ME 6012- Maintenance Engineering

Unit - I
MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING:
Maintenance is the routine and recurring process of keeping a particular machine or asset in its
normal operating conditions So that it can deliver the expected performance or service without
any loss or damage.
Maintenance is the routine and recurring process of keeping a particular machine or asset in its
normal operating condition so that it can deliver the expected performance or service without any
loss or damage. The responsibility of the maintenance function should be to ensure that reduction
equipments are available for use maximum cost within stipulated time period.
Maintenance is the combination of all technical and associated administrative actions intended to
retain an item in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform its required function. Many
companies are seeking to gain competitive advantage with respect to cost, quality, and service and
on-time deliveries. The effect of maintenance on these variables has prompted increased
attention to the maintenance area as an integral part of productivity improvement. Maintenance
is rapidly evolving into a major contributor to the performance and profitability of manufacturing
systems. In fact, some see maintenance as the "last frontier" for manufacturing.
 Preventive maintenance — the prevention of equipment breakdowns before they happen.
This includes inspections, adjustments, regular service and planned shutdowns.
 Repair work— repairing equipment and troubleshooting malfunctions in an effort to return
the equipment to its previous condition. These repairs may be reactive or preventive.
 Improvement work— searching for better materials and improved design changes to
facilitate equipment reliability. Repair work is often a part of improvement work.
INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF PLANNING:
Planning ensures the smooth operation of the system. For effective working of a system, it is
necessary to plan and schedule its activities. Planning is a task to convert the concepts into
actions. Planning is classified into three major categories,
 Short range planning
 Long range planning
  Planning for immediate action
MAINTENANCE PLANNING:
The work process we call maintenance planning can almost always be improved in any given mill
or plant. In fact in most plants we visit maintenance planners don’t plan. Planners do all kinds of
tasks except work order planning. Typical things planners do, and should not do are:
 Act as relief supervisors
 Expedite Materials
 Work on tools
 Plan emergency work
This month’s reliability tip will help your plant to work in the right direction. Start by drawing up
and agreeing to the maintenance planning work flow. This work must include all involved
personnel in order to get buy in to the process. The planning work process is not a standalone
process. The planning process is just a piece of our complete planning and scheduling manual we
use to customize to our client’s needs. But identifying the maintenance planning process is a very
good starting point; your plant can continue the work flow identification in the same format for
scheduling, work order initiation, etc. We have provided an example from our manual you can use
as a starting point for your effort.
The first and foremost task in maintenance planning is the distribution of the jobs to the personnel
for preventive and emergency maintenance works. It is the practice to form two separate task
groups to tackle the both. If not possible a same group can also be used to tackle both the
situations in such way that during scheduling, time must be devoted for unforeseen breakdowns
or situations in maintenance.
OBJECTIVES OF MAINTENANCE PLANNING:
The purpose of the MP evaluation is to determine the effectiveness of the maintenance concept at
the organizational and depot level to support the system. The evaluation will ensure that
preventive MP is consistent with the RCM concept; support efforts and maintenance intervals are
minimized; planned maintenance tasks are optimally structured; and preventive maintenance
task times are standardized.
THE ACTIVITIES OF PLANNED MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES:
 To achieve minimum breakdown and to keep the plant in good working condition at the
 lowest possible cost
 To ensure the availability of the machines and services in an optimum working condition
 To keep the time schedule of delivery
 To meet the availability requirements for critical equipments
 To keep machines and other facilities in a condition to be used to achieve the maximum
profit without any interruption.
 To control the cost of maintenance related activities
 To provide effective and trained supervision
 To meet the quality requirements of the product
 To increase the profits of production systems
IMPORTANT FACTORS CONSIDERED IN MAINTENANCE PLANNING:
The main reason for a maintenance plan is that it is the most cost-effective way to maintain the
value of an asset. The advantages of a plan are:
 The property is organized and maintained in a systematic rather than ad-hoc way;
 Building services can be monitored to assist their efficient use;
 The standard and presentation of the property can be maintained;
 Subjective decision making and emergency corrective maintenance are minimized.
