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    Cryptography

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    Cryptography

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    Cryptography

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    yaganti sivakrishna

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    CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Introduetion ‘The introduction of distributed systems, the impact of availability of communication facilites, and the utility of networks for the transmission of information, brought in a revolution in the area of network security. Network security deals with the measures that are required to protect information which is in the process of transmission. As all the organizations dealing with one activity or the other, interconnect their data processing equipment with a set of interconnected networks, such a set of networks is known as internet, and the security of information which is being transmitted by internet is known as Network Security. Internet security mainly focuses its attention on the measures which are to be taken to deter, prevent, detect and correct all sorts of security violations that involve the transmission of information, In the development of the mechanisms for all these measures, cryptography plays a prominent role and it acts as the required foundation for the intemet security. Cryptography deals with the conversion of information from one form to another wherein the latter can be deciphered only by the person to whom it is intended. In the last five decades, there is a splendid simultaneous growth in cryptography as well as in the network security, as the cryptography is found to be an interesting area by itself, and it has been a strong supporter of network security. 1.2, Basie Concepts of Network Security ‘The basic concepts in the area of network security are: 1. security attacks 2. security mechanisms 3. security services 1.2.1, Security Attacks In the case of the normal flow of information, information flows from source to destination. The source can be a file or the content of a region of the main memory of a ‘computer, and the destination can be another file, ora user, or it could be even another computer. ‘The different types of attacks which disruptor alter the normal flow are a) interruption b) interception ¢) modification d) fabrication PysWvERSITY >) 2 LIBRARY dal In the case of interruption, an asset of the system is either destroyed or not available, For example, the hard disk of the system is destroyed or the file management system is not functioning properly. In the case of interception, an unauthorized party gains access to an asset of a computer. This is an attack on confidentiality and it may lead to copying of files or programs. In the attack, named, modification, the values of data in a data file are altered or the program is modified so that it will function in a different manner, This is an attack on integrity of the information, In the case of fabrication, an unauthorized party may introduce false messages into a network or add spurious records to a file. This will affect the authenticity of information. The attacks on the flow of information can be classified into two types 1. passive attacks, and 2. active attacks, ‘The passive attacks are further divided into a) release of message content, and b) traffic analysis, In the case of the release of message content, we would like to prevent an opponent from knowing the contents of the transmitted information, In the traffic analysis, though the opponent is not able to know the content of the message, (as the message is generally encrypted) he /she can determine the identity of communication parties and can find the frequency and the length of the message which is being exchanged. The active attacks are of four types a) Masquerade) Replay c) modification of the message d) Denial of service In the case of the masquerade, a person impersonates some other person and gathers information which the individual under consideration is not supposed to have, Replay involves passive capture of data and its transmission at a later time. In the modification of message, only some portion of the message is altered so that the structure and the tempo are maintained. In the denial of service, all messages directed to a particular destination are suppressed. 1.2.2, Security Mechanisms There is no single mechanism for achieving security. However, encryption and decryption play a major role in providing security, Thus the algorithms of cryptography are to be designed in an effective manner so that they cannot be broken by any cryptanalytic attack, 1.2.3, Security Services These services can be classified as follows: confidentiality 2) authentication 3) integrity 4) nonrepudiation 5) access control 6) availability 1.2.3.1, Confidentiality Confidentiality protects transmitted data from passive attacks. If a person A sends a message to B, then it will be known only to A and B, and no third party, say C, can have any access to message, This is known as confidentiality. The other aspect of confidentiality is the protection of traffic flow. Thus an attacker will not be able to know the related information such as the source and destination, the frequency and the length of the information. 1.2.3.2, Authentication Th the case of a message from a single source, authentication ensures that the source is authentic (genuine). On the other hand, if one party communicating with another party, if both the parties are authentic and no third party can masquerade as one or the two parties mentioned earlier, then the service under consideration is known as authentication. 1.2.3.3, Integrity In the case of any message, if there is no duplication, insertion, modification, reordering, replay, then the message is said to have integrity. 1.2.3.4, Nonrepudiation ‘Nonrepudiation prevents both the sender and the receiver from denying a transmitted message. Thus when a message is sent, the receiver can establish that, the message was in fact sent by the alleged sender. Similarly when a message is received, the sender can prove that the message was in fact received by the alleged receiver. 1.2.3.5, Access control The principle of access control determines who should be able to access what. For instance, we can specify that user A can view the records of a database but he cannot update them. However, user B might be allowed to update also. An access control mechanism can be set up to ensure this. Access control mechanism is broadly related to two areas 1) role management and, 2) rule management Role management focuses its attention on the user, ie., which user can do what. On the other hand, rule management is concerned with the resource side (Which resource is accessible ‘under what circumstances). 