −4 PP
∼
N5 −4 0 1 M Q
−3 R3 − 5R1
LM 1 −2 −1 M −1 O
−1 PP
1
MM 0 6 −5 6 M
N0 6 −5 6 M 2 PQ
LM −2 −1 −1 O R + 2 R
1P
1 1 1 2
1
6
R2
0 MM 1 −
5
1 – P
6P
∼
MN 2 PQ R − 6 R
6
∼
0 6 −5 6 3 2
LM 1 0 –
2
1 −
4 OP
MM 0 3
5
3
1 PP
MM 1 −
6
1 –
6 PP
N0 0 0 0 3 Q
Hence ρ (A) = 2, ρ ([A, B]) = 3.
Therefore the system is inconsistent.
PROBLEM 8.1
By using elementary row operations, find solution or solutions, if they exist, for the following system
of equations.
1. 2x1 + 3x2 – 4x3 = 2 2. x1 – x2 – x3 – x4 = 2
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 1 2x1 + 4x2 – 3x3 = 6
3x1 – 5x2 – 4 = 0 3x2 – 4x3 – 2x4 = –1
– 2x1 + 4x3 + 3x4 = –3
3. x1 + x2 – x3 = 0 4. x1 – 2x2 – 3x3 = 2
5x2 – x1 + x3 = –6 x1 + 4x2 + 3x3 = 14
2x3 – x2 – 2x1 = –1 – 3x1 + 5x2 + 4x3 = 0
5. 4x1 + 5x3 = 6 6. – 4x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 = –2
x2 – 6x3 = –2 5x1 – 4x2 + x3 = 3
3x1 + 4x3 = 3
7. 2x – y + 3z = 9 8. x + 2y = 3z = 4
x+y+z=6 2x + 3y + 8z = 7
x–y+z=2 x – y – 1z = 1
9. x + 2y – z = 3 10. 2x – y + 3z = 8
3x – y + 2z = 1 x + 2y + z = 4
2x – 2y + 3z = 2 3x + y – 4x = 0
x–y+z = –1
11. 2x + 3y + z = 9 12. x + 2p + 3z = 2
x – 2y + 3z = 6 2x + 4y + 5z = 3
3x + y + 2z = 8 3x + 5y + 6z = 4
13. x+y+z=6 14. x + 2y + 3z = 14
x–y+z=2 3x + y + 2z = 11
2x + y – z = 1 2x + 3y + z = 11
15. x + 2y + z = 2
2x + 6y + 5z = 4
2x + 4y + 3z = 3
8.4 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS

The system AX = B of m linear equation in n unknowns is known as the system of homogeneous
linear equations if B = 0. i.e.,
AX = 0 is the system of homogeneous linear equations.
In this case the coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix [A, 0] are the same. So they have
the same rank which follows that the system has solution. In fact x1 = x2... = xn = 0 is always a
solution. This solution is called trivial solution. Now we shall see whether or not there are non-trivial
solutions.
Case I. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, ρ(A) = n,
Hence X = 0 i.e., x1 = x2 = ......xn = 0.
Case II. If A is an m × n matrix and ρ(A) = r < n. Then A can be reduced to a matrix which
has r non-zero rows and (n – r) zero rows. So the system is consistent and has infinite solutions.
THEOREM 8.4.1. A necessary and sufficient condition that a system AX = 0 of m homogeneous
linear equation in n unknowns is that the coefficient matrix have a rank less than the number of
unknowns.
Proof. At present proof is left to the readers. It is based on the specialization of theorem 8.1.9.
COROLLARY 1. A necessary and sufficient condition that a system of n homogeneous linear
equations in n unknowns have non-trivial solutions is that the coefficient matrix be singular.
COROLLARY 2. If m < n, a system of m homogeneous linear equations in n unknowns always
has non-trivial solutions.
Example 8.4.1. Find the solution of the system
x1 – x2 + x3 = 0
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0
2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0
Solution. The system is written as

LM 1 −1 1 OP LM x1 OP LM 0 OP
MM 1 2 −1 PP MM x
2 PP = MM 0 PP .
N2 1 3 QN x 3 Q N0Q
Here the coefficient and the augmented matrix are the same. So we consider
LM 1 −1 OP R − R LM 1 −1
1 2 1 1 OP 1 LM 1 −1 1 OP
A= M 1 2 −1 P MM 0 1 – 2 PP
PP ∼ MMM 0 3 −2 P 3
R
MM PP ∼
2
N2 1 3 Q R − 2R N 0 3 3 1 1Q
MN 0 13 31 PQ
R +R L1 0 1O LM 1 1 OR − 1R L 1 0 OP
MM P 0
3P 3 M
0
MM 0 1 − 3 PPP 3 MMM 0 P
1 2 1 3
MM 0 1 P
3 1
− P
R
0P
2 3 2
∼ ∼
3P
2 MM P
1
R − 3R MM 0 0 PP ∼ MM 0 P 1 PQ
N Q N 1 PQ 3 N
3 2 3 0 R +
2 R 0 0 3
Hence ρ(A) = 3 i.e., the coefficient matrix is non-singular.

Therefore there exists a trivial solution
x1 = x2 = x3 = 0
Example 8.4.2. Find the solution of the system
x1 – 2x2 + x3 = 0
x1 – 2x2 – x3 = 0
2x1 – 4x2 – 5x3 = 0.
Solution. In this case the coefficient matrix is
LM 1 OP R − R LM 1
−2 1 2 1 −2 1 OP 1
MM 1−2 −1 P
PP ∼ MMM 0 0 −2 P 2
– R
PP ∼
2
MN 2
−4 −5 Q R − 2 R N 0 3 1 0 −7 Q
LM 1
−2 1O
MM 0
0 1 PP
N00 −7 PQ
R + 7 R L 1 −2 0 O
∼
3
MM 0 0 1 PP
2
R − R MN 0
1 2 0 0 PQ
Hence ρ (A) = 2. So the system has infinite non-trivial solutions.
We can write this matrix in the form of equations, that is,
LM 1 −2 0 OP LM x 1 OP LM 0 OP
MM 0 0 1 PP MM x
2 PP = MM 0 PP
N0 0 0 QN x 3 Q N0Q
which gives x1 – 2x2 = 0

x3 = 0
So x1 = 2x2
If x2 = λ
LM x 1 OP LM 2λ OP
Then MM x2 PP = MM λ PP
Nx 3 Q N 0Q
has infinite solutions as λ varies.
Example 8.4.3. Find any non-trivial solutions which may exist
2x1 + 3x2 – x3 + x4 = 0
3x1 + 2x2 – 2x3 + 2x4 = 0
5x1 – 4x3 + 4x4 = 0
Solution. We shall consider the coefficient matrix of the system. The coefficient matrix is
LM 2 3 −1 1OP 1 LM 1 3
−
1 1OP
P RM P
2 2 2
MM 3 2P2 M3
1
2P
PP ∼ MM PP
= 2 −2 2 −2
MM
N5 0 −4 4Q MN 5 0 −4 4P
Q
LM
R2 − 3R1 1 3 –1 1 OP LM 1 3 –1 1 OP
MM 2 2 2
P– 2 R M
1 P 5 M0
2 2 2
P
– P
2
MM 0 – 2 2P M 5P
∼ 5 1 1 1
– 1
P ∼ M P
2 5
R − 5R M 0 –
15 –3 3P MN 0 – 15 –3 3P
3
N 2 1
2 2Q 2 2 2 Q
R − R L1 0 – OP
MM
3 4 4
PP
1 2
2 5 5
∼ MM 0 1 15 –1
5 PP
15 M
R + R M0 0 0P
3
2 N 2 0
Q
Hence the coefficient matrix has rank 2. Therefore it possesses non-trivial solution.
LM 1 –4 4 OP LM x OP
M
0
5 5
PP MM x
1
PP LM 0 OP
We have M 0 MM 0 PP
1 1 2
MM 1
5
–
5 PP MM x 3 PP
=
N0Q
N0 0 0 0Q Nx 4 Q
4 4
which gives x1 – x + x4 = 0
5 3 5
1 1
x2 + x3 – x4 = 0
5 5
LM 1 x 1 OP = x
∴ x1 – 4
N5 3 − x4
5 Q 1 + 4x2 = 0
or x 1 = –4x2
If x3 = λ1, x4 = λ2, we have
LM x 1 OP = LM 45 λ – 4 λ2 OP
PP = MM – 1 λ PP
1
MM x
5
1
PP MM 5 PP
+ λ2
MM
2 1
5
MM x3
PP = MM λ 1 PP
MN x
4 PQ = MN λ2
PQ
has infinite solutions as λ1 and λ2 vary.
PROBLEM 8.2
By using elementary row operations, find solution or solutions if they exist, for the following systems of
equations.
1. x + 3y – 2z = 0 2. x+ y–z+ t=0
2x – y + 4z = 0 x – y + 2z – t = 0
x – 11y + 14z = 0 3x + y + t = 0
3. x + y + 3z = 0 4. 5x + 3y + 7z – 4 = 0
x–y+ z = 0 3x + 26y + 2z – 9 = 0
x – 2y = 0 7x – 2y + 10z – 5 = 0
x–y+ z = 0
5. 2x – y + 3z = 0 6. 2w + 3x – y – z = 0
3x + 2y + z = 0 4w – 6x – 2y + 2z = 0
x – 4y + 5z = 0 – 6w + 12x + 3y – 4z = 0
7. 2x – 2y + 5z + 3w = 0 8. 4x + 2y + z + 34 = 0
4x – y +z+w = 0 6x + 3y + 4y + 74 = 0
3x – 2y + 3z + 4w = 0 2x + y + 4 = 0
x – 3y + 7z + 6w = 0
9. x – y – 2z – 4t = 0 10. x1 – 2x2 – 3x3 = 0
2x + 3x – z – t = 0 x1 – 4x2 – 13x3 = 0
3x + y + 3z – 2t = 0 – 3x1 + 5x2 – 4x3 = 0
6x + 3y – 7t = 0
8.5 CRAMER’S RULE

With the concept of the inverse of matrix we now consider the problem of solving simultaneously
n linear equations in n unknowns.
Let the system of equation be

a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1n.xn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + a2n.xn = b2
............................................. ........ ...................
an1x1 + an2x2 + ...+ ann.xn = bn
This gives the matrix equation AX = B,
LM a L OP L x OP LM b OP
PP , X = MM x
11 a12 a1n 1 1
where A = M
Ma a 22 L a 2n
PP , B = MM bM PP
PQ MMN xM
21 2 2
MN aM n1 an2 L a nn n
PQ MN b n
PQ
The matrix A = [aij] is known as the coefficient matrix. If A ≠ 0, then the system has only
one solution. If A ≠ 0, A–1 exists.
If AX = B is multiplied by A–1 on the left we obtain
A–1(AX) = A−1B
⇒ –1
(A A) X = A–1B
⇒ X = A –1B
LM x OP LM A 11 A21 ..... An1 OP LM b 1 OP

MM A PP MM b PP
1
X = MM x 2 PP =
1 12 A22 An 2 2
MN xM PQ
A
MN AM
1n
:
A2 n
M
Ann
PQ MN bM
n
PQ
n
LM x 1 OP b1 A11 + b2 A21 +
b1 A12 + b2 A22 +
... +bn An1
+bn An 2
MM x PP
...
2 1
or = :
MN xM PQ
A
M
n
b1 A1n + b2 A2 n + ... +bn Ann
1 A1
⇒ x1 = (b1A11 + b2A21 + ... + bnAn1) =
A A
1 A2
⇒ x2 = (b1A12 + b2A22 + ... + bnAn2) =
A A
®
1 An
xn = (b1A1n + b2A2n + ... + bnAnn) =
A A
where Aj is the matrix obtained from A on replacing jth column by constant column vector B.
Example 8.5.1. Solve the equation.
x +y +z = 6
x –y +z = 2
2x + y – z = 1
Solution. The given equations can be written in form of matrix equation.

AX = B, i.e.,
MM 1 −1 1 PP MM y PP = MM 2 PP
N2 2 −1 QN zQ N 1Q
where A = MM 1 −1 1 ,X= PP MM y PP , B = MM 21 PP
N2 1 −1 Q N zQ N Q
LM 1 1 1 OP
Now A = MM 1 −1 PP
1 = 1(1 – 1) – 1(–1 – 1) + 2(1 + 1) = 2 + 4 = 6 ≠ 0
N2 1 −1 Q
A–1 exists
Then by Cramer’s rule, we have
6 1 1
2 −1 1
x =
1 1 −1
=
b g b g b g
6 1 − 1 − 2 −1 − 1 + 1 1 + 1
=
6
=1
A 6 6
1 6 1
1 2 1
y =
2 1 −1
=
b g b g b g
1 –2 – 1 − 1 −6 − 1 + 2 6 – 2
A 6
–3 + 7 + 8
= =2
6
1 1 6
1 −1 2
z =
2 1 1
=
b g b g b g
1 –1– 2 − 1 1 − 6 + 2 2 + 6
A 6
–3+ 5 + 16
= =3
6
PROBLEM 8.3
1. Solve the equations 2. Solve the equations
x + 2y + z = 4 x + 2y + 3z = 14
x–y+ z = 5 3x + y + 2z = 11
2x + 3y – z = 1 2x + 3y + z = 11
3. Solve the equations 4. Solve the equations
x – y + 2z = 4 2x + 3y + z = 9
3x + y + 6z = 6 x – 2y + 3z = 6
x+ y+ z = 1 3x + y + 2z = 8
5. Solve the equations
2x – y + 3z – 9 = 0
x+ y+ z–6 = 0
x–y+ z–2 = 0
❑❑❑
' Characteristic Roots and
Vectors of a Matrix
9.1 DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

In this chapter we shall confine our attention to the matric polynomial of first degree of some square
matrix of order n and we shall study the properties of the same.
Definition 9.1.1. An expression of the form
F[x] = A0I + A1x + A2x2 + .. + anxn, where A0, A1, ... An are all square matrices of the
same order whose elements belong to some field (F, +, .), is called a matric polynomial of degree
n, An ≠ 0. The non-zero coefficient An of highest power of x is called the leading coefficients.
A variable x is called indeterminate and it is assumed that x, commutes with every matrix
coefficients.
Definition 9.1.2. Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then the matric polynomial of first degree.
A – Inx
is called the characteristic matrix of the square matrix A.
LM1 2OP
Example 9.1.1. Let A =
N2 1 Q
Then the characteristic matrix of A is
LM1 2OP − LM1 0OP x= LM1 2OP − LM x 0OP = LM1 − x 2 OP
N2 1Q N0 1Q N2 1Q N0 xQ N 2 Q
A – I2x = .
1− x
Definition 9.1.3. The determinant of a characteristic matrix A − xI of a square matrix A is called the
characteristic polynomial of A.
Thus the characteristic polynomial of the matrix
LM1 2OP
A =
N2 1 Q
1− x 2
is |A – xI| = = x2 – 2x – 3.
2 1− x
233
9.2 PROPERTIES OF THE CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIAL

Here we shall determine an explicit formulas for the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial φ(x).
Let A be a square matrix of order n,
LMa 11 a12 … a1n OP

A = MMa21 a22 … a2n PP
MNaM
n1 an2 … ann
PQ
The characteristic polynomial of A is
a11 − x a12 … a1n

a21 a22 − x … a2 n
φ(x) = |A – xI| =
M
an1 an 2 … ann − x
= anxn + an–1xn – 1 + ... + a1x + a0

If we put x = 0, a0 = | A |. The product of diagonal terms of |A – xI| is (a11 – x) (a22 – x) ...
(ann – x) and this is the only product yielding xn and xn – 1. Expanding the product, we obtain (– 1)nxn
and (– 1)n–1 Σaii xn – 1 as the first two terms of φ(x).
Hence an = (–1)n and an–1 = (–1)n–1 Σaii, i = 1, 2, ...., n.
Thus, the characteristic polynomial will be of degree n if A is a square matrix of order n.
Now we shall obtain a general formula for the coefficient of φ(x) in the following theorem:
THEOREM 9.2.1. The coefficient of xr (r ≤ n) in φ(x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + an – 2 xn–2 + ...
+ a1x + a0 is (–1)r times the sum of the principal minors of order (n – r). In particular, the coefficient
of xn is (–1)n, the constant term is | A |.
Proof. For the sake of clearity we assume that A is a square matrix of order 3,
LMa 11 a12 a13 OP

A = MMa 21 a22 a23 PP
Na 31 a32 a33 Q
a11 − x a12 a13

|A – xI| = a21 a22 − x a23
a31 a32 a33 − x
a11 − x a12 − 0 a13 − 0

a21 − 0 a22 − x a23 − 0
=
a31 − 0 a32 − 0 a33 − x
= |A1 – xE1, A2 – xE2, A3 – xE3|,

CHARACTERISTIC ROOTS AND VECTORS OF A MATRIX 235
where Aj is the jth column of A and Ej is the jth elementary column vector. Since in | A – xI| each
is consisted of the difference of two elements and it is of order 3, it can be written as the sum of
23 determinants.
Thus, |A – xI| = | –xE1, –xE2, –xE3| + |A1, –xE2, –xE3 |
+ | –xE1, A2, –xE3| + | –xE1, –xE2, A3|
+ | A1, A2, –xE3| + |A1, –xE2, A3|
+ | –xE1, A1, A2| + |A1, A2, A3|
−x 0 0 a11 0 0 −x a12 0
= 0 − x 0 + a 21 − x 0 + 0 a22 0
0 0 − x a31 0 − x 0 a32 −x
−x 0 a13 a11 a12 0 a11 0 a13

+ 0 −x a23 + a21 a22 0 + a21 −x a23
0 0 a33 a31 a32 −x a31 0 a33
− x a12 a13 a11 a12 a13