When buildings are neglected, defects can occur which may result in extensive and avoidable
damage to the building fabric or equipment. Neglect of maintenance can also give rise to fire and
safety hazards, which could result in building owners being found legally liable for any injuries.
a) Job distribution:
The first and foremost task in maintenance planning is the distribution of the jobs to the personnel
for preventive and emergency maintenance works. It is the practice to form two separate task
groups to tackle the both. If not possible a same group can also be used to tackle both the
situations in such way that during scheduling, time must be devoted for unforeseen breakdowns
or situations in maintenance.
b) Programme :
The development of maintenance programs involves
 Selection of activities for maintenance
 Determination of the frequency of preventive maintenance
  Decision on the cost effective methodology
 Selection of activities
This selection is based on cost involved between preventive and breakdown maintenance.
c) Manpower allocation:
The manpower allocation is the most important task of the maintenance management group. It
provides adequate manpower to execute various jobs in the system. This should also take into
consideration the skill level of personal deputed for the maintenance tasks. The central idea of
manpower allocation can be drafted using the information available from maintenance records
and planning the task to meet the objectives of the organization.
d) Staffing:
Staffing is the task of providing the required manpower for the maintenance function. This has to
be achieved at optimum cost. Staffing is depending upon the ability of the organization to tackle
the regular as well as attending the unforeseen situations. Staffing should be sufficient to handle
preventive and emergency maintenance task.
e) Planning technique:
The planning methods are Gantt charts, Milestone method, Critical path method and program
evaluation review. Evolutionary computation based techniques are recently used for maintenance
planning and scheduling.
f) Planning procedure:
 Planning procedure involves four step processes.
 Organizing maintenance resources to ensure their effective use in future
 Scheduling the resources for the planned period
 Execution of plans according to the schedules
 Establishing a feedback system for all the above processes to know the deficiencies of each
of the processes.
g) Estimation of maintenance work:
h) Estimation is used to find out the quantity and quality of the maintenance work.
This will help in allocation of the required manpower. The following methods are used for the
estimation of maintenance work. Measurement by estimates, historical data and by conventional
standard time data.
i) Maintenance control:
Maintenance control is the auditing techniques to ensure the effective utilization of the
maintenance budget. This involves the integration of accountability within the system. proper
accounting of maintenance work should be carried out at every level of the maintenance
organization.
PRINCIPLES OF MAINTENANCE:
Principles of maintenance are used to guide the staff to work efficiently and effectively to achieve
the overall objectives of the maintenance system. The main areas of principles of maintenance
are;
a) Plant management in maintenance work:
The main role of a maintenance function is to provide safe and effective operation of the
equipment to achieve the desired targets on time with economics usage of resources.
b) Production and maintenance objectives:
The plant operation is driven by the production targets. The objective of maintenance function is
to support this target. The achievement of desired goals of a the production system is to be
supported by both the production and maintenance department to ensure smooth and successful
operation of the industry.
c) Establishment of work order and recording system:
The maintenance system should have proper work and recording system. The work order for the
maintenance function indicates the nature of work to be performed and the series of operations
to be followed to execute a particular job. It is necessary to maintain proper records and entries to
monitor the maintenance function.
d) Information based decision making:
The maintenance objectives are successfully achieved by the use of reliable information system.
This information is used to meet the manpower and spare parts re4quirements of the industry.
e) Adherence to planned maintenance strategy:
A sound maintenance management should adhere to the planned maintenance strategy. This also
includes the use of manufacturer information on the life and maintenance schedules of the
equipment and other material resources available.
f) Planning of maintenance function:
All the maintenance function is to be carefully executed by a way of proper planning to ensure the
effective utilization of manpower and materials.
g) Manpower for maintenance:
The manpower requirement of the maintenance system must be carefully evaluated based on the
time and motion study. The requirements should also satisfy the need arising in case of overhauls,
component replacement, emergency and unscheduled repair.
h) Work force control:
Determination of exact work force required to meet the maintenance objectives of the system is
difficult task due to the element of uncertainty. Hence the proper control and monitoring of
workforce are needs to be ensured.
i) Role of spare parts:
j) A good maintenance management system requires appropriate tools. So the system should have
good quality tools and that too available in required quantities to ensure the proper function of
the maintenance work.
k) Training of maintenance work force:
Training of the workforce must be integral part of any good maintenance management system.