12.3.6, Availability A variety of security attacks can cause loss in the availability of information. Some of these attacks can be opposed by automated counter measures such as authentication and encryption, while the other variety of attacks can be counteracted only by physical action. The principle of availability states that resources should be available to authorized parties at all times. An example of non availability can be mentioned as follows. Due to intentional or unintentional action of an unauthorized person or an attacker C, an authorized user A is not able to access a server, say, S. 1.3, Basie concepts of cryptography Cryptography is a branch of computer science which deals with the coding of messages in one form into another form, Here it is to be noted that in the parlance of computer science & engineering, a message is to be termed as a file wherein the file contains any type of data which can be converted into binary form. It can be a data file, text file, image file, audio file, video file ete., A message in its original form is called as plaintext, while the message in its coded form is known as ciphertext, The process of converting the plaintext, into ciphertext is known as ‘encryption, (enciphering), while the process of converting the ciphertext into its corresponding plaintext is called as decryption or deciphering. A cryptographic system which includes both encryption and decryption is known as a cipher. Cryptanalysis deals with different techniques for breaking a cipher. The areas of cryptography and cryptanalysis put together are called cryptology. In the system of cryptography, key plays a fundamental role. A key is a set of numbers which is used to transform the plaintext into a corresponding ciphertext. A key is called as a secret key (symmetric key), public key, or private key depending upon its nature and utility. In the development of the cryptographic algorithms diffusion and confusion play a vital role, As a plaintext gets converted into binary bits, if the bits are scattered in all possible directions (by the operation of the key ot by any operation on the plaintext), then the process is known as diffusion. In view of this process the statistical properties of the data comprising the plaintext will be disfigured and scattered significantly. Confusion arises on account of the transposition of elements of a plaintext in a pell-mell manner, This phenomenon comes into picture due to mixing of the binary bits or interlacing of binary strings and relocation of the binary bits occurring in the plaintext or it may arise due to ‘any permutation introduced into the cipher or due to a combination of some or all of the aforementioned features, It can also be visualized as a consequence of substitution of one string in the place of another string. Thus transposition and substitution play a primary role in creating confusion and diffusion, and they stand as the fundamental building blocks of cryptography. In addition to these, iteration (repetition of a process for several times) plays a dominating role in strengthening a cipher, In the development of cryptography, all the operations applied in the encryption algorithm (i.¢., as we proceed from plaintext to ciphertext) must be reversible in the process of decryption so that we can safely come back from the ciphertext to the plaintext. All the algorithms in cryptography can be classified into (1) secret key algorithms and (2) public key algorithms. They may also be termed as symmetric key algorithms and asymmetric key algorithms respectively. In the case of secret key algorithms, the key is shared by both the sender and the receiver. On the other hand, in the public key algorithms, we use a pair of keys- one key for encryption and the other key for decryption. The secret key algorithms are also classified into stream ciphers and block ciphers, In a stream cipher, data in a plaintext is encrypted by taking one bit or one byte (corresponding to a character) at a time, In the block cipher, a block of plaintext is encrypted as a whole by taking a set of characters at a time. In all the block ciphers, block size, key size, and the number of iterations (rounds) enrich the strength of the algorithm. Cryplanalysis is the most fundamental concept in the area of cryptography. It deals with analytical techniques which determine whether a cipher can be broken or not. Having no ‘knowledge of the key, and knowing fully the algorithms for encryption and decryption, and having some idea about plaintext and /or ciphertext or knowledge of pair of plaintext and ciphertext, an analyst makes an attempt to determine the key (if possible) or at least a portion of the message with which one can build up the rest, However, knowing the key is a lucky instance to the analyst in case if he is an attacker, The different types of elementary cryptanalytic attacks well known in the literature of cryptography are: 1) ciphertext only attack (2) known plaintext attack (3) chosen plaintext attack (4) chosen ciphertext attack and (5) chosen text attack. In all these attacks algorithms for encryption and decryption are known. In the ciphertext only attack, ciphertext is also known. Basing upon the length of plaintext block, a procedure can be developed by exploring all possible keys. This procedure is known as bruteforce attack. In the case of the known plaintext attack we have the knowledge of as many plaintext and ciphertext pairs as we require. With the help of these pairs, we develop a procedure for determining the key. In the case of chosen plaintext attack, the plaintext is chosen in a special manner. Similarly, in the case of chosen ciphertext attack, the ciphertext is chosen in specific manner having @ motive to break the cipher. Tn the case of chosen text both the plaintext and the ciphertext are selected with equal importance. Here it is tobe noted that the validity ofa cipher cannot be taken to be granted unless i is supported by cryptanalysis. However, the literature of cryptography suggests that the strength of an algorithm can be estimated by examining avalanche effect. In this effect we change one binary bit in the plaintext or the key and find the corresponding ciphertext. If this change of one bit leads to a change in large number of bits of the ciphertext, then we can conclude that the strength of the cipher is quite significant, and hence we can rely upon it. ‘It may be noted here that a cryptographic algorithm is to be designed such that it sustains at least the ciphertext only attack, and the known plaintext attack (1). 1.4. Mathematical tools in cryptography The basic concepts of mathematics which are utilized in the area of cryptography and security are 1) modular arithmetic, 2) finite fields and 3) some principles of number theory. The basic ideas related to the topics (1) and (2) are used in the development of block ciphers while those of (3) are applied inthe public key cryptography. In the present thesis, we have confined our attention to block ciphers, in which we have made use of modular arithmetic and modular arithmetic inverse. Thus, here we discuss only these two aspects. In addition to these, we deal with linear congruences which are used in designing the block ciphers in this thesis, Modular arithmetic Ifais any integer and Nis a positive integer then we can form a elation of the form a=qNtr (14) where q and r satisfy the relations la/N| and0

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