+ 0 a22 a23 + a21 a22 a23
0 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
= (–1)3 x3 + (–1)2 (a11 + a22 + a33)x2
RS a 11 a12 a11 a13 a22
+ +
a23
x+ A
UV
+ (–1)
Ta 21 a22 a31 a33 a32 a33 W
= (–1)3 x3
+ (–1)2 [sum of principal minors of order I]x2
+ (–1) [sum of principal minors of order 2] x + |A|.
Example 9.2.1. Write down the characteristic polynomials of the following matrices.
LM1 −1 1OP LM 1 −4 −1 −4 OP
(b) A = M PP
2 0 5 −4
(a) A = M0 PP
MN1
1 0
MM−1 1 −2 3
PQ
−1 1 Q N−1 4 −1 6
Solution. The characteristic polynomial of A is
1 − x −1 1
φ(x) = |A – xI| = 0 1− x 0 = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3,
1 −1 1 − x
1 −1 1
where a0 = 0 1 0 = 0
1 −1 1
a1 = (–1) [sum of the principal minors of order 2]
LM 1 −1 1 1 1 0
+ +
OP
= (–1)
N0 1 1 1 −1 1 Q
= – [1 + 0 + 1] = – 2
a2 = (–1)2 [sum of the principal minors of order 1]
= [1 + 1 + 1] = 3
a3 = (–1)3 = –1
Hence, φ(x) = 0 – 2x + 3x2 – x3.
(b) The characteristic polynomial of A is
φ(x) = |A – xI| = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + a4x4
1−4 −1 −4
2 0 5 −4
where a0 = | A| =
−1 1 −2 3
−1 4 −1 6
R3 + R1, R4 + R1
1 −4 −1 −4
2 0 5 −4
= =2
0 −3 −3 −1
0 0 −2 2
a1 = (–1) sum of the principal minors of order 3
R| 1 −4 −1 1
−4 −4 1 −1 −4 0 5 −4 U|
= –1 S 2 3 + 2
0 −4 + −1 −2 3 + 1 −2 3 V|
|T −1
0
1 −2 −1 4 6 −1 −1 6 4 −1 6 W
= – {–3 + 16 – 8 + 2} = – 7.
a2 = (–1)2
RS 1 −4
+
1 −1 1 −4 0 5
+ +
0 −4 −2 3
+
UV
T2 W
+
0 −1 −2 −1 6 1 −2 4 6 −1 6
= 8 –3 + 2 –5 + 16 –9 = 9
a3 = (–1)3 sum of the principal minors of order 1
= –1 {1 + 0 –2 + 6} = –5
a4 = (–1)4 = 1
Hence, φ(x) = 2 – 7x + 9x2 – 5x3 + x4
Example 9.2.2. Find the characteristic polynomial of the matrix
LM2 2 1 OP
A = MM13 1 PP
N12 2 Q
Solution. The characteristic polynomial of A is
LM 2 2 2 1 3 1
+ +
OP x
φ(x) = [A – xI] = (–1)3x3 + (–1)2[2 + 3 + 2]x2 + (–1)
N1 3 1 2 1 2 Q
2 2 1
+ 1 3 1
1 2 2
= – x3 + 7x2 – [(6 – 2) + (4 – 1) + (6 – 2)]x + 2(6 – 2) – 2(2 – 1) + 1(2 – 3)

= – x3 + 7x2 – (4 + 3 + 4) x + 8 – 2 – 1
= – x3 + 7x2 – 11x + 5
Definition 9.2.1. The equation | A – xI| = 0 is called the characteristic equation or secular equation
of a square matrix A.
Thus the characteristic equation of the matrix
LM1 2OP
A =
N2 1 Q
1− x 2
is |A – xI| = = x2 – 2x – 3 = 0.
2 1− x
or φ(x) = x2 – 2x – 3 = 0.
Lemma 9.2.1. Every matrix whose elements are ordinary polynomials can be written as matric
polynomial and conversely.
We show it by an example. Let us consider the matrix
LM1 + 2x x2 4 − 6x OP
A = MM1 + x 3
3 + 2x 2 1 − x3 PP
N2− x 5 6 + 7x Q
Whose elements are ordinary polynomials. The highest degree of the polynomials is three.
We write the matrix A as follows:
LM1 + 2 x x2 4 − 6x OP
A = MM1 + x 3
3 + 2x2 1− x3 PP
N2− x 5 6 + 7x Q
LM1 + 2 x + 0x + 0x
2 3
0 + 0x + x 2 + 0x 3 4 − 6x + 0x 2 + 0x 3 OP
= MM 1 + 0x + 0x + x
2 3
3 + 0 x + 2 x 2 + 0x 3 1 + 0 x + 0x 2 − x 3 PP
N 2 − x + 0x + 0 x
2 3
5 + 0x + 0x 2 + 0x 3 6 + 7 x + 0x 2 + 0x 3 Q
LM1 OP LM −6O
0 PP
0 4 2 0
MM1 3 1 + 0 0 PP MM
7 PQ
= x
N2 5 6 −1 0 Q N
LM0 0O LM0 OP
0P x
1 0 0
+ MM0 2
P 2
MM
+ 1 0 −1 x3
PP
N0 0 0PQ N0 0 0 Q
= A0 + A1x + A2x2 + A3x3.
Thus every matrix with ordinary polynomial as its elements is always written as matric polynomial.
THEOREM 9.2.2. (Cayley Hamilton Theorem) Every square matrix A satisfies its characteristic
equation
φ(x) = |A – xI| = O.
Proof. The characteristic matrix of A is A – xI. Then Adj (A – xI) is a matrix whose elements
are ordinary polynomials. The cofactors of |A – xI| are of polynomials of degree at most n – 1. So
the highest power of x in polynomials of adj (A – xI) is n – 1. Therefore according to the lemma 9.2.1
Adj (A – xI) can be written in the form
B0 + B1 x + B2 x2 + ... + Bn – 1 x n – 1
matric polynomial of degree n – 1, where B0, B1, ... Bn – 1 are all square matrices of order n.
Now we have the relation
(A – xI) adj (A – xI) = |A – xI| I.
(A – xI)(B0 + B1x + B2x2 + .. + Bn – 1xn – 1) = (a0 + a1x + . + anxn)I
= a0I + a1Ix + .. + anIxn,
where φ(x) = |A – xI| = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + .. + anxn is a characteristic polynomial of A.
Comparing the coefficients of like powers of x, we get
AB0 = a0I
AB1 – B0 = a1I
AB2 – B1 = a2I
®
–Bn – 1 = anI.
Premultiplying these successively by
I, A, A2, .., An respectively, and adding altogether
We obtain
0 = a0I + a1A + a2A2 + .. + an – 1An – 1+anAn
or φ(A) = 0. Hence the theorem is proved.
Example 9.2.3. Show that the following matrices satisfy their characteristic equations.
LM1 2 0 OP LM 0 c −bOP
A= M
MN b −a 0 PPQ
−c 0
(a) A = MM2 −1 0 PP (b)
a
N0 0 −1 Q
LM2 2 1 OP LM1 0 2OP
(c) A = MM1 3 1 PP (d) A= M
0 2 1P
MN2 0 3PQ
N1 2 2 Q
Solution. (a) We have
LM1 2 0 OP
A = MM2 PP
−1 0 ,
N0 0 −1 Q
1− x 2 0
2 −1 − x 0
A – xI| =
0 0 −1 − x
= (1 – x)(1 + x)2 –2 (–2(1 + x))
= (1 – x2) (1 + x) + 4(1 + x)
= –x3 + x + 1 –x2 + 4 + 4x
= –x3 –x2 + 5x + 5.
Then the characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = – x3 – x2 + 5x + 5 = 0.
Hence, φ(A) = –A3 –A2 + 5A + 5I
LM1 2 0 OP LM1 3
2 OP
0
2
MM
= – 2 −1 0 – 2
PP MM −1 0 P
N 0 0 −1 Q N0 0 −1PQ
LM1 2 0 OP LM1 0 0O
+ 5 M2 −1 0 P + 5 M0 1 0P
MN0 0 −1PQ MN0 P
0 1PQ
LM 5 5 0 OP LM5 0 0O LM1 OP LM OP
P
2 0 5 0 0
= – M10 −5 0 P − M0 5 0P + 5 M 2 PP
−1 0 + 0 5 0MM PP
NM 0 0 −1PQ MN0 0 1QP MN0 0 −1 Q
0 0 5 N Q
LM0 0 0OP
= M0 0 0P = O
MN0 0 0PQ
LM 0 c −bOP
(b) A = M−c 0 aP
NM b −a 0 QP
LM− x c −b OP
|A – xI| = MM−c −x a
PP
Nb −a −x Q
= –x(x2 + a2) –c(cx –ab) – b(ac + bx)
= –x3 – a2x –c2x + abc – abc – b2x
= – x3 – x(a2 + b2 + c2).
So the characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = – x3 – x(a2 + b2 + c2) = 0.
LM 0 c −b OP 3
LM 0 c −b OP
φ(A) = – M −c PP +c) M PP
0 a −c 0 a
MN b – (a2 + b2
MN b
Hence, 2
−a 0 Q −a 0 Q
LM 0 − c − b c − a c bc + b + a b O
P
3 2 2 2 3 2
= – M c +a c+b c3 2
0 2
− ab − c a − a P 2 2 3
MN−bc − b − a b +ac + ba + a
2 3 2
0 PQ 2 3
LM 0 −a c − b c − c a b+b +c b O
P
2 2 3 2 3 2
+ M a c+b c+c −a − b a − c a P
2 2 3 3 2 2
0
MN−a b − b − c b a + b a + c a
2
0 3PQ 2 3 2 2
LM0 0 0OP
= M0 0 0P = O.
MN0 0 0PQ
LM2 2 1OP
A = M
1 3 1P
(c) We have
MN1 2 2PQ
and the characteristic polynomial of A is
2−x 2 1
φ(x) = |A – xI| = 1 3− x 1
1 2 2− x
= (2 – x) [(3 – x) (2 – x) – 2] – 2(2 – x – 1) + 1(2 – 3 + x)
= (2 – x) [x2 – 5x + 6 – 2] – 2 + 2x – 1 + x
= [2x2 – 10x + 8 – x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 2 + 2x – 1 + x]
= – x3 + 7x2 – 11x + 5.
So the characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = –x3 + 7x2 – 11x + 5 = 0.
We compute A , A3 as follows:
2
LM2 2 1 2 2 1OP LM
7 12 6 OP LM OP
A2 = MM1 PP MM
3 1 1 3 1 = 6 13 6 PP MM PP
N1 2 2 1 2 2 QN
6 12 7 Q N Q
LM7 6O L2 OP LM OP
6PP MM1
12 2 1 32 62 31
A3 = A2. A = MM6 13 PP
3 1 = 31 63 31 MM PP
N6 12 7PQ MN1 2 2 Q
31 62 32 N Q
Hence, φ(A) = – A3 + 7A2 – 11A + 5I
LM32 62 31 OP
7 12 6 LM
2 2 1 1 0 0 OP LM OP LM OP
φ(A) = – M PP MM PP MM PP MM PP
31 63 31 + 7 6 13 6 1 3 1 +5 0 1 0
MN31 62 32 6 12 7Q
– 11
N
1 2 2 0 0 1 Q N Q N Q
LM0 0 OP
0
= M PP
0 0 0
MN0 0 0
=O
Q
LM1 0 2 OP
(d) We have A = MM0 2 1 ,
P
N2 0 3PQ
and the characteristic polynomial of A is
1− x 0 2
φ(x) = |A – xI| = 0 2−x 1
2 0 3− x
= (1 – x) (2 – x) (3 – x) + 2 (– 4 + 2x)
= (1 – x) (x2 – 5x + 6) – 8 + 4x
= x2 – 5x + 6 – x3 + 5x2 – 6x – 8 + 4x
= – x3 + 6x – 7x2 – 2.
The characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = – x3 + 6x2 – 7x – 2 = 0.
We compute, A2, A3.
LM1 OP LM OP L OP
PP MM
0 2 1 0 2 5 0 8
A2 = MM0 2 1 0PP MM 2 1 = 2 4 5 ,
PP
N2 0 3 2 QN 0 3 Q MN
8 0 13 Q
LM5 8 O L1
P1P = LMM12
2O OP
5 P M0
0 0 21 0 34
A3 = A2. A = MM2 4
PM 2 8 23
P
N8 0 13PQ MN2 0 3PQ MN34 0 55PQ
Hence, φ(A) = – A3 + 6A2 – 7A – 2I

LM21 0 34OP LM5 0 8 OP
= – M
MN34 0 55PPQ MMN8 P
12 8 23 + 6 2 4 5
0 13PQ
LM1 0 2OP LM1 0O L0 OP

0PP = M0
0 0 0
– 7 M 0 2 1 P − 2 M0 1
MM 0 0 =0PP
MN2 0 3PQ MN0 0 1PQ N0 0 0 Q
9.3 APPLICATION OF THE CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM IN FINDING OUT THE
INVERSE OF A NON-SINGULAR MATRIX
Let A be a non-singular matrix of order n. Since by Cayley-Hamilton Theorem every matrix satisfies
its characteristic equation,
φ(A) = 0, where φ(x) = |A – xI| = 0
is the characteristic equation of A. Since A is non-singular of order n, f (x) will be of degree
n of the form
φ(x) = a0 + a1x + ... + anxn.
Thus we have, φ(A) = a0I + a1A + a2A2 + ... + anAn = 0

a1 a a
or I = − A − 2 A2 − ... − n An
a0 a0 a0
Since | A | ≠ 0, A–1 exists and by multplying by A–1
a1 a a
We have A–1 = − I − 2 A − ... − n An−1
a0 a0 a0
THEOREM 9.3.1. The inverse of a square matrix A exists if and only if the characteristic
equation of A has non-zero constant.
Proof. Let the characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = |A –xI| = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + .. + anxn.
Here we shall show that if a0 ≠ 0, then A–1 exists and it a0 = 0, A–1 does not exist.
We know that the constant term of the characteristic equations of A is equal to determinant
|A|, i.e.,
a0 = | A |
So if a0 ≠ 0, | A | ≠ 0, A–1 exists and
if a0 = 0, | A | = 0, A–1 does not exist.
Example 9.3.1. Using the characteristic equation of
LM1 0 1OP LM1 0 2 OP
(a) B = MM0 1 0PP , find B . –1 (b) A = M0 PP
2 1 , find A–1.
N 0 0 1Q MN2 0 3 Q
LM 2 −1 1 OP LM1 2 0 OP
(c) A = MM−1 2 −1PP , find A –1. (d) A = M2
MN0 PP
−1 0 , find A–2.
N 1 −1 2 Q 0 −1 Q
Solution. (a) We have
LM1 0 1 OP
B = MM0 1 0 , PP
N0 0 1 Q
and the characteristic equation of B is
LM1 − x 0 1 OP
φ(x) = |B – xI| = MM 0 1− x 0 PP = 0
N0 0 1− x Q
= (1 – x3) = 0
= 1 – x3 – 3x + 3x2 = 0
Now we compute
LM1 0 OP LM
1 1 0 OP
1 1 LM 0 2OP
B2 = MM0 1 PP MM
0 0 1 PP
0 = 0 MM 1 0 PP
N0 0 1 0QN 0 1 0Q N 0 1 Q
LM1 0 OP LM
2 1 0 OP
1 1 LM 0 3 OP
B3 = B2.B = MM0 1 0 0
PM 1
PP
0= 0
MM 1 0
P
N0 0 1PQ MN0 0 Q
1 0 N 0 1PQ
Hence, φ(B) = I – 3B + 3B2 – B3
LM1 0 0 OP
1 0 1 LM
1 0 2 1 0 3 OP LM OP LM OP
= MM0 PP MM
1 0 − 3 0 1 0 +3 0 1 0 − 0 1 0 PP MM PP MM PP
N0 0 1 Q
0 0 1 0 0 1
N 0 0 1
Q N Q N Q
LM0 0O
0PP
0
= MM0 0 = 0.
N0 0 0PQ
From this we obtain
I = B3 – 3B2 + 3B. ... (1)
1 0 1
Since |B| = 0 1 0 = 1 ≠ 0, B–1 exists.
0 0 1
By multiplying (1) by B–1, we get
B–1 = B2 – 3B + 3I.
LM1 0 2OP LM1 0 1OP LM
1 0 0 OP
or B–1 = MM0 1 0PP − 3 MM0 1 PP MM
0 +3 0 1 0 PP
N 0 0 1Q N 0 0 1 Q N
0 0 1 Q
LM1 − 3 + 3 0 − 0 + 0 2 − 3+ 0 OP
= MM0 − 0 + 0 1 − 3 + 3 0−0+0 PP
N0 − 0 + 0 0 − 0 + 0 1− 3+ 3 Q
LM1 0 −1OP
= MM0 1 0 PP
N0 0 1 Q
LM1 0 2OP
(b) We have A = MM0 2 1PP ,
N2 0 3Q
and from the example 9.2.3 (d), the characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = |A – xI| = –x3 + 6x2 – 7x – 2 = 0.
By Cayley-Hamilton Theorem we have
φ(A) = – A3 + 6A2 – 7A – 2I = 0.
LM1 0 2 OP
Since |A| = MM0 PP
2 1 = 1.6 – 4 = – 2 ≠ 0, A–1 exists.
N2 0 3 Q
1 2 6 7
Then A–1 = − A + A− I
2 2 2
LM5 0 8 OP LM1 0 OP
2 1 0 0 LM OP
= – M P MM PP MM PP
1 2 4 5 +3 0 2 7
1 − 0 1 0
2 M8 0 13P
N Q N2 0 3 Q2
0 0 1 N Q
LM− 5 + 3 − 7 0 + 0 + 0 OP
−4 + 6 + 0
MM 2 2 P
7 − 5 +3−0 P
MM
= −1 + 0 + 0 −2 + 6 −
2 2 PP
NM −4 + 6 + 0 0 + 0 − 0 − +9− P
2Q
13 7
2
LM − 3 0 2 OP
= MM −1 1 1
PP
.
MN 2 PQ
2 2
0 −1
LM 2 −1 1 OP
(c) We have A = MM−1 2 −1 , PP
N1 −1 2 Q
and the characteristic equation of A is
LM2 − x −1 1 OP
φ(x) = |A – xI| = MM 1 2 − x −1 = 0 PP
N1 −12 − x Q
= – x3 + 6x2 – 9x + 4 = 0
It can be easily verified that
φ(A) = – A3 + 6A2 – 9A + 4I = 0, where
LM 6 −5 5 OP
22 −21 21 LM OP
A2 = MM−5 PP
6 −5 , A = −21 22 −21
3
MM PP
N5 −5 6 Q
21 −21 22 N Q
1 2 3 9
Hence, A–1 = A − A+ I
4 2 4
LM
6 −5 5 2 −1 1 OP LM OP
MM PP MM PP
1 3
= −5 6 −5 − −1 2 −1
4
N
5 −5 6
2
1 −1 2 Q N Q
1 0 0LM 3 1 −1 OP LM OP
MM PP MM PP
9 1
+ 0 1 0 = 1 3 1 .
4
0 0 1 N4
−1 1 3 Q N Q
(d) From example 9.2.3(a) we have the characteristic equation of the matrix
LM1 2 0 OP
A = MM2 −1 0 . PP
N0 0 −1 Q
φ(x) = |A – xI| = – x3 – x2 + 5x + 5 = 0
By Cayley-Hamilton Theorem we have
φ(A) = – A3 – A2 + 5A + 5I = 0.
From this we obtain
1 2 1
A–1 = A + A− I ...(1)
5 5
5 LM
0 0 1 OP LM 2 OP
0 1 LM 0 0 OP
MM PP MM PP MM P
1 1
0 5 0 + 2 −1 0 − 0 1 0
N 1PQ
= 5
0 0 N1
5
0 Q N 0 −1 Q 0 0
LM 1 2 0O
PP
MM 25 6
0P.
1
MM 5 −
PP
=
5
N0 0 −1Q
Multiplying (1) by A−1 again, we have
1 1
A–2 = A + I − A −1
5 5
LM 1 2 0OP LM 1 0 0OP LM 15 25 OP0
1M
M 2 −1
P 1M P M
0P + M0 1 0P − M 2 − 1 0P
P
PP MM 5 5 PP
=
5
MM PP 5 MM
N0 0 −1Q N0 0 1Q N 0 0 −1Q
LM 1 + 1 − 1 2 + 0 − 2 0 + 0 − 0OP
MM 25 5 25 15 1 51 P
0 + 0 − 0P
=
MM 5 5 5 5 5 + 0− − + +
PP
MN 0 + 0 − 0 0 + 0 − 0 − 5 + 5 + 5PQ
1 1 1
LM 1 0 0OP 1 0 0
MM 5 1 PP 1 LM0 1 0OP
=
MM 0 5 0PP = 5 MMN0 0 1PPQ
MN 0 0 15PQ
PROBLEM 9.1
1. Show that the following matrices satisfy their characteristic equations.
LM 2 −1 1OP LM 8 −6 2OP
(a) A = M−1 2 −1P (b) A = M−6 7 −4P
MN 1 −1 2PQ MN 2 −4 3PQ
LM1 2 3OP LM 6 −2 2OP
(c) A = M0 2 3P (d) A = M−12 3 −1P
MN0 0 2PQ MN 2 −1 3PQ
LM 1 −6 2OP LMa h g OP
(e) A = M−6 7 −4P (f ) A = M 0 b 0 P
MN 2 −4 3PQ MN0 0 c PQ
LM 2 2 0OP
(g) A = M 2 1 1P .
NM−7 2 −3PQ
2. Using the characteristic equation show that inverses of the matrix
LM 0 c −b OP 0 LM c −bOP
(a) A = M−c 0 PP
a is A = −c
–1
MM 0 PP
a (a2 + b2 + c2)
NM b −a 0 Q b N a 0 Q
LM 5 − 1 − 1 OP
LM 2 2 0OP MM 121 21 16 PP
(b) A = M 2 1
MN−7 2 −3PPQ MM 12 2 6 PP
1 is A = − –1
MN− 1211 23 16 PQ
LM0 1 2OP LM 1 − 1 1 OP
(c) A = M1 2 3P is A = M −4
M 2 23 −21PP
–1
MN3 1 1PQ MM 5 − 3 1 PP
N 2 2 2Q
LM1 −1 0 2OP LM 2 −1 1 −1OP
(d) A = M
1 1 −1P
is A = M PP
0 −5 −3 1 1
MM2 1 2 1PP –1
MM 2 3 −1 0
PQ
N3 −2 1 6Q N−3 −1 0 1
LM1 0 −2OP LM 1 0 1OP