Training helps the workforce to learn about the modern techniques, recent trends in maintenance
and to chalk out a strategy to meet the growing demands of the industry.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE:
Preventive Maintenance (PM) Program is a planned and controlled program of continuous
inspection and corrective action taken to ensure peak efficiency and minimize deterioration of the
equipment. Plant Operations began a revised inventory of the equipment to be included in its
Facility Management System (FMS). This inventory entailed tagging the equipment with a barcode
indicating a unique equipment identification number, updating the database, organizing the
equipment types (part names), creating new schedules, applying tasks and standards, and
evaluating task assignments to appropriate shops. Preventive maintenance is a schedule of
planned maintenance actions aimed at the prevention of breakdowns and failures. The primary
goal of preventive maintenance is to prevent the failure of equipment before it actually occurs.
It is designed to preserve and enhance equipment reliability by replacing worn components before
they actually fail. Preventive maintenance activities include equipment checks, partial or complete
overhauls at specified periods, oil changes, lubrication. Maintaining equipment and facilities in
satisfactory operating condition by providing for systematic inspection, detection, and correction
of incipient failures either before they occur or before they develop into major defects.
THE OBJECTIVES OF THE PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE POLICIES AND PLAN ARE:
 Ensure that assets are protected and maintained so that they reach their max useful life.
 Maintain equipment in safe operating condition
 Ensure each equipment is operating at peak efficiency
 Maximize equipment life
 Minimize equipment service failures
 Minimize loss of accessibility due to equipment failure
 Meet or exceed manufacturers’ maintenance requirements
 Maintain equipment exterior and interior appearance
 Maintain a system of permanent equipment maintenance records
 Adhere to a strict preventive maintenance schedule
 Administer an aggressive equipment warranty recovery program
 Help the facility function as intended and operate at peak efficiency, including minimizing
energy consumption.
 Prevent failures of building systems that would interrupt occupants’ activities and the
delivery of public services.
 Sustain a safe and healthful environment by keeping the facility and its components in
good repair and structurally sound.
 Provide maintenance in ways that are cost-effective.
STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
 Provides a daily plan for front-line supervisors
 Assists with repairs while coordinating staff in shop work and construction
 Provides procedures to implement and continue a PM program
 Provides procedures to plan, execute, monitor and control maintenance resources.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT FEATURES
 Plan for your schedule maintenance ahead of time, so that it does not affect the
productivity of the company
  Notify the company about the maintenance schedules
 Schedule Preventive Maintenance tasks daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly or based on
meter readings.
 For planning monthly preventive maintenance of your assets go one level further and set
"date" and "specific day" (Second Saturday, last Sunday) criteria Choose the start date and
end date for all planned maintenance of your assets
 Include general and safety notes with every task
 Assign equipment service tasks to appropriate craft personnel
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT BENEFITS:
 Fix a repeat schedule for the preventive maintenance activities one time for regular
intervals
 Create unlimited types and categories of equipments, parts and services
 Automatic web-based entry and creation of Preventive Maintenance work orders
 Flexible queries and custom reporting
 Built in reports
EMERGENCY MAINTENANCE:
Emergency maintenance is a type of burst maintenance. It refers to a process that helps to remove
faults rapidly, to recover the normal operation of a system or a device, to redeem or decrease an
event loss when an emergency occurs to the system or the device, such as a sudden power failure,
or a service interruption of the device.
Another function of emergency maintenance is to provide an emergency guide for the device
maintenance personnel to handle heavy traffic. Thus, the personnel can take specific
precautionary measures to continue the normal operation of the entire system to prevent the
system faults caused by heavy traffic. Emergency Maintenance, also called Reactionary
Maintenance, is where a service request is generated after something breaks or is damaged. This is
something that needs to be completed soon, to limit disruption to the operations and appearance
of the facility. This work is scheduled to be completed as quickly as possible. They are often
completed during store hours so much care is taken to be courteous to customers and store
personnel. All efforts are made to limit disruption of the store and shopping experience.
PRINCIPLE OF EMERGENCY MAINTENANCE
This section describes the principles that the process of emergency maintenance should conform
to. An emergency can cause serious implications, such as a large number of subscribers failing to
go online, breakdown of the device, and interruption of services. Thus, to increase the efficiency of
handling emergencies, and to minimize the loss caused by such events, the operator should
consider and adhere to the following basic principles of emergency maintenance before
maintaining the devices. To ensure the stable operation of the device and reduce emergencies.
Routine Maintenance for the daily operation and maintenance of the device. The objective of
emergency maintenance is to ensure the rapid recovery of the device to the normal condition and
to ensure smooth supply of services. To increase the efficiency of handling emergencies, the
operators should refer to the emergency maintenance manual and set down various plans to
counter emergencies on time. The operators can also periodically organize training sessions for
the related management personnel and maintenance personnel to learn and practice the
implementation of counter plans.