(e) A = M2 2 4 P is A = M −1 2 −2 P
1
MM
–1
P
NM0 0 2 QP N 0 0 1P
2Q
LM 3 − 1 2 OP
LM 1 −2 −2OP MM 355 35 35
PP
(f ) A = M−3 PP −3 − 1
NM13
−1
2
1 is A–1
4 Q
= −
MM 14 7 14 PP
MN− 101 2
5
1
10
PQ
3. Prove that a square matrix A has non-zero determinant (i.e. non-singular) if, and only if, the characteristic
equation of A has all non-zero roots.
4. Show that if a 4 × 4 matrix has determinant zero, then one of the root of characteristic equation is
zero.
9.4 CHARACTERISTIC ROOTS AND VECTORS OF A SQUARE MATRIX

For a given square matrix A of order n, we can find out a scalar λ and a non-zero vector X such that
AX = λX. ...(1)
This is known as characteristic value problem.
The equation (1) assumes the form
AX – λX = 0
or (A – λI)X = 0,
which represents the matrix equation of a system of homogeneous linear equations in n unknowns.
This equation will have non-trivial solutions if and only if the coefficient matrix A – λI is singular
that is,
|A – λI| = 0.
This implies that (A – λI)X = 0 has non-trivial solution for a scalar λ if this λ satisfies the
characteristic equation |A – xI| = 0 of the matrix A. Therefore corresponding to the roots λ of the
characteristic equation |A – xI| = 0 of the matrix A there exists non-zero vectors X for which
(A – λI)X = 0.
Definition 9.4.1. The roots of the characteristic equation |A – xI| = 0 of a square matrix A are called
characteristic roots or latent roots or eigen values or proper roots of a square matrix A.
If the matrix is of order n, then the degree of the characteristic equation |A – xI| = 0 is n and
consequently there exist n roots, not necessarily distinct, of the matrix A.
Definition 9.4.2. Corresponding to a characteristic root λ of a square matrix A if there exists a non-
zero vector X such that
(A – λI)X = 0,
then X is called the characteristic vector or eigen vector or latent rector or proper vector corresponding
to the characteristic root λ.
Thus from this definition it is clear that corresponding to a non-vector X there exists a scalar
λ such that
AX = λX.
Then λ is the characteristic root of A and vice-versa.
REMARK. (1) Corresponding to a characteristic vector of a matrix there exists one and only
one characteristic root:
Let λ1 and λ2 be two characteristic roots corresponding to a given characteristic vector X of A.

Then
AX = λ1X, AX = λ2 X; λ2 ≠ λ1.
So AX = λ1X = λ2X ⇒ (λ1 – λ2)X = 0
⇒ X = 0 since λ1 – λ2 ≠ 0.
This is contradiction that X is a non-zero vector. Hence corresponding to a characteristic vector
X there is only one characteristic root λ of A.
REMARK. (2) Corresponding to a characteristic root λ of A there are different characteristic
vectors.
It is clear that
AX = λX can be written
A(kX) = λ(kX)
So that kX is also a characteristic vector of A corresponding to the same characteristic root λ.
THEOREM 9.4.1. The scalar λ is a characteristic root of the matrix A if and only if the matrix
A – λI is singular, that is, |A – λI| = 0.
Proof. Let λ be the characteristic root of A, then by definition it satisfies the characteristic
equation |A – xI| = 0.
Hence |A – λI| = 0 and A – λI is singular.
Conversely, If |A – λI| = 0, then for some
non-zero vector X.
(A – λI)X = 0
or AX = λX ⇒ λ is a characteristic root.
THEOREM 9.4.2. A square matrix A is non-singular if and only if the characteristic equation
of A has all non-zero roots.
Proof. Let |A| ≠ 0. Then the characteristic equation of A
|A – xI| = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn,
We have that a0 = |A| ≠ 0
and a0 = The product of the roots of |A – xI| = 0.
Since a0 ≠ 0, the characteristic equation
|A – xI| = 0 has non-zero roots.
Conversely, if λ1, λ2, ..., λn are the non-zero roots of
|A – xI| = 0, then
λ1λ2 ... λ = (–1)na0
⇒ a0 ≠ 0
⇒ |A| ≠ 0
Since a0= |A|
Corollary: If |A| = 0, then the characteristic equation |A – xI has at least one root zero.
THEOREM 9.4.3. Let λ1, λ2, ... λn be distinct characteristic roots of a matrix A, and let X1,
X2, ... Xn be non-zero characteristic vectors associated with these roots respectively. Then X1, X2,
...Xn are linearly independent.
Proof. Suppose that there exists constants C1, C2, ..., Cn

Such that
C1X1 + C2X1 + ... + CnXn = 0 ...(1)
Multiplying by A on the left we get
C1AX1 + C2 AX2 + ... + Cn AXn = A . 0
⇒ C1λ1X1 + C2λ2X2 + ... + CnλnXn = 0
Since AXi = λiXi ...(2)
Again Multiplying by A on the left we have
C1λ1 AX1 + C2λ2 AX2+ ... + CnλnAXn = 0
using A Xj = λj Xj we have
C1λ12 X1 + C2λ22 X2 + ... + Cnλn2Xn = 0 ...(3)
Repeating this process we have equations
C1λ1k – 1 X1 + C2λ2k–1 X2 + ... + Cnλnk–1Xn = 0 ...(4)
for k = 1, 2, 3, ... n.
(1) through (4)
These n equations in n unknowns can be written as
LM1 λ1 λ21 ... λ 1n −1 OP

[C X , C X , ..., C X ] M
M1 λ2 λ22 ... λ 2 n −1 PP = 0
1 1 2 2 n n
MMM PP
N1 λn λ2n ... λ n n −1 Q
Since λ's are all non equal, the right factor is non-singular.
If we multiply by its inverse on the right, then
this implies [C1X1, C2X2, ..., CnXn] = 0
⇒ C 1 = C2 = ... = Cn = 0 since no X is zero.
Contrary to the supposition.
Hence X1, X2, ... Xn are linearly independent.
Example 9.4.1. Find out the characteristic roots and the corresponding characteristic vectors of
the following matrices:
LM1 2 3OP LM 6 −2 OP
2 LM2 1 −1OP
MM
(a) 0 2 3 ,
PP (b) MM−2 3 −1P (c)
MM0 PP
3 −2 ,
N 0 0 3 Q N2 −1 3PQ N2 4 −3 Q
LM 8 −6 2OP LM 2 2 0O
(d) M−6 1 1 PP
MN 2 −4 3PPQ MM 2
7 −4 (e)
N−7 2 −3QP
Solution. (a) The characteristic equation of the matrix A is

LM1 − x 2 3 OP
|A – xI| = MM 0 2− x 3 PP
= (1 – x) (2 – x) (2 – x) = 0
N0 0 2− x Q
Therefore the characteristic roots of A are 1, 2, 2.
LM x OP
1
Let X = M x P be the associated characteristic vector corresponding to the root λ. Then

MN x PQ
2
(A – λI)X = 0, λ = 1, 2, 3.
When λ = 1, the matrix equation, equation of homogenes linear equation is
LM0 2 3 OP LM x OP
1 LM0OP
MM0 1 3 PP MMx PP
2 = MM0PP
N0 0 1 Q Nx Q
3 N 0Q
⇒ 2x2 + 3x3 = 0, x2 + 3x3 = 0, x3 = 0
⇒ x2 = 0, x3 = 0, x = k, k, is any real number
LM x OP1 LMk OP
Hence the vector, X = M P = M P , k is any real number.
x 0
MN x PQ MN0PQ
2
When λ = 2, then the system of corresponding homogeneous equation is

LM−1 OP LM x OP
2 3 1 LM0OP
MM 0 0 3PP MM x PP
2 = MM0PP
N0 0 0 Q Nx Q 3 N 0Q
⇒ – x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0, 3x3 = 0
⇒ – x1 + 2x2 = 0, x3 = 0
⇒ x1 = 2x2, x3 = 0.
Let x2 = t, x1 = 2t,
LM x OP LM2t OP LM2OP
1
Hence the vector X = MM x PP = MM 0t PP = t MM10PP

2
Nx Q N Q N Q
3
(b) The characteristic equation of the matrix

LM 6 −2 2 OP
A = MM−2 3 −1PP
N 2 −1 3 Q
LM6 − x −2 2 OP
is |A – xI| = MM −2 3 − x −1 PP = – x 3 + 12x2 – 36x + 32 = 0
N 2 −1 3 − xQ
The characteristic roots are 2, 2, 8.

When λ = 2, the corresponding system of homogeneous equation is
LM 4 −2 2 OP LM x OP 1 LM0OP
MM−2 1 −1 PP MM x PP2 = MM0PP
N2 −1 1 Q Nx Q 3 N 0Q
⇒ 4x1 – 2x2 + 2x3 = 0, –2x1 + x2 – x3 = 0, 2x1 – x2 + x3 = 0
⇒ All equation equivalent to 2x1 – x2 + x3 = 0.
The coefficient matrix will have rank 1. So the number of independent solution are n – r =
3 – 1 = 2.
By trial, these solutions can be written as
LM 1 OP LM1 + k OP
MM 0 PP , MM 2 PP .
N−2Q N −2k Q
When λ = 8. We have
LM−2 −2 2 OP LM x OP 1 LM0OP
MM−2 −5 −1
PP MMx PP 2 = MM0PP
N2 −1 −5 Q Nx Q 3 N 0Q
The coefficient matrix can be reduced by elementary row operations as follows:
LM OP
−2 −2 2 ←−−→ 1 1 −1 ←------→ 1 1 −1 LM OP LM OP
MM
−2 −5 −1 PP
−2 −5 −1 R2 + 2 R1 0 −3 −3 MM PP MM PP
N
2 −1 −5 − 2 R1
1
Q
2 −1 −5 R2 − 2 R2 0 −3 −3 N Q N Q
LM1 1 −1 OP LM
← −− → 1 1 −1OP
← −− → M0 −3 −3 PP MM
0 1 1 PP
R − R MN0
3 1 0 0 Q
1
N
− R2 0 0 0
3
Q
Thus the equivalent homogeneous system is
LM1 1 OP LM
−1 x1 OP LM0OP
MM0 1 PP MM
1 x2 PP = MM0PP
N0 0 0 x3QN Q N 0Q
⇒ x1 + x2 – x3 = 0, x2 + x3 + 0
⇒ x2 = − x3, x1 = x3 – x2 = 2x3
Let x3 = t, then x2 = – t, x1 = 2t.
LM2t OP LM 2 OP LM 2 OP
Hence the vector X = MM−t PP = t M −1P , for t = 1, X = M −1P
Nt Q NM 1 PQ MN 1 PQ
(c) The characteristic equation of the matrix

LM2 1 −1 OP
A = MM0 3 −2 is PP
N2 4 −3 Q
LM2 − x 1 −1 OP
0 = |A – xI| = MM 0 3− x −2
PP
N2 4 −3 − x Q
= (2 – x) [–(3 – x) (3 + x) + 8] + 2[–2 + (3 – x)]
= (2 – x) [(–9 + x2 + 8) + 2 – 2x]
= – x3 + 2x2 – x.
∴ The characteristic roots of the characteristic equation – x3 + 2x2 – x are 0, 1, 1.
The homogeneous system corresponding to the root 0 is
LM2 1 −1 OP LM x OP
1 LM0OP
MM0 3 −2 PP MMx PP
2 = MM0PP
N2 4 −3 Q Nx Q
3 N 0Q
By elementary row transformation this can be reduced to the form
1 LM0OP
MM0 3 −2 PP MM x PP = MM0PP ⇒ 2x1 + x2 – x3 = 0, 3x2 – 2x3 = 0.
N 0Q
2
N0 0 0 Q Nx Q3
2 1
By choosing x3 = t, x2 = t, x1 = t.
3 6
LM 1 t OP
Hence the characteristic vector X = MM 26 t PP .
MM 3t PP
N Q
Now the homogeneous system corresponding to the characteristic root 1 is
1 LM0OP
2 = MM0PP
N2 4 −4 Q Nx Q
3 N 0Q
which can be reduced by elementary row operations to the form.
1 LM0OP
2 = MM0PP
N0 0 0 Q Nx Q3 N 0Q
⇒ x1 + x2 – x3 = 0
x2 – x3 = 0.
By choosing x3 = t, x2 = t, x1 = 0.
Thus the characteristic vector
LM0OP LM0OP
X = MM t PP = t M 1P .
MN1PQ
Nt Q
(d) The characteristic equation of the matrix
LM 8 −6 2 OP
A = MM−6 7 −4PP is
N 2 −4 3 Q
LM8 − x −6 2 OP
0 = |A – xI| = MM −6 7 − x −4 PP
N 2 −4 3 − xQ
= (8 – x) [(7 – x)(3 – x) – 16] + 6(–6(3 – x) + 8) + 2(24 – 2)(7 – x)
= – x3 + 18x2 – 45x.
Therefore 0, 3, 15 are the characteristic roots of A.
LM x OP
1
Let X = MM x PP
2 be the characteristic vector corresponding to the root 0, then corresponding
Nx Q
3
system of homogeneous equation is

LM 8 −6 2 OP LM x OP 1 LM0OP
MM−6 7 −4 PP MM x PP2 = MM0PP
N2 −4 3 Q Nx Q 3 N 0Q
To solve this we reduce the coefficient matrix to the canonical form as follows:
LM 8 −6 2 OP LM
← −− → 0 10 −10 OP ← −− → LM0 OP
1 −1
MM−6 7 −4PP MM
R1 − 4 R3 0 −5 5 PP 1 1
R1 , R2 MM0 −1 1PP
N 2 −4 3 Q N
R2 + 3R3 2 −4 3 Q 10 5 N2 −4 3 Q
← −− → M
L0 0 0OP L2
← −− → M
−4 3 OP
R +R M
0 −1 1P MM00 −1 1 PP
1
MN2 −4 3PQ
2 R 13
N 0 0 Q
Thus the equivalent system is
LM2 −4 OP LM
3 x1 OP LM0OP
MM0 −1 PP MM
1 x2 PP = MM0PP
N0 0 0 x3QN Q N 0Q
⇒ 2x1 – 4x2 + 3x3 = 0, – x2 + x3 = 0

1
⇒ x 3 = x2, x1 = x3.
2
By choosing x3 = t, we have
LM 1 t OP LM 1 OP LM 1 OP LM OP
1
MM 2t PP = t M 1 P , for t = 1, X = M 1 P = MM PP
1
2 2 2
X =
MM 1 PP MM 1 PP 2
NQ
NM t QP NQ NQ
2
The system of homogeneous equations corresponding to the characteristic root 3 is

LM8 − 3 −6 2 OP LM x OP 1 LM0OP
MM −6 7 − 3 −4 PP MMx PP 2 = MM0PP
N2 −4 3 − 3 Q Nx Q 3 N 0Q
LM 5 −6 2 O Lx O LM0OP
−4PP MM x PP
1
or MM−6 4 = MM0PP
0 PQ MN x PQ
2
N2 −3 3 N 0Q
We reduce the coefficient matrix by elementary row operations as follows:
LM 5 OP
−6 2 ← −− → 1 2 2 LM OP ← −− →
LM1 2 2
← −− →
OP
1 2 2 LM OP
MM−6 PP
4 −4 R1 − 2 R3 0 −8 −4 MM PP R3 − 2 R1MM
0 −8 −4
R3 − R2 PP
0 −8 −4 MM PP
N2 Q
−4 0 R2 + 3R3 2 −4 0 N Q N
0 −8 −4 Q
0 0 0 N Q
← −− → L1 OP
M0
2 2
− R M PP
1 2 1
4 MN0
2
0 0 Q
The equivalent system is
LM1 2 2 x1 OPLM OP LM0OP
MM0 2 1 x2 PPMM PP = MM0PP
N0 0 0 x3 QN Q N 0Q
⇒ x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 0
2x2 + x3 = 0
1
⇒ x1 = –x3, x2 = – x3
2
1
By choosing x3 = t, we have x1 = – t, x2 = – t ,
2
LM −t OP
MM− 1 t PP 2 LM OP
MM PP
1
Hence X = = − t 1
MM 2 PP 2
−2 N Q
Nt Q
Similarly, for X = 15 by solving the system of homogeneous equations

LM−7 −6 2 LM0OP OP LM x OP
1
MM−6 −8 −4 = M 0P PP MM x PP
MN0PQ
2
N2 −4 −12 Q Nx Q3
LM2OP
we can obtain the characteristic vector X = M2P
MN1PQ
corresponding to the characterustuc root 15.
(e) The characteristic equation of the matrix
LM 2 2 0 OP
A = MM 2 1 1 PP is
N−7 2 −3Q
LM2 − x 2 0 OP
0 = |A – xI| = MM 2 1 − x 1 PP = – x3 + 13x –12
N −7 2 −3 − xQ
So the characteristic roots of A are 1, 3, – 4.
Now the system of homogeneous equations corresponding to the root – 4 is
LM 6 2 0 OP LM x OP
1 LM0OP
MM 2 5 1 PP MM x PP
2 = MM0PP
N−7 2 1 Q Nx Q3 N 0Q
To solve this we reduce the coefficient matrix to the canonical form as follows:
LM 6 2 0OP ← −− → LM 1 1 OP
0 ← −− → 1 LM 1
0OP LM1 1
0 OP
MM 2 P MM 3
P MM 3
PP ← −− → MM 3
3 PP
1P 1P R 13
PP 16 R MM PP MM0 PP 133 R MM0 13 P
5 2 5 − 2 R1 1 1
MM
2
3
N−7 1Q N−7
1
1Q R MN0 1P
2
MN0 1P
P
Q Q
2 2 + 7 R1 13 13
3
3 3
← −− → 1LM 0 −
1 OP
M
R − 1 R M0
13
3
PP
1
3 2
M 1
13 PP
13 M0
R − R N
3 2 0 0 Q
3
The equivalent homogeneous system is
LM1 1 OP L x O
MM
0 −
13
PP MM PP
1
LM0OP
MM0 1 3
PP MM x PP
= MM0PP
N 0Q
2
13
N0 0 0 Q MN x PQ
3
1 3
⇒ x1 –
x3 = 0, x2 + x3 = 0
13 13
LM OP
LM OP
1t
13 1
MM PP
MM PP
1
X = − 3t = t −3
13 13
13 MM PP N Q
When λ = 3, we have
t N Q
LM −1 2 0 OP LM x OP 1 LM0OP
MM 2 −2 1 PP MM x PP 2 = MM0PP .
N−7 2 −6 Q Nx Q 3 N 0Q
We reduce the coefficient matrix as follows:
LM−1 2 0 OP
←−− →
1 LM −2 0 OP LM
← −− → 1 −2 0 ← −− → 1 0 1 OP LM OP
MM 2 −2 1 PP
−1R1
2 MM −2 1 PP R2 − 2 R1 0 2 MM 1 R1 + R2 0 2 1PP . MM PP
N−7 2 −6 Q −7 N 2 −6 Q N Q
R3 + 7 R1 0 −12 −6 R3 + 6 R2 0 0 0 N Q
The equivalent homogeneous system is
1 0 1 x1LM OP LM OP LM OP
0
MM
0 2 1 x2 = PP MM PP MM PP
0
0 0 0 x3 N QN Q NQ
0
2x2 + x3 = 0
x1 + x3 = 0
1
⇒ x 1 = –x3, x2 = – x3 .
2
LM t OP LM 2 OP
X = MM − 1 t PP = − 1 t MM 1 PP
MM 2 PP 2 MM PP
Nt Q N−2Q
Corresponding to the root 1, we have
LM 1 2 0 OP LM x OP L0O
MM 2 0 1 PP MM x PP = MM0PP .
1
N−7 2 −4Q N x Q MN0PQ

2
By elementary row transformation the homogeneous system can be reduced to the form
LM 1 OP L OP
1 0
MM 2
x1
PP MM LM OP
PP
0
MM
0 1 − 1
x2 = 0
PP MM MM PP
4
PP NQ
Q MN
0
0 0 N 0 x3 Q
1
⇒ x1 + x = 0,
2 3
1
x2 – x3 = 0.
4
By choosing x3 = t,
LM− 1 t OP
MM 12t PP = LM−2OP
MM 1 PP
1
t
MM 4 PP
X =
N4Q
4
Nt Q
Example 9.4.2. Show that the characteristic roots of a diagonal matrix D are the same as its
diagonal elements.
LM
d11 0 0 ...0 OP
Solution. Let D be the diagonal matrix M PP
0 d 22 0 ...0
MM M PQ
N0 0 0 ... d nn
Then the characteristic equation of D is
LMd 11 −x 0 0 M 0 OP
0 = |D – xI| = MM 0 d 22 − x 0 M 0P
PP = (d – x) (d22 – x)..(dnn– x).
MM
11
:
N 0 ..0, 0 .. d nn − x PQ
So the characteristic roots of D are d11, d22, .., dnn.
Example 9.4.3. Show that the characteristic roots of a square matrix A and A′ are identical.
Proof. We have
(A – xI)′ = A′ – (xI)′
= A′ – xI′
= A′ – xI
and |A – xI| = |(A – xI)′|
= | A′ – xI|
This mean that the characteristic polynomials of A and A′ are identical and then A and A′ have
the some characteristic roots.
Example 9.4.4. Show that if λ1, λ2, ..., λn are given eigen values of matrix A, then
(1) The inverse of A (if it exists), i.e., A–1 has the eigen values λ1–1, λ2–1, ..., λn–1.
(2) The matrix A + kI has eigen values k + λ1, k + λ2, ..., k + λn, where k is any scalar
(3) The matrix kA has eigen values kλ1 kλ2, ..., kλn where k2 is any Scalar.
(4) The matrix A2 has eigen values λ12, λ22, ..., λn2.
Proof. (1) Let λ be an eigen value of a matrix A and let X be a corresponding eigen vector.
Then
AX = λX ...(1)
If A–1 exists, then by pre-multiplying (1) by A–1 we have

A–1(AX) = A–1λX
⇒ (A–1 A)X = λ(A–1 X)
⇒ IX = λ(A–1 X)
1
⇒ A–1X = X = λ–1X
λ
This shows that λ–1 is the eigen value of A–1. So, if λ1, λ2, ..., λn are eigen values of A, then
λ1 , λ2–1, ..., λn–1 are eigen values of A–1.
–1
(2) For the eigen value λ of A, we have

AX = λX
⇒ AX + kIX = λX + kIX
⇒ (A + kI)X = (λ + k)X
⇒ λ + k is the eigen value of A + kI.
Hence, if λ1, λ2, ..., λn are eigen values of A, then λ1 + k, λ2 + k, ..., λn + k are eigen values
of A + kI.
(3) We have AX = λX
⇒ kAX = kλX
⇒ (kA)X = (kλ)X
⇒ kλ is the eigen value of kA if λ is the eigen value of A.
Hence kλ1kλ2, ..., kλn are eigen values of kA.
(4) We have AX = λX
⇒ A(AX) = AλX
⇒ A2X = λ(AX)
⇒ A2X = λ(λX)
⇒ A2X = λ2X
⇒ λ2 is the eigen value of A2, if λ in the eigen value of A.
Hence, if λ1, λ2, ..., λn are eigen values of A, then λ12, λ22, ..., λn2 are eigen values of A2.
| A|
Example 9.4.5. Show that if λ is eigen value of a non-singular matrix A, then is an eigen
λ
value of adj A.
Proof. If λ is an eigen value of A, then
|A – λI| = 0
now (A – λI) = (A – λAA–1)
= A(I – λA–1)
FI −A I
Hλ K
−1
= λA
=
F I adjA I
λA GH λ − | A| JK
λA F | A| I
=
| A| λH I − adjA
K
Since |A – λI| = 0.
| λA| | A|
then I − adjA = 0
| A| λ
| A|
or I − adjA = 0
λ
| A|
or is an eigen value of adj A.
λ
9.5 SIMILAR MATRICES

Definition 9.5.1. Two matrices A and B are said to be similar if there exists a non-singular matrix
P such that
P–1AP = B
THEOREM 9.5.1. Two similar matrices A and B have the same characteristic roots.
Proof. Since A and B are similar, there exists a non-singular matrix P such that
then B = P–1AP
| B – xI | = | P –1 AP – xI |
= | P –1 AP – xP –1I P |
= | P –1(A – xI)P |
= | P –1 | | A – xI | | P |
= | A – xI | | P –1 | | P |
= | A – xI | Since | P | | P | –1 = 1
Hence the characteristic equations of A and P–1 AP are the same and so are their roots.
Example 9.5.1. If A and B are two square matrices of the same order, then show that AB and
BA have the same characteristic roots.
Solution. Since AB can be written as follows when either A or B is non-singular.
AB = B –1(BA)B or AB = A(BA)A–1
By the preceding example BA and B –1(BA)B = AB have the same characteristic roots.
PROBLEM 9.2
1. Find the characteristic roots and associated characteristic vectors of the following matrices:
LM 1 2 2OP LM2 2 1OP

(a) MM 0 2 2PP (b) MM1 3 1PP
N−1 1 3Q N 1 2 2Q
LM 7 −2 −2OP LM 0 −2 −2OP
(c) MM−2 1 4 PP (d) MM−1 1 2 PP
N−2 4 1 Q N−1 −1 2 Q
LM 1 −2OP LM 2 −1OP
(e)
N−5 4 Q
(f )
N−8 4 Q
LM2 0 −1 OP LM 1 −1 0 OP
(g) MM0 2 −2 PP (h) MM 1 2 1 PP
N1 −1 2 Q N−2 1 −1 Q
2. Show that at least one root of a singular matrix is zero.
3. Show that, if X is a unit vector such that AX = λX, then X* = AX = λ.
4. Show that, if the characteristic roots of A are distinct and those of B are distinct, then AB = BA if and
only if A and B have the same characteristic vectors.
5. Prove that the characteristic roots of A*. A are all non-negative.
PROBLEM 9.3
Objective Type Questions:
1. Mark each of the following: (True or False)
(a) If λ is an eigen value of A, then λ is an eigen value of A'.
–
(b) If λ is an eigen value of A, λ is an eigen value of A*.
(c) If 0 is an eigen value of A, then A is singular.
(d) If λ is an eigen value of A–1B iff λ is an eigen value of BA–1.
(e) A and P–1 AP may or may not have the same characteristic roots.
2. Fill in the blanks:
(a) If A is a square matrix, then A – xI is called .............. matrix.
(b) If A is a square matrix, then, |A – xI| is called .............. polynomial.
(c) If A is a square matrix, then |A – xI| = 0 is the .............. equation’ of the matrix A.
(d) The roots of |A – xI| = 0 are known as .............. roots of a square matrix A.
(e) Characteristic roots of a Hermition’ matrix are all ..............
(f ) Characteristic roots of a skew-symmetric matrix are ..............
(g) The characteristic roots of a .............. matrix are either zero or purely imaginary.
3. Mark each of the following: (True or False)
(a) A characteristic root of a real skew-symmetric matrix is either zero or real.
(b) A vector X is called normal if the length of X is 1.
(c) If A is orthogonal matrix, then | A | = ±1.
(d) The unitary matrix is of modulus unity.
(e) The modulus of each characteristic root of a unitary matrix is not unity.
(f ) A and A' have the same characteristic roots.
(g) If λ is the characteristic root of non-singular matrix A, |A| / λ is characteristic root of adj A.
(h) If λ1, λ2, λ3 are eigen values of a matrix A, then
(i) λ1–1, λ2–1, λ3–1 are not eigen value of A–1.
(ii) λ21, λ22, λ32 are not eigen value of A2.
(i) The characteristic roots of a diagonal matrix are diagonal elements.
(j) Every square matrix A satisfies its own characteristic equation.
(k) The product of all eigen values of a square matrix A is equal to the value of |A|.
(l) At least one characteristic root of non-singular matrix is zero.
(m) The characteristic roots of a singular matrix are all non-zero.
❑❑❑
Combinatorics
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Combinatorial analysis, which includes the study of permutations, combinations, and partitions, is
concerned with determining the number of logical possibilities of some event without necessarily
identifying every case. There are two basic counting principles used.
10.2 SUM RULE PRINCIPLE

Suppose some event A can occur in m ways and a second event B can occur in n ways, and suppose
both event cannot occur together (simultaneously) then A or B can occur in m + n ways.
More generally, suppose an event E1 can occur in n1 ways, a second event E2 in n2 ways, a third
event E3 in n3 ways, ..., and suppose no two of the events take place at the same time. Then one of
the events can occur in
n1 + n2 + n3 + ... + ways.
In set-theoretic notations, this counting principle can be written as. If A and B are disjoint sets,
then
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B).
Example 10.2.1. (1) Suppose there are 8 male professors and 5 female professors who teach
Algebra. A student can choose an algebra professor in 8 + 5 = 13 ways.
(2) Suppose A is the event of chosing a prime number less than 10 and B is the event of chosing
a even number less than 10. Then A can occur in 4 ways {2, 3, 5, 7} and B can occur in 4 ways
{2, 4, 6, 8}. However A or B can not occur in 4 + 4 = 8 ways since 2 is both prime and even number
less than 10. In fact A or B can occur in 4 + 4 –1 = 7 ways.
In set notation n(A) = 4, n(B) = 4, n(A ∩ B) = 1.
∴ n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)
= 4 + 4 − 1 = 7 ways.
(3) Suppose A is the event of chosing prime number between 10 and 20 and B is the event of
chosing even number between 10 and 20. So A can occur in 4 ways {11, 13, 17, 19} and B can occur
in 4 ways {12, 14, 16, 18}. So A or B can occur in 4 + 4 = 8 ways.
In set notation, n(A) = 4, n(B) = 4, n(A ∩ B) = 0,
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) = 4 + 4 = 8 ways.
261
10.3 PRODUCT RULE PRINCIPLE

Suppose there is an event E which occur in m ways, and independent of this event, there is second
event F which can occur in n ways. The combination of E and F can occur in mn ways.
More generally, suppose an event E1 can occur in n1 ways, a second event E2 can occur in n2
ways, a third event E3 can occur in n3 ways, ..., then all events can occur in n1.n2.n3, .... ways.
In set-notation, if A and B are non-empty sets, then
n(A × B) = n(A) × n(B).
Example 10.3.1. Suppose a license plate contains two letters followed by three digits with first
digit non-zero. How many different license plates can be printed?
Solution. Each letter can be printed in 26 different ways, the first digit in 9 ways and second
and third digits each in 10 ways. Hence printed different plates
= 26 · 26 · 9 · 10 · 10 = 608400.
Example 10.3.2. In how many ways can a committee containing 26 members elect a president,
treasurer, and secretary (assuming no person is elected to more than one position)?
Solution. The president can be elected in 26 ways, following this treasurer can be elected in
25 ways, since the person chosen for president is not eligible to be treasurer, and following this
secretary can be elected in 24 ways. Thus by principle of counting,
the required ways of electing president, treasurer and secretary
= 26 · 25 · 24 = 15600.
10.4 FACTORIAL NOTATION

Definition 10.4.1. The continued product of n natural numbers is called factorial n, denoted by n!
or n .
i.e., n! = 1 · 2 · 3... (n – 1).n
By definition 0! = 1
n! = n(n – 1) (n – 2) ..... 3 · 2 · 1
= n(n – 1)!
= n(n – 1) (n – 2)!
= n(n – 1) (n – 1) (n – 3)!
® ® ®
= n(n – 1) (n – 2) (n –3) .... (n – r + 1) (n – r)!
Also n! = n(n – 1)!
Deduction
(1) 6! = 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2. 1
= 6 5!
= 6 · 5 · 4!
= 6 · 5 · 4 · 3!
= 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2!
(2) Evaluate
9! 15!
(i) (ii)
6! 4!11!
COMBINATORICS 263
9! 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6!
(i) = = 9 · 8 · 7 = 504
6! 6!
15! 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11! 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12
(ii) = =
4 !11! 4 !11! 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
= 15 · 7 · 13
= 1365.
Example 10.4.1. Prove that
n!
(i) n(n – 1) (n – 2) ... (n – r + 1) =
b g
n–r !
(Here the total number of factors is r)
2n!
(ii) 1 · 3 · 5..............(2n – 1). 2n =
n!
Solution. (i) We have
b gb g b g
n n − 1 n − 2 L( n − r + 1) n − r !
n(n – 1) (n – 2) ... (n – r + 1) =
b g
n−r !
n!
=
b n − r g!
(ii) R.H.S. =
b2ng! = 2nb2n − 1gb2n − 2gb2n − 3gb2n − 4g....4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
n! n!
=
b2n − 1gb2n − 3gb2n − 5g...3 ⋅ 1 2nb2n − 2g...4 ⋅ 2
n!
=
b2n − 1gb2n − 3g...3 ⋅ 1 2 nbn − 1gbn − 2g...2 ⋅ 1
n
n!
=
b2n − 1gb2n − 3g...3 ⋅1 2 n!
n
n!
= 1 · 3 · 5 ... (2n – 3) (2n – 1) · 2n
= L.H.S.
10.5 PERMUTATIONS
Definition 10.5.1 Let A be a finite set of n elements a1, a2, a3, ..., an i.e., A = {a1, a2, ..., an}. Every
ordered subset of r element of A is called the permutation of r elements taken out from n elements.
The number of permutation of r elements taken out from n elements is denoted by nPr.
THEOREM 10.5.1. To find the number of permutations of r elements taken out from n elements
n!
.
b g
nP and nP =
r r n−r !
Proof. To prove this formula, we have to make use of counting principle. To find the number
of permutations of r elements taken from n element {a1, a2, a3, ..., an} we have to find out the number
of ways of filling up r places in a line with different elements.
There are n elements, so first place can be filled up in n different ways, second can be filled
up in (n – 1) different ways, third can be filled up in (n – 2) different ways and so on and rth place
can be filled up in [n – (r – 1)] in different ways. So by product rule principle of counting r places
can be filled up in
n(n – 1) (n –2) ... [n – (r – 1)] ways
or nP = n (n – 1).... (n – r + 1) ...(1)
b gb g b gb g
r
n n − 1 n − 2 ... n − r + 1 n − r !
or nP
r =
bn – r g!
by multiplying Nr and Dr by (n – r)!
n!
b g
or nP = ...(2)
r n−r !
COR. If r = n, number of all permutation of n objects taken out from n different objects is nPn
n! n! n!
b g
or nP
n = = = = n!
n−n ! 0! 1
Hence nPn = n! since 0! = 1
REMARKS. If we put r = n in (i) we get
nP
n = n(n – 1) ... (n – n + 1)
= n(n – 1) ... 1 = n!
Example 10.5.1. How many words (permutations) can be made from the letters of word
MONDAY if.
(a) Four letters are used together
(b) All letters are used together
(c) All letters are used but first letter should be vowel ?
Solution. (a) There are six letters in word MONDAY. So the set of letters of MONDAY is
A = {M, O, N, D, A, Y}. We have to find out all permutation of 4 letters taken out from 6 letters,
that is, we have to find 6P4
or 6P
4 = 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 = 360 words.
(b) Here we have to find out all permutation of 6 letters taken out from 6 letters. So
6P
6 = 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 720 words.
(c) Here in each permutation first letter is vowel, that is, it is A or O. So first place can be filled
up in two ways and remaining 5 places are to be filled by 5 letters. These place can be filled in 5P5
= 5! ways.
So, the number of required permutation is
= 2 · 5P5 = 2 · 5! = 2 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
= 240 words.
Example 10.5.2. In how many ways can the letters of the word MODESTY be arranged so that
(i) D and E are always together
(ii) D and E are never together
Solution. DE can be treated as one letter. So there are six letters and the number of ways
= 6P6 = 6!
= 720
COMBINATORICS 265
But in each letter two letters DE can be arranged in 2! ways.

So the total number of ways = 2 × 720
= 1440
The number of ways in which 7 letters are arranged
= 7P7 = 7!
= 7·6·5·4·3·2·1
= 5040
Therefore, the number of ways in which D and E never come together
= 5040 – 1440
= 3600.
Example 10.5.3. If Pr = 13 × 20Pr – 1 then find the value of r
20
20! 20!
Solution. 20Pr = 13 × 20Pr – 1 ⇒
b
20 − r !
= 13 ·
g m b gr
20 − r − 1 !
1 1
⇒
b
20 – r ! g = 13 ×
b gb
20 − r + 1 20 − r
!
g
13
⇒ 1 =
20 − r + 1
⇒ 20 – r + 1 = 13
⇒ r = 8
Example 10.5.4. If 2n + 1 Pn – 1: 2n – 1Pn = 3: 5, find the value of n.
b2n + 1g!
2 n +1
Pn −1 3 b2n + 1g − bn − 1g! 3
Solution. Here 2 n −1
Pn
=
5
⇒
b2n − 1g! =
5
b2n − 1 − ng!
b2n + 1g!
bn + 2g! = 3
=
b2n − 1g! 5
bn − 1g!
b2n + 1g!bn − 1g! = 3
=
bn + 2g!b2n − 1g! 5
b2n + 1g.2nb2n − 1g!bn − 1g! 3
=
bn + 2gbn + 1gnbn − 1g!b2n − 1g! =
5
2b2n + 1g 3
=
bn + 2gbn + 1g 5=
⇒ 3n2 – 11 n – 4 = 0
⇒ (n – 4) (3n + 1) = 0
⇒ n = 4
1
or n = –
3
1
Here n = 4 and n = – cannot be accepted.
3
Example 10.5.5. Prove that nPr = n – 1P

r + r. n – 1P
r – 1.
Solution. Here we see that
bn − 1g! bn − 1g!
bn − 1 − r g! bn − 1g − br − 1g !
n – 1P + r. n – 1P = + r.
r r–1
bn − 1g! + r. bn − 1g!
=
bn − r − 1g! bn − rg!
bn − 1g! + r. bn − 1g!
=
bn − r − 1g! bn − r gbn − r − 1g!
bn − 1g! L1 + r O
=
bn − r − 1g! MN n − r PQ
bn − 1g!bng = bng! = P
=
bn − r gbn − r − 1g! bn − r g! n
r
Example 10.5.6. How many words can be made from the letters of word ARTICLE, when
letters A, I, E are kept together ?
Solution. Here the set of letters of word ARTICLE is A = {A, R, T, I, C, L, E} which has 7
elements. If A, I, E are kept together, then {A, I, E} is supposed one letter. Thus we have R, T, C,
L and {A, I, E} five different letters.
So the number of all permutation of 5 letters is
5P
5 = 5! = 5·4·3·2·1 = 120.
And {A,I,E} can be put together in 3P3 ways, that is,
3P
3 = 3! = 3·2·1 = 6 ways.
Therefore, the number of total words according to the condition
= 5P5 . 3P3 = 120·6 = 720.
Example 10.5.7. How many numbers between 99 and 1000 can be made from digits 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6 ?
Solution. Between 99 and 1000 there will be three digit numbers. That is, three places unit,
tens, and hundred are to be filled from digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
First place can be filled in 6 ways, after filling up first place, second can be filled in 5 ways,
and after filling second, third place can be filled in 4 ways. So by product rule principle of counting
the number of required numbers
= 6·5·4 = 120
or 6 P3 = 6·5·4 = 120.
PROBLEM 10.1
1. Find the values of
(a) 7P1 (b) 7P3
(c) 7P4 (d) 7P7
2. Show that
(a) 5P4 = 5P5 (b) 6P5 = 6P6
(c) nPn−1 = nPn.
COMBINATORICS 267
3. If nP6 = 30. nP4, find the value of n.

4. If 30Pr = 21. 30Pr–1, find the value of r.
5. (i) If nP4: nP5 = 1: 3, find the value of n.
(ii) If 15Pr = 2730, find the value of r.
6. Prove that
2·4·6·8... to n factors = 2nn!.
7. Prove that nPr = n. n – 1Pr – 1.
8. In how many way can 5 persons be seated in 12 places ?
9. How many permutations can be made from the word (ARTICLE) ?
10. How many words can be formed by arranging the letters of the word SPACE ?
11. How many arrangements can be made from the letters of word SIMPLETON ?
12. How many words can be formed by arranging the letters of word SCHOLAR if
(a) First letter is S and last letter is R,
(b) O, A are put together ?
13. How many words can be formed from the letters of word LAHORE, when
(a) All words begin with L
(b) None of the words begins will L,
(c) Word begins with L and lasts with E ?
14. How many numbers of six digits can be formed from the digits 3, 2, 7, 0, 9. 8 ? In how many numbers
is 0 placed on unit place ?
15. How many numbers can be made between 99 and 100 from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ?
16. How many numbers between 4000 and 5000 can be formed by choosing any four digits from digits
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ?
10.6 PERMUTATION OF THINGS NOT ALL DIFFERENT

To find the number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time when each thing
may be repeated any number of times in any arrangement.
Proof. The number of permutation of n different things taken r at a lime is the same as the
number of ways of filling up r places out of n things.
The first place can be filled in n ways since any one of n things can be placed there. When the
first place is filled up, the second place can also be filled up in n ways since repetition is allowed
i.e., the things occupying the first place can also occupy the second place. Thus the first two places
can be filled up in n × n = n2 ways.
When the first two places have been filled up, the third place can also be filled up in n ways
and so on. So the number of ways of filling up r places = n × n × ... n(r factors) = nr ways.
To find the number of permutation of n things taken all at a time when p of them are alike
and of one kind, q of them are alike and of second kind, all other things different.
Proof. Let there be n things and let p of them be a and let q of them be b and let rest unlike.
Let x be the required number of permutations. Then of the p things a were replaced by unlike
things from any of the rest, from any one of the x permutations, without altering the position of any
of the remaining things, p! new permutations are obtained. If this change is applied in each of the
x permutation we would obtain x × p! permutation.
Similarly, of the q things b were replaced by q unlike things we would have x × p! × q!

permutations. But since the things are all different, they would admit of n! permutations among
themselves thus
n!
x × p! × q! = n! ⇒ x =
p! q !
Note: On the same analogy, we can say that a permutation of n things taken all at a lime in which p are
alike of one kind, q alike of second kind and r alike of third kind, and rest all different are
n
p q r
Example 10.6.1. How many numbers of four digits can be formed from the digits 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9 when
(a) No digit is repeated,
(b) The digits may be repeated ?
Solution. (a) We have to find out the number of four digits number taken from 6 digits. So the
required number
= 6P4 = 6 · 5 · 4 · 3
= 360.
(b) When the digits are repeated, we have to fill up four places out of 6 digits. So the required
number of numbers
= 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 = 1296.
Example 10.6.2. (a) How many permutations can be formed with the letters of the word
SERIES. (b) In how many will the word start with S and last with S. (c) In how many words do
consonants and vowels occur alternately ?
Solution. (a) The set of letters of word SERIES is
A = {S, E, R, I, E, S} which has 6 letters in which there are 2 E′s and 2S’s.
Therefore, the number of permutations
6! 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
= = = 180
2!2! 2 ⋅ 1⋅ 2 ⋅1
(b) If we fix first and last letters, there are 4 remaining letters in which there are 2E’s.
So the number of permutations
4! 4 ⋅ 3⋅ 2 ⋅1
= = = 12
2! 2 ⋅1
(c) If consonants appear on 1st, 3rd, and 5th place and vowels appear on 2nd, 4th and 6th place,
the number of permutations
3! 3!
= × = 9.
2 ! 2!
and if vowels appear on 1st, 3rd and 5th place and consonants appear on 2nd, 4th and 6th place.
3! 3!
Then number of permutations = × = 9.
2! 2!
Hence total no. of permutations = 9 + 9 = 18
COMBINATORICS 269
Example 10.6.3. How many different words can be formed with letters of the word
ALLAHABAD ? In how many do the consonant appear on even places ?
Solution. Here the set of letters of the given word is A = {A, L, L, A, H, A, B, A, D} which
has 9 letters in which there are 4 A’s and 2L’s.
9!
Hence, the numbers of permutations =
4! 2!
9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
= = 9 · 8 · 7 · 3 · 5 = 7560
4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1⋅ 2 ⋅1
In ALLAHABAD, there are 4 vowels A’s and 5 consonants L, L, H, B, D in which there are
2L’s. So the number of permutations
4 ! 5! 5!
P1 = × =1× = 60
4 ! 2! 2!
Example 10.6.4. How many words can be formed of the letter of the word MALENKOV so
that
(i) No two vowels are together
(ii) The relative position of the vowels and consonants remains unaltered.
Solution. There are five consonants and three vowels in the word MALENKOV. We can first
arrange 5 consonants. This can be done in 5! ways let one arrangement be
×M×L×N×K×V×
Let us suppose that the vowels are placed at the marks (X). Thus no two vowels would be
together. Since there are six places, so three vowels can be arranged in 6P3 ways,
i.e., 6P
3 = 6 · 5 · 4 = 120 ways.
Hence, the total number of arrangements
= 120 × 120
= 14400
(ii) The vowels have to occupy second, fourth and seventh places. These can be arranged in
3! = 6 ways and the consonants have to occupy remaining position in 5! = 120 ways.
Hence, the required number of ways are
6 × 120 = 720
Example 10.6.5. Seven candidates are to take examination; 2 in mathematics and remaining in
different subjects. In how many ways can they be seated in a row so that two examinees in mathematics
may sit together.
Solution. There are 7! ways in which 7 candidates can sit on 7 seats. We first find the number
of permutation in which the two mathematics candidates are seated together. Regard them as one so
that the number of candidates is 6.
They can be seated in 6! ways and two mathematics candidates can be arranged in 2! ways. So
the number of arrangement when they are together is 6! × 2! = 1440. Hence, the number of arrangement
when they are not together is
= 7! – 1440
= 5040 – 1440 = 3600
Example 10.6.6. How many numbers greater than a million be formed with the digits 2, 3, 0,
3, 4, 2, 3 ?
Solution. 1 million = 10 lacs = 10,00,000
Number greater than million contains 7 digits
We are to take all the 7 digits out of which 2 is repeated
2 times and 3 is repeated 3 times
7!
∴ Number of permutation = = 420.
2 ! 3!
These arrangements also include numbers which have zero in the extreme left position. Since
zero on extreme left has no significance, therefore such numbers are excluded from total numbers.
When zero occupies extreme left position, remaining six places are to be filled by 6 digits in
which there are two 2’s and three 3’s so.
6!
Numbers of permutation = = 60
2 ! 3!
Therefore the required number = 420 – 60 = 360.
Example 10.6.7. Prove that the number of ways in which n books can be arranged on a shelf
so that two particular books shall not be together is (n – 2) (n – 1)!
Proof. Suppose that two books A and B are together then there are (n – 1) books which can
be arranged in (n – 1) ! × 2! ways.
If the books A and B are not together, the n the book can be arranged in n! ways.
So the number of arrangements in which two particular books are not together = Total
arrangements of n books—arrangement of (n – 1) books
= n! – (n – 1)! · 2!
= n(n – 1)! –2(n – 1)!
= (n – 1)! (n – 2).
PROBLEM 10.2
1. How many different words can be formed with the letter of the word “ø◊∑§ Œ◊∑§” ?
2. In how many different ways can the letters of the word COMMITTEE be arranged ?
3. In how many different orders can the letters of the word INTERFERE be written, if any two consonants
may not be together ?
4. How many words can be made with the letter of the word CONSTANTINOPLE ?
5. In how many arrangements can the letters of the word PLANTAIN be written so that A’s may not
occur together ?
6. How many words can be formed with letters of the word ASSASSINATION ?
7. Find the number of permutations of the word ACCOUNTANT ?
8. How many permutation are made with letters of the word ENGINEERING ?
9. How many words can be formed with the letters of the word FATHER ? How many words can be
formed which begins with A and ends with R ?
10. How many permutation are formed from the letters of the word INDIA ?
11. How many numbers having 5 digits each can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 0, 3, 5, 6, 8, (no digit
being repeated).
COMBINATORICS 271
12. In how many ways can 10 examination papers be arranged so that the best and worst papers never
come together ?
13. In how many ways can 20 books be arranged on shelf so that particular pair of books shall not come
together ?
14. How many different signals can be made with 5 different coloured flags, one above the other when
any number of them may be hoisted at once ?
10.7 CIRCULAR PERMUTATIONS

Definition 10.7.1. If the things are arranged along a circle, then the permutations formed in such a
manner are known as circular permutations.
10.8 TO FIND THE NUMBER OF CIRCULAR PERMUTATION OF n DIFFERENT

THINGS TAKEN ALL AT A TIME
Proof. For the sake of definiteness we take n = 4, i.e., we consider 4 different things say a, b, c and
d. Let one of the ways in which these can be in a circular ring, as shown in the adjoining figure. Also
let x be the number of circular permutations.
Starting with different letter and reading them in clockwise direction as
A C
D B B D
C D A B
C A A C
B D
The various arrangements of the letters are obviously abcd, dabc, cdab and bcda.
From each circular permutation of 4 letters, we would get 4 linear permutations. Therefore, the
total number of linear arrangements of 4 different things is 4!
So 4x = 4!
4! 4 ⋅ 3!
x = = = 3!
4 4
Thus, the number of permutations of 4 different things taken all at a time is (4 –1)! = 3! when
this case is extended to the case of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time, the
number of circular permutations is (n – 1)!
COROLLARY. If we do not distinguish between clockwise and anti-clockwise orders, the

number of circular permutations would be 1/2 (n – 1)!
Example 10.8.1. In how many ways 20 members of a council be seated at a round table when
secretary and deputy secretary sit on left or right sides of the president.
Solution. Here there are 20 elements in the set in which 3 elements have fixed place. If the
place for president is fixed, then secretary and deputy secretary can sit on left and right hand side
of the president. So the secretary and deputy secretary can sit in 2! ways, and rest remaining members
(20 – 1 – 2) = 17 can sit in 17! ways. Hence the total number of ways for their seating arrangement
= 2! × 17! = 2.17!
Example 10.8.2. In how many ways can 4 ladies and 4 gentlemen dine at a round table so that
no two gentlemen may be together ?
Solution. Let us first seat 4 ladies on the round table. These 4 ladies can sit in 3! ways keeping
one chair fix for one lady when 4 ladies hare taken their seats to dine, there are 4 seats in between
the ladies to be occupied by gentlemen and the 4 gentleman can sit in 4! ways. Hence the required
number of ways for their seating arrangement
= 3! × 4! = 144 ways.
Example 10.8.3. In how many ways can 10 pearls be strung on a bond to form a necklace ?
Solution. The number of circular permutations of 10 pearls taken all at a time is (10 – 1)! = 9!
If a necklace is changed over a clockwise arrangement is changed into a anti-clockwise
arrangement resulting no distinction between them.
9!
Thus the total number of ways in which 10 pearls can be arranged to form a necklace = .
2
PROBLEM 10.3
1. 7 persons make a circle by holding hands with each other. In how many ways do they form circle ?
2. In how many ways can five boys and five girls make circle so that no two girls may be together ?
3. In how many ways can eight persons sit at a round table if two particular persons (a) always sit
together (b) Never sit together.
4. In how many ways 10 persons be seated at a round table so that host and hostess sit apposite to each
other.
5. A man invities 12 friends for a dinner and he gets 7 persons seated on one round table and 5 persons
on other round table. In how many way can be get them seated on both round tables ?
10.9 COMBINATIONS
Definition 10.9.1. Let A = {a1, a2,......, an} be a set of n elements let B = {a1, a2,....., ar} be a subset
of A with r elements where r < n. Then the subset B is called combination of r elements taken out
n FG IJ
from n elements. The total number of all subsets having r elements is denoted by nCr or r . Here
HK
we have to find out the number of all collections having r elements taken from given n elements.
COMBINATORICS 273
10.10 TO FIND THE NUMBER OF COMBINATIONS OF n DISSIMILAR THINGS

TAKEN r AT A TIME THAT IS, MATHEMATICALLY TO FIND THE VALUE OF
n
Cr
Proof. Let the required number of combination of n dissimilar thing taken r at a time be x. We
consider anyone of these combinations, it contains r things which can be arranged among themselves
in rPr = r! ways. Thus anyone of these combination will give rise r! permutations. Also the number
of permutation of n things taken r at a time is nPr.
∴ x r! = nPr
n
Pr
⇒ x =
r!
=
b gb
n n – 1 ... n − r + 1 g
r!
b g b gb gb g
n n − 1 +... n − r + 1 n − r n − r − 1 ...3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
=
b gb g
r ! n − r n − r − 1 ...3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
n!
=
b g
r! n − r !
n!
∴ nC
r =
b g
r! n − r !
since x = nCr
n! n!
CORROLLARY 1. Put r = n, we see that nCn =
b
r! n − n !
=
g
n! 0!
= 1.
i.e., the number of combination of n things taken all at a time is 1.

CORROLLARY 2. Put r = 0, we see that
n! n!
b g
nC = = =1
r
0! n − 0 ! 0! n !
n!
CORROLLARY 3. nCn−r =
b g
r! n − r !
If we make subset of r elements from n elements, then we get another subset of (n – r) elements.
This means that the number of combinations of n things taken r at a time = the number of combinations
of n things taken (n – r) at a time.
That is, nC = nC
r n–r
n!
⇒ nC
n−r = nCr =
b g
r! n − r !
n!
⇒ nC
n−r =
b g
r! n − r !
Example 10.10.1. How many committees of 18 persons can be made if (a) Committee has 3
persons (b) Committee has 14 persons.
Solution. (a) Here we have to find the combinations of 18 taken 3 at a time
18 C
18 ⋅17 ⋅16
Hence = = 816
3 3⋅ 2 ⋅1
(b) Here we have to find out the number of combinations of 18 persons taken 14 at a time
18 C 18C 14C
18 ⋅ 17 ⋅ 16 ⋅ 15
Hence = = = = 3060.
14 18–14 4 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
CORROLLARY. nC + nCr−− 1 = n +1C
r r-1
n! n!
b g b gb +
g
Proof. nC + nCr−1 =
r r! n − r ! r −1 ! n − r +1 !
n! n!
=
b gb
r r −1 ! n − r !
+
g b gb
r −1 ! n − r +1 n − r ! gb g
n! LM 1 + 1 OP
=
b g b g N r n − r + 1Q
r − 1 ! n − r !
n! LM n + 1 OP
=
br − 1g!bn − r g! MN rbn − r + 1g PQ
n! LM n + 1 OP
=
br − 1g!bn − r g! MN rbn − r + 1g PQ
bn + 1g! = C
r!b n + 1 − rg !
= n+1
r
Example 10.10.2. In how many ways can 7 teachers of mathematics be chosen out of 10 men
and 7 women when (a) 3 men are included (b) 3 or 4 men are included ?
Solution. (a) 3 men can be chosen out of 10 men in 10C3 ways, and remain 4 mathemtic
teachers can be chosen out of 7 women in 7C4 ways.
Therefore by fundamental principle of counting 7 maths teacher can be chosen in
10 C 7C
10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4
= = 4200 ways.
3 4 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4
(b) If there are 3 men, then 4 women will be chosen. Thus 7 maths teachers can be chosen in
10C × 7C4 ways, or if there are 4 men, then 3 women will be chosen. Thus 7 maths teachers can
3
be chosen in 10C4 × 7C3 ways.
10C 7C
10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4
= = 7350.
4 3 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4
Hence if 3 or 4 men are chosen, there will be 4 or 3 women.
Thus 7 maths teachers can be chosen
10C 7C + 10C 7C = 4200 + 7350 = 11,550 ways.
3 4 4 3
Example 10.10.3. There are one president, 2 secretaries and 12 members in a council. How
many different committees of 5 persons can be formed if president and at least one secretary are
included in each committee.
Solution. If in each committee there are one president, 1 secretary and 3 members, then the
committee of 5 members can be formed in 1C1 · 2C1 · 12C3 ways.
COMBINATORICS 275
And if in each committee there are 1 president, 2 secretaries and 2 members, then the committee
of 5 persons can be formed in 1C1.2C2.12C2 ways.
Thus the committee of 5 persons in which 1 president, at least 1 secretary are included can be
formed in
1C · 2C · 12C + 1C · 2C · 12C ways = 1.2
12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 12 ⋅ 11
+ 1·1 ways
1 1 3 1 2 2 3⋅ 2 ⋅1 2 ⋅1
= 440 + 66 = 506 ways.
Example 10.10.4. If nCr: nCr+1: nCr+2 = 24 : 9 : 2 Find n and r.
n! n!
Solution. nC =
r r! n − r 1
, nC
b g
r+1 = r +1 ! n − r −1 !
,
b gb g
n!
br + 2g!bn − r − 2g!
nC =
r+2
n n! br + 1g!bn − r − 1g ! = br + 1g 24
r !bn − r g!
Cr ×
Now = =
n
Cr +1 n! n−r 9
r +1 8
⇒ =
n−r 3
⇒ 8n – 11r – 3 = 0 ...(1)
n
C r +1 n! b gb
n+2 !n−r−2 ! r+2 g 9 b g
and n
Cr + 2
=
b gb
r +1 ! n − r −1 !
×
g n!
=
n − r −1
=
2
⇒ 9n – 11r – 13 = 0 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get n = 10, r = 7.
Example 10.10.5. Prove that nCr = n – 1C
r + n – 1C
r–1
bn – 1g! bn − 1g!
r !bn − 1 − r g! br − 1g!b n − 1 − r + 1g!
Solution. Here,n – 1Cr + n – 1C
r–1 = +
bn – 1g! + bn − 1g!
=
r !bn − r − 1g! br − 1g!bn − r g!
bn – 1g! + bn − 1g! . 1
=
rbr − 1g!bn − r − 1g! br − 1g!bn − r g bn − r − 1g!
bn – 1g! L 1 + 1 O
=
br − 1g!bn − r − 1g MN r n − r PQ
bn – 1g!n
=
br − 1g!rbn − rgbn − r − 1g!
n!
=
b g
r! n − r !
= nCr
Example 10.10.6. Show that the product of r consecutive integers is divisible by r!

Solution. We suppose that the product of r consecutive integers is
= (n + 1) (n + 2) (n + 3) ... (n + r)
=
b gb g b g
1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3..... n n + 1 n + 2 ..... n + r
1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3........ n.
=
b n + r g! = b n + r g! × r ! = n + rC × r!
n! n! r! r
or n + rC =
bn + 1gbn + 2g....bn + r g
r r!
= Product of r consecutive integers is divisible by r!
Example 10.10.7. How many diagonals can be formed by joining the angular points of (i) an
octagon (ii) a polygon of side n ?
Solution. When two vertices are joined in an octagon, there are only two possibilities. Either
will be diagonal or a side of octagon. Moreover, it has 8 vertices and 8 sides.
So the total number of combination of 8 points taken 2 at a time
= 8C 2
8× 7
= = 28
12
.
Hence the total diagonal = 28 – 8 = 20
(ii) Similarly, the number of diagonals in a polygon of side n
= nC2 – n
=
b g
n n −1
–n
12
.
=
n 2 − n − 2n
=
n n–3 b g
2 2
Example 10.10.8. There are 16 points in a plane. Find the numbers of straight lines formed by
joining them when (i) no three of the points are in a straight line (ii) when 4 of the points are
collinear. How many triangles can be formed in this case?
Solution. Any two points joined together gives a straight line. The required number of straight
lines
16C
16 ⋅15
= = = 120.
2 1⋅ 2
4⋅3
Further 4 points give 4C2 = = 6 straight lines but when there four points are collinear. They
1⋅ 2
form a single straight line.
So the required number of straight lines
= 120 – 6 + 1 = 115
The combination of 16 points taken 3 at a time give the number of triangles i.e., 16C =
3
16 ⋅ 15 ⋅ 14
= 560.
1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3
COMBINATORICS 277
Example 10.10.9. From 3 capitals, 5 consonants and 5 vowels, how many words can be formed,
each containing 3 consonants and 2 vowels and beginning with a capital?
Solution. One capital can be chosen out of 3 capitals in 3C1 ways, 3 consonants can be chosen
out of 5 consonants in 5C3 ways and 2 vowels can be chosen in 5C2 ways. Hence a word beginning
with capital and containing 3 consonants and 2 vowels can be chosen in
3C × 5C × 5C
1 3 2 = 300 ways.
Further each combination of 5 letters as formed above can be arranged in 5! = 120 ways.
Hence the total number of words formed above are
= 120 × 300 = 36000 ways.
Example 10.10.10. If 10C = 10C find the value of 5Cr
r r+4
Solution. r and r + 4 can be equal to each other.
Hence, 10 C = 10C 10C
r 10−r = r+4
(10 – r) = r + 4 ⇒ 2r = 10 – 4
⇒ 2r = 6
⇒ r=3
5C = 5C =
5⋅ 4 ⋅ 3
Hence = 10
r 3 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3
PROBLEM 10.4
1. (a) If nC10 = nC15, find the value of n,
(b) If 18Cr = 18Cr+2 find the value of rC5
(c) If 15Cx = 15Cy and x ≠ y, find the value of x + y
2. Prove that
n − r +1
(a) nCr = nCn−r (b) nC = . nCr-1
r
4n
Cr − 2 a f
1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5..... 4 n − 1
{1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5....... a 2n − 1f}
(c) nC + 2.nCr-1 + nCr-2 = n+2C (d) =
r r 2n 2
Cn
3. If 2nC3 : nC2 = 44 : 3, Find the value of nC3.

4. In how many ways can a team of 11 players be selected out of 14 players ?
5. In how many ways can a team of 11 players be selected out of 14 players when
(a) a particular player is included every time.
(b) a particular player is excluded ?
6. A committee of 5 persons is to be formed out of 6 men and 4 women. In how many ways can this
committee be formed when it contains.
(a) Two women (b) 2 or 3 women (c) 1 or 2 women or no women.
7. From 7 consonants and 4 vowels how many vowels can be formed, each containing 3 consonants and
2 vowels ?
8. In how many ways can a committee of 11 be formed out of 6 teachers and 11 students when a
committee contains at least 4 teachers ?
9. In an election there are five candidates and out of them 3 are to be elected. To how many candidates
can a voter cast his vote but it should not exceed the number of persons to be elected. In how many
ways can he cast his vote ?
Hint. The number of candidates to be elected is 3. So he can cast 1, 2, 3 votes.

So the required number = 5C1 + 5C2 + 5C3
5⋅ 4 5⋅ 4 ⋅ 3
=5+ +
1⋅ 2 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3
= 5 + 10 + 10 = 25
10.11 DIVISION INTO GROUPS (PARTITIONS)

To prove that the number of ways in which (m + n) things can be divided into two groups
containing m and n things respectively is
bm + ng!
m!n!
Proof. If we select any group containing m things we will be left with a group of n things
behind. Thus there are two groups containing m and n things respectively. Hence the required number
of ways is equal to the number of permutation of (m + n) things taken m at a time which is equal to
bm + ng!
m! n!
b2ng!
Cor. If m = n, the above result becomes
bn!g 2
which means the number of ways in which (2n) things can be divided into two distinct groups. It,
however, no distinction is made between the two groups of n things each, then the number of
different divisions are
b 2n g !
2!bn!g
= 2
To illustrate this point we consider 4 things say A, B, C and D which are to be divided into
two groups each containing 2 things. One way of division is AB, CD. Another is CD, AB which is
the same as first one. Similarly groups AB, BD, AD, BC are identical with BD, AB, BC, AD respectively.
4!
b g
Hence the numbers of ways = 2
=3
2 2!
If we keep the distinction between the two groups, the required number of ways would be
4!
b2!g 2 = 6.
10.12 TO FIND THE NUMBER OF WAYS IN WHICH (m + n + p) DIFFERENT THINGS

BE DIVIDED INTO THREE GROUPS OF m, n AND p THINGS RESPECTIVELY
Proof. (m + n + p) different things can be divided into two groups containing (m + n) and p things
respectively.
COMBINATORICS 279
This can be done in

bm + n + pg!
m + n + pC
m+n =
bm + ng! p! ways.
Now each of the above ways of division which consists of (m + n) things can further be divided
into groups of m and n things respectively in
m + nC =
bm + ng!
ways.
n
m! n !
Associating these two events, the total number of ways in which (m + n + p) things can be
divided into three groups containing m, n and p things respectively.
bm + n + pg!bm + ng!
=
bm + ng!m!n! p!
=
bm + n + pg!
m! n! p!
CORROLLARY. If m = n = p, when all groups contain equal number of things, then the number
of ways in which 3m things can be divided into three equal but distinct groups of m things each.
b3mg!
=
bm!g 3
If, however, no distinction is made between the three groups of things, then the required number
of ways
b3mg!
3!bm!g
= 3
Example 10.12.1. In how many ways can 18 different books be divided equally among three
students ?
Solution. Since the books are to be distributed among three students, the groups will be distinct
of 6 different books.
18!
∴
b g
The required number of ways = 3
6!
10.13 TO FIND THE TOTAL NUMBER OF WAYS IN WHICH IT IS POSSIBLE TO

MAKE A SELECTION BY TAKING SOME OR ALL OF n THINGS AT A TIME
Proof. Each thing out of n dissimilar things either be selected or rejected, that is, each thing can be
dealt in two ways. Further since each ways of selection or rejection of any one thing can be associated
with that of each one of the others. Hence the total number of ways in which all the n things, can
be dealt with in this manner would be 2 × 2 ... × 2 (n factors) or 2n.
But this number evidently includes the case when all the things are simultaneously left out.
Hence rejecting this case, we have the total number required 2n–1.
This can also be written as
nC + nC + nC + ... + nC = 2n – 1
1 2 3 n
Example 10.13.1. A man has seven friends. In how many ways can he invite one or more of
them to a party ?
Solution. The man can invite 1, or 2, or 3 or, ... out of his 7 friends in 7C1, 7C2, 7C3, ..., 7C7
ways respectively.
Hence, total numbers of ways = 7C1 + 7C2 + 7C3 + 7C4 + 7C5 + 7C6 + 7C7
= 27 – 1 = 127
Example 10.13.2. A candidate for pre-university examination has to pass in each of the four
subjects. In how many ways can he fail ?
Solution. The candidate can fail in 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 subjects hence the number of ways in which
he can fail.
= 4C1 + 4C2 + 4C3 + 4C4
= 4+6+4+1
= 15 or 24 – 1 = 15.
10.14 TO FIND THE TOTAL NUMBER OF WAYS IN WHICH A SELECTION CAN BE

MADE OUT OF p + q + r THINGS, OF WHICH p ARE ALIKE OF ONE KIND,
q ALIKE OF SECOND KIND AND r ALIKE OF THIRD KIND
Proof. We have p alike things of one kind. Out of these p things, we can take either none or 1 or
2 ... or p things in any combination. Thus there are (p + 1) ways of dealing with these p alike things.
Similarly, there are (q + 1) and (r + 1) ways of dealing with q and r alike things of second and third
kind respectively.
Hence all the things can be dealt with in (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) ways. But this number also
includes the case when all things are left out. Hence excluding this case, we have total number of
selection.
= (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) – 1.
CORROLLARY 1. The total number of ways in which a selection can be made out of p + q
+ r + t things of which p are alike of one-kind q alike of second kind, r alike of third kind, and t
different things is
= (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) 2t – 1.
CORROLLARY 2. The total number of ways in which a selection committee can be made out
of (p + q + r) things of which p are alike of one kind, q alike of second kind and r alike of third
kind. When at least one of each kind is taken is p × q × r.
10.15 TO FIND THE VALUE OF r FOR WHICH nCr IS GREATEST

Proof. We have
n!
b g
nC =
r
r! n − r !
n!
and nC
r–1 =
b gb
r −1 ! n− r +1 ! g
n
Cr n! br − 1g!bn − r + 1g! = bn − r + 1g
Now n
Cr –1 =
b g
r! n − r !
×
n! r
Hence if nCr is greatest, nC > nC
r r–1
n
Cr
>1
⇒ n
Cr −1
COMBINATORICS 281
n − r +1
⇒ > 1
r
⇒ n + 1 > 2r
n+1
⇒ r <
2
Now there are two cases
(i) when n is even say n = 2m
n +1 2m + 1 1
then = =m +
2 2 2
nC
1
Here r is greatest if r = m +
2
n
∴ nC
r is greatest if r = m =
2
(ii) When n is odd say n = 2m + 1
n +1 2m + 1 + 1
∴ = = m + 1 (m is integer)
2 2
n+1 n–1 n +1
Integral part of = m+1= +1=
2 2 2
n +1
∴ nC
r is greatest when r =
2
Example 10.15.1. Find the value of r for which
(i) 16 Cr (ii) 19Cr are the greatest
Solution. Here n = 16 an even number
16
∴ nC
r is greatest when r = =8
2
Here n = 19, an odd number
n +1 19 + 1
∴ nC
r is greatest when r = = = 10
2 2
Example 10.15.2. A basket of fruits contains 7 mangoes, 6 apples and 4 oranges. Find the
number of selections which can be made if
(i) One fruit of each type is to be taken.
(ii) At least one fruit of each type is to be taken.
(iii) At least one fruit is to be taken.
Solution. (i) One mango out of 7 can be taken in 7C1 ways
One apple out of 6 can be taken in 7C1 ways
One orange out of 4 can be taken in 4C1 ways
Hence the number of ways in which one fruit of each type is taken
= 7C1 × 6C1 × 4C1 = 7 × 6 × 4 = 168.
(ii) He can choose 1 or 2 or 3,.... or 7 mangoes out of 7 in
7C + 7C + 7C + .... + 7C = 27 – 1 ways
1 2 3 1
Similarly, he can take 1 or 2 or 3 .... 6 apples out of 6 in 26 – 1 ways and he can take 1 or
2 or 3 ... or all organes in 24 – 1 ways.
Hence the required number of ways in which at least one fruit of each type is to be taken is
(27 –1) (26 –1) (24 – 1) = 120015.
(iii) He may select 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 mangoes or reject all the mangoes. So he can select
mangoes in 8 ways. Similarly, he can select 6 apples and 4 oranges in 7 and 5 ways respectively.
Hence, the total number of selecting fruit
= 8 × 7 × 5 = 280
But this includes the case in which none of these has been taken. Hence the number of ways
in which one fruit is to be taken
= 280 – 1 = 279
Example 10.15.3. In how many ways can 15 persons be divided into 3 groups ?
Solution. Each group will contain 5 persons. Hence required number
15!
b5!g 3!
3
Example 10.15.4. In how many ways can a pack of 52 cards be distributed in 4 bundles in
which each contain 13 cards ? In how many ways can these cards be distributed among 4 players
when each player gets 13 cards ?
52!
Solution. Required number of bundles =
b g
4
13! ⋅ 4!
52! 52!
Now these bundles can be distributed among 4 players in 4!
b13!g 4
⋅ 4!
=
b13!g 4 ways.
10.16 THE PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE

Pigeonhole principle: If n pigeonholes are occupied by n + 1 or more pigeons, then at least one
pigeonhole is occupied by more than one pigeon.
Example 10.16.1. (i) Suppose there are 13 professors in a mathematics department. Then two
of the professors (pigeons) were born in the same month (pigonholes).
(ii) Suppose a bag contains many red, white, and blue socks. Then one draw only four socks
(pigeons) to be sure of getting a pair of socks of the same colour (pigeonholes).
Example 10.16.2. Find the minimum number of elements that one needs to take from the set
S = {1, 2, 3, ..., 9} to be sure that two of the numbers add up to 10.
Solution. Here the pigeonholes are the set {1, 9}, {2, 8}, {3, 7}, {4, 6}, {5}. This any choice
of six elements (pigeons) of S will make sure that two of the numbers add up to 10.
Generalized Pigeonhole principle: If n pigeonholes are occupied by kn + 1 or more pigeons,
where k is a positive integer, then at least one pigeonhole is occupied by k + 1 or more pigeons.
Example 10.16.3. Find the minimum number of students in a class to be sure that three of them
are born in the same month.
Solution. Here n = 12 months are pigeonholes and k + 1 = 3 or k = 2. Hence among any
kn + 1 = 2.12 + 1 = 25 students (pigeons), three of them are born in the same month.
COMBINATORICS 283
Example 10.16.4. Suppose a laundry bag contains many red, white and blue socks. Find the
minimum number of socks that one needs to choose in order to get two pairs (four socks) of the same
colour.
Solution. Here there are n = 3 colours (pigeonholes) and k + 1 = 4 or k = 3. Thus among any
kn + 1 = 3.3 + 1 = 10 socks (pigeons) four of them have the same colour.
10.17 THE INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

1. Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets. Let the number of
elements in A be denoted by n(A).
Then n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B).
l r m
Let n(A) = l + r, n(B) = m + r, n(A ∩ B) = r
Then n(A ∪ B) = l + r + m
= l+r+m+r–r
= n(A) + n(B) –n(A ∩ B)
That is, to find the number n(A ∪ B) of elements in the union A ∪ B, we add n(A) and n(B)
and then we subtract n(A ∩ B); that is we include n(A) and n(B), and we exclude n(A ∩ B).
Note. If A and B are disjoint sets, then n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B).
2. For any finite sets A, B, C, we have
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(A ∩ C) – n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
That is, we include n(A), n(B), n(C), we exclude n(A ∩ B), n(A ∩ C), n(B ∩ C) and we include
n(A ∩ B ∩ C).
Let n(A) = l + p + q + s
n(B) = m + p + r + s
n(C) = n + r + q + s. l p m
A B
n(A ∩ B) = p + s q
s
r
n(B ∩ C) = r + s n
C
n(A ∩ C) = q + s
and n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = s
Now n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = l + q + s + p + r + n + m
= (l + p + q + s) + (m + p + r + s) + (n + q + s + r) – p – s – q
–s–r–s+s
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – (p + s) – (q + s) – (r + s) + s
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(A ∩ C) – n(B ∩ C)
+ n(A ∩ B ∩ C).
Example 10.17.1 Find the number of mathematics students at a college taking at least one of
the languages Hindi, English, and Urdu given the following data.
65 study Hindi 20 study Hindi and English
45 study English 25 study Hindi and Urdu
42 study Urdu 15 study English and Urdu
8 study all three languages.
Solution. Here we have to find out n(H ∪ E ∪ U), where H, E and ∪ denote the set of students
studying Hindi, English and Urdu. By inclusion and exclusion principle
n(H ∪ E ∪ U) = n(H) + n(E) + n(U) – n(H ∩ E) – n(H ∩ U) – n(E ∩ U) + n(H ∩ E ∩ U)
= 65 + 45 + 42 – 20 – 25 – 15 + 8 = 100
Thus, 100 students study at least one of the languages.
REMARK.The students study only Hindi = n(H) – n(H ∩ E) – n(H ∩ U) + n(H ∩ E ∩ U)
The students study only English = n(E) – n(E ∩ H) – n(E ∩ U) + n(E ∩ H ∩ U)
The students study only Urdu = n(U) – n(U ∩ H) – n(U ∩ E) + n(U ∩ E ∩ H).
In above example the students study only Hindi
= n(H) – n(H ∩ E) – n(H ∩ U) +n(H ∩ E ∩ U)
= 65 – 20 – 25 + 8
= 28.
PROBLEM 10.5
1. Assume there are n distinct pairs of shoes in a closet. Show that if you choose n + 1 single shoes
at random from the closet, you are certain to have a pair.
2. Find the minimum number of students needed to guarantee that fine of them belong to the same class
(Freshman, Sophomone, Junior, Senior).
3. A student must take five classes from three areas of study. Numerous classes are offered in each
discipline, but the student cannot take more than two classes is any given area.
(a) Using the pigeonhole principle, show that the student will take at least two classes in one area.
(b) Using inclusion-exclusion principle, show that the student will have to take at least one class in
each area.
4. Let L be a list of the 26 letters in the English alphabet (which consists of five vowels a, e, i, o, u
and 21 consonants).
(a) Show that L has a sublist consisting of four or more consecutive consonants.
(b) Assuming L begins with a vowel, say, A, show that L has a sublist consisting of five or more
consecutive consonants.
5. Find the minimum number n of integers to be selected from
S = {1, 2, ..., 9} so that
(a) The sum of two of the n integers is even.
(b) The difference of two of the n integers is 5.
6. There are 22 female students and 18 male students in a classroom. How many students are there in
total ?
7. Of 32 people who save paper or bottles (or both) for recycling. 30 save paper and 14 save bottles.
Find the number m of people who (a) save only paper (b) only save bottles (c) save both.
8. Suppose 12 people read Hindustan Times or Business Times or both. Given three people read only
Hindustan Times and six read both, find the number k of people who read only Business Times.
9. Consider a tournament in which of n players against every other players and each player wins at least
once. Show that there are at least two players having the same number of wins.
Hint. The number of wins for a player is at least 1 and at must n –1. These n –1 numbers correspond
to n –1 pigeonholes which cannot accommodate n players (pigeons) thus at least two players will
have the same number of wins.
❑❑❑
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
PROBLEM 1.1
1. (a), (c) (d), (f) and (h) are prepositions.
2. (a) Some students are not industrious.
(b) One side of mercury always does not face the sun.
(c) Either I do not like plums or I do not like drinking lemonade.
(d) A power of 2 some times ends in a 7.
(e) The sun will not be shinning and I shall not carry an umbrella.
PROBLEM 1.2
1. The true statements are p - q, p - r, p - s, q - r, q - s and r - s, is false.
2. The true statements are p . q, p . s, and q . s, the rest are false.
PROBLEM 1.3
1. (a) High speed driving is dangerous and Ram was a wise man.
(b) High speed driving is not dangerous or Ram was a wise man.
(c) High speed driving is dangerous and Ram was not a wise man.
(d) Hig speed driving is dangerous and Ram was a wise man or High speed driving is not
dangerous and Ram was not a wise man.
(e) Either high speed driving is dangerous or Ram was a wise man but not both.
PROBLEM 1.4
1. (a) ~p ∧ ~q, (b) F (c) T, (d) ~p.
PROBLEM 2.1
1. (a) {3, 13, 23, 33, 43}
(b) {7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42}
(c) {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29}
(d) {5 , – 5} are not even, φ
(e) {1, 3, 5, 15}
(f) {3, – 3}
(g) {–4, –2, 0, 2, 4, 6}.
2. (a), (b), (c), (d).
3. (a) {x | x is foreigner who visited India in 2007}
(b) {x | x is a point in a plane}
285
(c) {x | x is a line in a plane}

(d) {x | x is a multiple of 5}
(e) {x | x is an integral divisor of 48}
(f ) {x | x is divisor of 48 and 56}
(g) {x | x is an even integer}
(h) {x | x is a composite number}.
4. (a) {–26, –21, –16, –11, –6, –1, 4, 9, 14}
(b) {–9, –7, –5, –3, –1, 1, 3, 5, 7}
(c) {–11/3, –3, –7/3, –1, –1/3, 1/3, 0, 5/3}
(d) {14, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 0, – 2}.
5. (a) The set of positive integers
(b) {6}
(c) {Uttar Pradesh}
7. (a) The set of even integers
(b) {x | x = 3n, n is an integers}
(c) {x | –5 ≤ x ≤ 2 and x ∈ Z}
(d) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60}.
8. (b), (d), (f).
PROBLEM 2.2
1. B ⊂ A, C ⊂ A, D ⊂ A, E ⊂ A, B ⊂ D.
2. (a) A ⊆ D, (b) A ⊂ B, (c) B ⊂ C.
3. N ⊂ W, N ⊂ Z, N ⊂ Q, N ⊂ R, P ⊂ N, D ⊂ N, E ⊂ N, N ⊂ R,
W ⊂ Z, W ⊂ Q, W ⊂ R, P ⊂ W, Q ⊂ W, E ⊂ W, Z ⊂ Q,
Z ⊂ R, P ⊂ Z, O ⊂ Z, Z– ⊂ Z, Q ⊂ Z, P ⊂ Q, O ⊂ Q, E ⊂ Q,
Z– ⊂ Q, P ⊂ R, O ⊂ R, E ⊂ R, Z– ⊂ R, R ⊂ R.
5. (1) True, (2) False, (3) False, (4) True, (5) False.
6. {1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1} = {x | x3 – 6x3 + 11x – 6 = 0}.
PROBLEM 2.3
1. (a) A, (b) B, (c) C, (d) A, (e) φ, (f) A, (g) C, (h) B.
2. (i) (a) φ, (b) A, (c) U, (d) U, (e) φ, (f) A, (g) φ, (h) U.
(ii) (a) A, (b) A, (c) φ, (d) U.
3. (a) A ∩ B = set of all integral multiple of 6.
(b) A ∪ B = set of all integers divisible by 2 or by 3.
(c) B ∩ C = set of all integral multiples of 12.
(d) Z, (e) A, (f) A – ⊂ = {4n + 2 | n ∈ Z}.
(g) Z – C = {x | x is of the form 4n + 1 or 4n + 2 or 4n + 3, n ∈ Z}.
4. (a) A′, (b) φ, (c) A, (d) φ, (e) φ .
8. A, B, φ, (B – A)c.
10. (a) φ, (b) φ, (c) B.
(d) The set of integers between 1 and 50 exclusive, which are not multiple of 3, that is, D′
= {x | x = 3n + 1 or 3n + 2, n ∈ Z, 1 x 50}.
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 287
(e) The set of odd integral multiples of 3 between 1 and 50.

(f) The set of even integral multiple of 3 between 1 and 50.
(g) {x | x = n + 1 or x = 3n, 1 ≤ x ≤ 50, n ∈ Z}.
(h) {x | x 2n and x ≠ 3m, 1 ≤ x ≤ 50, n, m ∈ Z}.
(i) same as (h).
(j) {x | x = 2n or x ≠ 3m, 1 ≤ x ≤ 50 and n, m ∈ Z}.
(k) same as (j).
PROBLEM 2.4
1. P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d}, {c, d}, {b, c, d},
{a, c, d}, {a, b, d}, {a, b, c}, A}.
2. (a) 29, (b) 21, (c) 22, (d) 23,
(e) 24, (f) 25, (g) 20, = 1, when n = 0, 2n, n ≠ 0.
3. A (P) = {φ, {(a, b)}, {e}, {(a, b), c}}.
PROBLEM 2.5
1. A × B = {(–1, 0), (0, 0), (1, 0), (–1, 2), (0, 2), (1, 2)}
B × A = {(0, –1), (0, 0), (0, 1), (2, –1), (2, 0), (2, 1)}
2. S × T = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}
T × S = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (a, 2), (b, 2)}
3. A × B = {(1, x), (1, y), (1, z), (2, x), (2, y), (2, z), (3, x), (3, y), (3, z)}
B × A = {(x, 1), (y, 1), (z, 1), (x, 2), (y, 2), (z, 2), (x, 3), (y, 3), (z, 3)}
PROBLEM 2.6
1. (i) A15 (ii) {2, 3, 4, ....} = N – {1}
(iii) {4} (iv) R, the set of real numbers.
2. (i) D3 (ii) D30
(iii) DS ∪ Dt = Dm, m = min (S, t) (iv) DS ∩ Dt = DM, M = max (S, t).
PROBLEM 3.1
1. S × T = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y), (3, x), (3, y)}
Same S × T has 6 elements, there will be 26 subsets of S × T.
Write any ten subsets.
2. (a) {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (3, 3), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
(b) {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
(c) {(1, 4), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}
(d) {(1, 1), (2, 4)}
3. mm elements 2mn.
PROBLEM 3.2
1. (a), (b), (c) are equivalence relation.
(a) {[0], [1]}, (b) {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4]}.
3. (a) R = {(x, y) | y = x + 3,}, d (R) = {0, 1, 2, −1}

r (R) = {3, 4, 5, 2}.
(b) R = {(x, y) | y = x2}, d (R) = {–3, √2, 2}
r (R) = {9, 2, 4}.
(c) R = {(x, y) | y = √1 + x2}, d (R) = {0, 1, –1, 2, –2}
r (R) = {1, √2, √5}.
5. Since (1, 1), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), ∉ R, it is not reflexive.
Since (3, 5), ∈R, (5, 3) ∉ R, it is not symmetric.
Since (1, 3), (3, 1) ∈R, but (1, 1) ∉ R, it is not transitive.
6. {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (3, 5), (5, 3)}.
PROBLEM 3.3
1. 2. S × T = {(1, a), (2, a), (1, b), (2, b) (2, b)}
(i) {(1, a), (2, a)}, (iii) {(1, a), (2, b)}
(ii) {(1, b), (2, b)}, (iv) {(1, b), (2, a)}
2. S × T = {(1, x), (2, x), (3, x), (1, y), (2, y), (3, y)}.
(i) {(1, x) (2, x), (3, x)} (v) {(1, y), (2, y), (3, x)}
(ii) {(1, y), (2, y), (3, x)} (vi) {(1, y), (2, x), (3, y)}
(iii) {(1, x), (2, x), (3, y)} (vii) {(1, x), (2, x)}
(iv) {(1, x), (2, y), (3, x)} (viii) {(1, x), (2, y)}
(ix) {(1, y), (2, y)}
(x) {(1, y), (2, x)}
3. (a) and (b) are functions. (c) is not function because in (2, 1), (2, 3) first component 2 is
repeated.
4. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) and (h) are functions. And (g) and (i) one not functions.
5. (a) one (b) one (c) Sex (d) Two.
6. (i) {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3)} (ii) {(a, 1), (b, 3), (c, 2)}
(iii) {(b, 1), (a, 2), (c, 3)} (iv) {(b, 1), (a, 3), (c, 2)}
(v) {(c, 1), (a, 2), (b, 3)} (vi) {(c, 1), (a, 3), (b, 2)}
7. (a), (b), (d) are one to one.
8. (a) RF = R, (b) RF = R, (d) RF = R.
9. f (A) = {0, – 2, 18, 108}
10. Bijective function.
11. Many to one out into mapping.
PROBLEM 3.4
1. f o g = {(2, 5), (5, 2), (6, 5)}
g o f = {(1, 3), (3, 1)}
8. (a) True (b) False (c) True (d) True (e) True (f) false.
9. (a) No (b) No (c) Yes (d) Injective (e) Yes (f) Yes (g) Yes (h) Yes (i) Yes (j) Yes
(k) Yes (l) Yes.
PROBLEM 3.5
1. all satisfy conditions (1) and (2).
3. (a) is not commutative all associative.
(b) commutative all associative.
(c) commutative all associative.
(d) commutative all associative.
(e) not commutative all not associative.
(f) commutative all associative.
(g) commutative all associative.
(h) commutative all associative.
(i) commutative all associative.
4. (a) b * d = e, c * c = b (a * c) * e * a = a
(b) (a * b) * c = a = a * (b * c)
(c) (b * d) * c = a ≠ b * (d * c) = c
(d) No.
5. (a) False (b) True (c) False (d) False (e) True (f) True (g) True.
PROBLEM 4.1
1. (a) 1 > 5 (b) 2 y 3 (c) 4 < 1 (d) 3 y 4
2. (a) Minimal points = {4, 5}, maximal point = {1}. 4 5 are lower bound and 1 is upper bound.
24
6
3. (a) A = {2, 6, 24). 2/6, 6/24
2
15
(b) A = {3, 5, 15}, 3/5, 5/15

3 5
12
6
2
(c) A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 12} 1/2, 1/3, 2/3, 3/6, 6/12. 3
16
(d) A = {2, 4, 8, 16} 4
2
54
27
(e) A = {3, 9, 27, 54} 9
3
{a}
5. A = {a}. P(A) = {φ, {a}}

B
8. (a) x1 R x2, x3 R x5, x1 R x1 are true and rest are false.

(b) x1 is the greatest in P and least does not eixst.
(c) Upper bound of {x2, x3, x4} is x1 and lower bound is x4.
∴ LUB = x1 and GLB = x4 and so on.
PROBLEM 4.4
1. The elements 1 and 75 are complements of each other. The elements 3 and 25 are complements
of each other. The elements 5 and 15 have no complements.
4. S30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} is complemented
and S45 = {1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45} is not complemented.
PROBLEM 5.1
7. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) (a · b) + c
(d) b (e) x′ · y .
PROBLEM 5.2
1. (a) 1 (b) x′ (c) x
3. (i) xz + x′y′z′ = xyz + xy′z + x′y′z′
(ii) xz′ + y′z = xyz′ + xy′z′ + xy′z′ + x′y′z
4. g (x, y, z) = xz′ + y′z, h (x, y, z) = xyz′ + xy′z + x′yz.
PROBLEM 5.3
1. (a) f (x, y, z) = (x, y, z′).
(b) f (x, y, z,) = (x · y · z′) + (x · y′· z) + (x · y′· z′) + (x′ · y · z′) + x′ · y′ · z + x′ · y′ · z′.
2. (a) (x · y′ · z) + (yx′ · z′) + (x′ · y · z) + (x′ · y′ · z) + (x′ · y · z′) + (x′ · y′ · z′); and
(x + y′ + z) – (x + y′ + z′) – (x′ + y + z) – (x′ + y′ + z) · (x′ + y + z′)
– (x′ + y′ + z′).
(b) (x · y · z) + (x · y · z′) + (x′ · y′ · z) + (x′ · y′ · z′); and
(x + y + z) · (x + y + z′) · (x′ + y′ + z) · (x′ + y′ + z′).
(c) (x · y · z′) + (x · y′ · z′) + (x′ · y · z) + (x′ · y · z′); and
(x + y + z′) · (x + y′ + z′) · (x′ + y + z) . (x′ + y + z′).
3. (a) (x · y) + (x · y′) + (x′ · y); (x + y) . (x + y′) . (x′ + y).

(b) (x . y) + (x . y′); (x + y) . (x + y′).
(c) (x · y · z) + (x · y · z′) + (x′ · y · z) + (x′ · y′ · z);
(x + y + z) · (x + y + z′) · (x′ + y + z) · (x′ + y′ + z).
(d) (x · y · z) + (x · y, z′) + (x · y′ · z);
(x + y + z) · (x + y + z′) · (x + y′ + z).
4. (i) f (x, y, z) = x · (x + y)
(ii) f (x, y, z) = x. y. (x′ + z) + y (y′ + z′)
(iii) f (x, y, z, w) = x · [y · (x′ + w) + z.(y′ + x)].
PROBLEM 6.1
1. (a) True and rest are false.
2. (a) 3. (a) F (b) F (c) F (d) T (e) F
4. (b) 4 × 2 (e) 5 × 5 (f) 5 × 2
6. (a) [67 41 41] (b) [64 28 59]
LM 6 OP
(c) [63 67 57] (d) MM 6 PP
N63Q
LM76OP
(e) [24 56 97] (f) MM98PP
N97Q
7. [182]
L3 7 −3 OP LM 3 0 OP
(a) M MM10 PP
9.
MN4 8 −1PQ
(b)
N11
0
4 Q
PROBLEM 6.2
LM 2 −1OP , B LM
1 4 3 OP 1 3 0 LM OP
1. A–1 =
N−5 3 Q N Q N Q
–1 = , C–1 =
20 −4 2 6 0 2
1 L 6 −4O
A= − M
2 N −5 3 PQ
3.
LM 7 2 OP
A = M4 1P
7 7
MN 7 7 PQ
4.
A = M
L 1 0 OP , A LM
1 27 0 OP 0 0 LM OP
N26 27Q N Q N Q
5. 3 –3 = , A2 –2A + I = .
27 −26 1 4 4
PROBLEM 6.3
LM2 −1OP LM0 1OP LM1 3OP

1. (a)
N1 1 Q (b)
N1 0Q (c)
N0 1Q
(d) M
L4 3 OP
N2 −1Q
(a) M
L 0 1OP LM−1 0 OP LM1 0OP
2.
N − 1 0Q (b)
N 0 −1Q
(c)
N0 0Q
(d) M
L0 0OP
N 0 1Q
3. (a) (1, –2) (b) (–2, 1) (c) (2, 0), (d) (0, 1)
LM 1 − 1 OP L0 −1 OP LM−1 OP LM 0 +1 OP LM 23 1 OP
MM 12 1 2 PP, MM
0
, M P
P M P M P
2
0 PQ M− 1 3P
4. , ,
MN 2 2 PQ MN1 0 PQ MN 0 −1PQ MN−1
MN 2 2 PQ
L1 0O
(a) M4 1P
LM1 −2OP
7.
N Q (b)
N0 1 Q
LM1 0 OP LM+6 0OP
(a) M 1P
8.
MN 3 PQ
0
(b)
N 0 1Q
9. (a) Expands in x-direction by factor 3.
(b) Expands in the negative of x-direction by factor –5.
(c) Sheor in the x-direction by factor 4.
LM1 0OP LM 1 0OP LM 1 2 OP

(a) M P MM 2 PP = MM 2 2 PP
10.
N Q N 0 1Q N 0 5 Q
0 5
L1 0OP LM1 0OP = LM1 0OP

(b) M
MN2 1PQ MN0 5PQ MN2 5PQ
L−1 0 OP LM0 1OP = LM 0 −1OP
(c) M
MN 0 −1PQ MN1 0PQ MN−1 0 PQ
(a) M
L0 1OP LM5 0OP LM−1 0OP = LM 0 1OP
11.
MN1 0QP NM0 1QP MN 0 1QP MN−5 1PQ
L1 OP LM1 OP LM 23 −1
OP LM 3 −1
OP
(b) M
0 0
MM0 PM P1P MM 1 P = MM PP
2 2 2
3PQ MN2 3P
N Q MN 2 2 PQ MN3 3+3
2
−3 +
3
2 PQ
3
11 3
14. y′ = x′ +
16 16
2
15. (a) y′ = x′ (b) y′ = x′ (c) y′ = 2x′
7
F 2+ 3 I
(d) y′ = –2x′ (e) y′ = GH 1 − 2 3 JK x′
LM1 −2 OP
16.
MN0 1 PQ
PROBLEM 7.1
1. (i) ρ (A) = 3, (ii) ρ (A) = 2, (iii) ρ (A) = 2, (iv) ρ (A) = 2,
(v) ρ (A) = 2, (vi) ρ (A) = 3, (vii) ρ (A) = 1, (viii) ρ (A) = 2.
PROBLEM 7.2
1. (a) ρ (A) = 1, (b) ρ (A) = 3, (c) ρ (A) = 2, (d) ρ (A) = 3,
(e) ρ (A) = 4, (f) ρ (A) = 2, (g) ρ (A) = 2.
PROBLEM 7.3
1. (i) ρ (A) = 3, (ii) ρ (A) = 4, (iii) ρ (A) = 3, (iv) ρ (A) = 2,
(v) ρ (A) = 2, (vi) ρ (A) = 4, (vii) ρ (A) = 3, (viii) ρ (A) = 4,
(ix) ρ (A) = 2, (x) ρ (A) = 2, (xi) ρ (A) = 3, (xii) ρ (A) = 3.
PROBLEM 7.4
1 0 0 1 −1 −1
1 −1 0 ,Q= 0 1 0
1. (a) P =
2 2
0 0 1
−2 −1 1
1 −2 −1 −4
1 0 0 3
3 1 0 1 0 −1
(b) P = 0 ,Q=
2 2 3
1 1 0 0 1
1 2
8 2
0 0 0 1
1 −6 10 −2 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
(c) P = ,Q= 0 0 1 −1 0
2
−1 9 0 0
8 8
0 0 1 1 0
− 1 1 1 1
4 4 4 8
0 0 −3 −1 0
2
1 0 0 0 1 −2 −3 2
−2 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
(d) P = ,Q=
−1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
2 1
− 0 0 0 0 1 0
9 3
1 3 −1 1 3
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
(e) P = 1 −2 0 ,Q= 0 0 1 −2 5
−4 5 1 0 −1 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 1
2. ρ (A) = 3, ρ (B) = 1, ρ (A + B) = 3.
PROBLEM 7.6
1
0
2
0 −3 2 −6 −2
1 1 2 −7 5 −13 −4
1. A–1 = − − , 2. A–1 =
11 22 11 2 −1 4 1
4 7 3 1 0 1 0
−
11 22 11
0 2 1 3
6 3 −3
1 1 −1 −2
3. A–1 = , 4. A–1 = 2 −2 1
1 2 0 1
−1 1 5
−1 1 2 6
PROBLEM 7.7
1. (3), 2. (b), 3. (a), 4. (a),
5. (c), 6. T T T T T T F, 7. (a) 3, (b) 2, (c) 1, (d) 2, (e) 1.
8. F T T T F T T T T F T.
PROBLEM 8.1
6 −2 1
1. , , . 2. 2, –1, –2, 3.
5 25 25
3. 1 + λ , –1, λ, 4. –10, –6, 0.
λ is any real number.
5. –10, –6, 0 6. 9, –38, –6
7. –1 + 11λ, – 2 + 14λ, λ, λ is any real number.
8. 1, 2, 3 9. 2 – 7k , 1 + 2k , k , k is any real number
10. –1, 4, 4 11. 2, 2, 2.
12. 1, –1, 1 13. 1, 2, 3
2
14. 1, 2, 3 15. 0, , −1
3
PROBLEM 8.2
−10 8
1. k, k , k , k is any real number.
7 7
1 3
2. – k, k, – λ, k, t = λ , k, λ are real numbers.
2 2
3. –2k, – k , k , k is any real number.
−16 7 1 3
4. k+ , k+ , k , k is any real number.
11 11 11 11
5. k ,– k , – k , k is any real number.
5k 7k
6. , 4k , , w = k , k is any real number.
9 9
7. – 7k ,–5k, k, k is any real number.
1
8. – k , k, o, k is any real number.
2
5 2
9. k, –k, − k, k is any real number
3 3
10. x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.
PROBLEM 8.3
20 1 22
1. , , ; 2. 1, 2, 3;
9 3 9
5 3 35 29 5
3. , , 0; 4. , , ;
2 2 18 18 18
5. 1, 2, 3
PROBLEM 9.2
1 2 1
1. (a) λ1 = 1, x1 = − 1 , λ2 = 2, x2 = −
− 1 , λ3 = 31 x3 = 1
0 0 2
1 1
(b) λ1 = 5, x1 = 2 , λ2 = 1, λ3 = 1, x2 = 0
1 −1
2 1 0
−
(c) λ1 = 9, x1 = 1 , λ2 = 3, x2 = 1 , λ = –3, x = 1
3 3
−1 1 −1
1 1 1
(d) λ1 = –1, x1 = 1 , λ2 = 2, x2 = 1 , λ3 = 2, x3 = 1
0 −3 −3
LM k OP LM5 k OP
N Q
(e) λ1 = 6, x1 = − k , λ2 = 1, x2 = 2 k
N Q
LM4OP , λ LM2 k OP .
(f) λ1 = 6, x1 =
Nk Q 2 = 6, x2 =
N −k Q
PROBLEM 9.3
1. (a) T, (b) T, (c) T, (d) T, (e) F.
2. (i) Characteristic, (ii) Characteristic, (iii) Characteristic,
(iv) Characteristic, (v) Real, (vi) Zero or purely imaginary,
(vii) Skew Hermitian.
3. (a) F, (b) T, (c) T, (d) T, (e) F, (f) T, (g) T, (h) F, (i) T, (j) T, (k) T, (l) F, (m) F.
PROBLEM 10.1
1. 7, 210, 840, 5040 3. 10 4. 10
5. 7, 3 8. 95040 9. 7!
10. 120 11. 9!–1 12. 120, 1440
13. 120, 600, 243 14. 600, 5! 15. 210
16. 120.
PROBLEM 10.2
1. 180 2. 45360 3. 2880
14 ! 13 !
4. 5. 7560 6. 3 ! 4 ! 2 ! 2 !
2 ! 3! 2 !
10 ! 11 !
7. 2 ! 2 ! 2 ! 2 ! 8. 3 ! 3 ! 2 ! 2 ! 9. 720, 24
10. 60 11. 2160 12. 8.9!

13. 18.19! 14. 325
PROBLEM 10.3
1. 6 ! 2. 2880 3. 1440, 3600
4. 8 !, 2 ! 5. 6 ! 4 ! 12C7
PROBLEM 10.4
1. 25, 56, 15 2. 1440, 3600 3. 20
4. 364 5. 286, 78 6. 120, 186, 186
7. 25200 8. 344 9. 25
PROBLEM 10.5
2. 17 5. (a) 3 (b) 6 6. 40
7. (a) 18 (b) 2 (c) 12 8. 3
❑❑❑
This page
intentionally left
blank
Index
A A chain, 77 Complete, 101
Anti-chain, 77 Complete disjunctive normal form, 124
A cover, 78 Complex number, 179
Argument, 14 Compound proposition, 2
Associative, 69 Compression, 156, 159
Augmented matrix, 214 Conclusion, 14
Automorphism, 98 Conditional proposition, 10
B Binary, 43 Conformable, 148
Binary relation, 44 Congruence modulo, 48, 49
Binary operation, 68 Conjunction, 4, 14
Boolean algebra, 106, 112, 113 Conjunctive normal forms, 126
Boolean function, 122 Conjunctive normal, 125
Boolean polynominal, 122 Connected in series, 133
Bounded lattice, 102 Connective, 3
C Canonical form, 124, 192 Consistent, 214
Cartesian product, 36 Constant, 56
Cayley Hamilton theorem, 237 Contradiction, 7
Characteristic equation, 237 Contrapositive, 11
Characteristic matrix, 233 Converse, 11
Characteristic polynomial, 233 Copula, 2
Characteristic root, 247 Countable, 72
Characteristic value problem, 247 Counting principle, 261
Characteristic vector, 247
D De Moivre’s Theorem, 182
Circular, 48
Circular permutations, 271 Declarative sentence, 1
Class of sets, 38 Denumerable, 72
Coefficient matrix, 214 Diagonal elements, 44
Collinear, 186 Diagonal matrix, 141
Column matrix, 141, 214 Disjoint, 26
Column vector, 141 Disjunction, 3
Combination, 272, 261 Disjunctive normal form, 124
Commutative, 69 Distributive, 69
Comparable, 52, 77 Distributive lattice, 104
Complement F′, 125 Domain, 44, 56
Complement, 102 Dual canonical form, 126
Complemented lattice, 102 Dual canonical, 125
Compete canonical form, 124 Dual order, 77
299
300 INDEX
Duality, 113 Indexed, 38

Duality principle, 28 Indexed family, 38
Dyadic, 43 Index set, 38
Echelon matrix, 215 Infimum, 81
E
Eigen values, 247 Infinite, 59, 72
Eigen vector, 247 Infinite solutions, 216
Elementary matrix, 188 Injective map, 59
Elementary operations, 215 Integers modulo, 52
Elementary row transformations, 215 Intersection, 26
Elementary transformation, 187 Intersection complementation, 24
Empty, 44 Into mapping, 57
Empty set, 19 Inverse, 11, 62
Endomorphism, 98 Inverse element, 69
Enumerable, 72 Inverse transformations, 166
Equal, 57 Is included in, 119
Equal sets, 22 Isomorphic, 98
Equivalence class, 49 Isotonicity, 88
Equivalence relation, 45 J Join or sum, 84
Equivalent system of equations, 215
L Latent rector, 247
Equivalent, 72, 188
Latent roots, 247
Exclusive sense, 4
Lattice, 82, 84
Expansion, 156, 159
Lattice homomorphism, 97
F Finite, 72 Leading coefficients, 233
Function, 55 Least member, 80
Functional notation, 56 Least upper bound, 81
Fundamental forms, 127 Length of the chain, 77
Generalized pigeonhole principle, 282 Linear transformation, 153
G
Greatest lower bound, 81 Linearly ordered, 77
Greatest member, 80 Listing method, 18
Logical equivalent, 7
H Hasse diagram, 78 Lower bound, 80
I Idempotent, 69 m by n matrix, 141
M
Identical, 22 Main diagonal, 141
Identical sets, 22 Many-to-one mapping, 57
Identity mapping, 56 Mapping, 55
Identity transformation, 163 Matrix polynomial, 233
Image set, 55 Matrix transformation, 154
Immediate predecessor, 78 Meet or product, 84
Immediate successor, 78 Minimal boolean polynominal, 123
Inclusion-exclusion principle, 283 Minor of order r, 184
Inconsistent, 214, 216 Modular, 108
Indeterminate, 233 Modular inequality, 90
INDEX 301
N Negation, 2, 3 Rotation, 156

Negative, 141 Rotation matrix, 157
Normal form, 192 Row matrix, 141
Null matrix, 141 Row vector, 141
Null relation, 44 Same set, 22
S
Null set, 19 Scalar matrix, 142
O (One-to-one) correspondence, 72 Secular equation, 237
One-to-one mapping, 58 Sequence, 57
Onto, 57 Set, 17
Order, 141 Shear in, 160
Ordered pair, 36 Shears, 156
Order relation, 75 Simple proposition, 2
Ordered set, 75 Singleton set, 19
Order subset, 77 Single-valuedness, 55
Partial order relation, 52, 75 Single-valued relation, 55
P
Size or order, 141
Partially ordered set, 52, 75
Partition, 51, 261 Skew symmetric, 144
Solution of the system, 214
Permutations, 261
Pigeonhole principle, 282 Square matrix, 141
Standard basis points, 154
Pigeonholes, 282
Poset, 75 Standard matrix, 155
Statement method, 18
Post factor, 146
Power set, 35 Structure theorem for Boolean functions,
127
Predicate, 2
Subset, 21
Prefactor, 146
Sum rule, 261
Premises, 14
Super set, 21
Preposition, 1
Superman, 81
Product, 262
Surjection, 57
Projection, 56
Switching functions, 133
Proper roots, 247
Symmetric, 45, 143
Proper subset, 21
Symmetric difference, 32
Proper vector, 247
System of homogeneous linear equations,
Q Quasi-order, 77 226
Quotient set, 51 Systems of indices, 38
R Range, 44, 56 T Tautology, 6

Rank, 184 Total order relation, 52, 77
Rank of the system, 215 Totally ordered set, 77
Rank zero, 184 Transitive, 45
Rectangular matrix, 141 Translation, 163
Reflections, 156 Transpose, 143
Reflexive, 45 Trivial solution, 226
Residue classes modulo, 51 Truth value, 1
302 INDEX
U Unary operation, 3 Universe of discourse, 20

Union, 24 Universe, 20
Unique solution, 216 Upper bound, 80
Unit element, 69 Well defined collection of objects, 17
W
Unit matrix, 142 Well ordered, 82
Unit set, 19
Universal bounds, 120 Z Zero matrix, 141
Universal relation, 44 Zero set, 19
Universal set, 20 ❑❑❑

Vatsa - Vatsa (2009) - Discrete Mathematics, 4th Edition PDF

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ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2506-2

PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

2. Set Theory 17–42

2.8 Union Operation 24

3. Relation and Functions 43–74

4. Ordered Sets and Lattices 75–111

5. Boolean Algebra and Switching Circuits 112–139

6.12 Rotation 156

7. Rank and Equivalence 184–213

8. Linear Equations 214–232

9. Characteristic Roots and Vectors of a Matrix 233–260

Problem 9.1 246

10. Combinatorics 261–284

(c) When I consider how my light is spent.

1.2 TYPE OF PROPOSITIONS

1.3 THE PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS

1.3.1 Propositional Connectives–Truth Tables

1.4 THE NEGATION OF A PROPOSITION

‘Negation’ is known as unary operation.

Example 1.5.1. Let p and q be the propositions given by

1.7 TAUTOLOGIES AND CONTRADICTIONS

1.8 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

1.9 THE ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS

(c) {(∼p - ∼q - r) . (p . r)} - {p . (∼q - r)}

1.10 CONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

From the columns (3) and (5) is clear that

1.11. CONVERSE, INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE PROPOSITIONS

1.12 THE NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL PROPOSITION

1.13 BICONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS

The following table shows that

If p1 . p2 . p3 . ...., . pn ⇒ p is not a tautology then the argument p1, ..., pn d p is invalid.

p1 p2 ∼p1 ∼p2 p1 ⇒ p2 p1 ⇒ p2 . ∼p2 p1 ⇒ p2 . ∼p2

If follows from the last column that

p q r s p⇒ q r⇒ s p-r ~s or p⇒ r⇒ q⇒ p⇒ q.r⇒ (12) ⇒

Since p ⇒ q . r ⇒ s . p - r . p ⇒ ∼ s . r ⇒ ∼ q ⇒ q ⇔ ∼ s is tautology, the argument

∴ (p ⇒ q) ⇒ (q ⇒ p) is not a tautology. Hence the argument is invalid.

2.2 SET DESIGNATION

x ∉ A is read “x does not belong to A”, or

2.3 NULL SETS AND UNIT SETS

2.4 SPECIAL SETS OF NUMBERS

2.5 UNIVERSAL SET

5. Express each of the following sets in different ways:

2.6 SUBSETS: PROPER SUBSETS AND EQUAL SETS

2.7 SET OPERATIONS

2.8 UNION OPERATION

A = Triangular area A ∪ B = Shaded area

2.9 PROPERTIES OF UNION OPERATION

(1) (2) A U B (3) (A U B) UC

A = Triangular area A ∩ B = Shaded area

Example 2.10.1. If A = {x | x ∈ Z and x ≥ 9}

2.11 PROPERTIES OF INTERSECTION OPERATION

2.12 DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTIES

(1) B ∩ C (2) A ∪ (B ∩ C) (3) A ∪ B

From (2) and (5), we have

2.14 RELATIVE COMPLEMENT (OR DIFFERENCE OF SETS)

(1) A – B = B–A= (2) A – B = φ, B – A = (3) A – B = A B–A=B

2.15 PROPERTIES OF COMPLEMENT

(1) A ! B = (2) (A ! B)′ =

2.16 PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENCE

Hence from (1) and (2)