The maintenance personnel must receive necessary emergency maintenance trainings before
taking up the work. They have to learn the basic method of determining the emergencies, and gain
the skill of handling emergencies. When emergencies occur on the system or device, the
maintenance personnel should not panic and check whether the hardware devices and routing
modules operate normally. After the fault is rectified, collect the device fault alarm information
related to this event on time, and send the related event handling reports, the device alarm files,
and the log files for analysis and location.
EMERGENCY MAINTENANCE REQUESTS
Listed below are situations that require our Maintenance Staff to visit a property to make the
necessary repair after regular business hours. These situations must be dealt with at the time of
the call from the resident and not scheduled for the next business day. If the Maintenance
Technician is not able to make the requested repair, then it is the Maintenance Technician’s
responsibility to contact the appropriate contractor to make the repair at the time of the request
from the resident.
HVAC
 No heat in the property and the outside temperature is below 55 degrees or is forecast to be
below 55 degrees
 No air conditioning in the property and the outside temperature is above 80 degrees or is
forecast to be above 80 degrees
ELECTRICAL
 No electricity to major appliances such as refrigerator, stove, or HVAC units
 No electricity to over 50% of the home
PLUMBING
 Clogged sewer line: if there is no other usable bathroom in the property
 Burst water supply lines
APPLIANCE REPAIR
 Refrigerator not working
STRUCTURAL
 Storm damage to roof: tree limbs on roof, etc.
 Elevator Malfunction
 Community Entrance blocked
 Ice on sidewalks or stairs that could lead to a fall
SECURITY
 Security/Entrance Gate Malfunction
 Fire Systems: Smoke alarm continuously sounding, sprinklers running, etc.
 Call boxes/FOB/Access to home i.e. unable to access or enter property
 Break-in/Burglary
 Broken Lock/Broken Window that is easily accessible (i.e. first floor) allowing for potential
break-in/burglary.
IMPORTANCE AND BENEFITS OF SOUND MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM:
Maintenance is an important factor in quality assurance, which is another basis for the successful
competitive edge. Inconsistencies in equipments lead to variability in product characteristics and
result in defective parts that fail to meet the established specifications. Beyond just preventing
break downs, it is necessary to keep equipments operating within specifications (i.e. process
capability) that will produce high level of quality.
Good maintenance management is important for the company cost control. As companies go in
for automation to become more competitive, they increasingly rely on equipments to produce a
greater percentage of their output. It becomes more important that, equipments operate reliably
within specifications. The cost of idle time is higher as equipment becomes more high-tech and
expensive e.g. NC/CNC machines and robots.
Dependability of service is one of the performance measures by which a company can distinguish
itself from others. To establish a competitive edge and to provide good customer service,
companies must have reliable equipments that will respond to customer demands when needed.
Equipments must be kept in reliable condition without costly work stoppage and down time due to
repairs, if the company is to remain productive and competitive.
Many manufacturing organizations, particularly those with JIT (Just-In-Time) programs are
operating with inventories so low that, they offer no protection in the event of a lengthy
equipment failure. Beyond the cost of idle equipment, idle labor, and lost ales that can result from
a breakdown, there is a danger of permanently losing market shares to companies that are more
reliable. Maintenance function can help prevent such as occurrence. Organizations like airlines and
oil refineries have huge investments in the equipment. Equipment failure will be disastrous for
such companies. They need proper maintenance to keep the equipment in good condition.
IMPACT OF POOR MAINTENANCE
Maintenance operations include all efforts to keep production facilities and equipments in an
acceptable operating condition. Failure or ml-functioning of machines and equipments in
manufacturing and service industries have a direct impact on the following:
1. Production capacity:
Machines idled by breakdowns cannot produce, thus the capacity of the system is reduced.
2. Production costs:
Labor costs per unit rise because of idle labor due to machine breakdowns. When machine
malfunctions result in scrap, unit labor and material costs increase. Besides, cost of maintenance
which includes such costs as costs of providing repair facilities, repair crews, preventive
maintenance inspections, spare parts and stand by machines will increase as machines break down
frequently.
3. Product and service quality:
Poorly maintained equipments produce low quality products. Equipments that have not been
properly maintained have frequent break downs and cannot provide adequate service to
customers. For example, air craft fleets of the airline, railway and road transport services not
maintained well can result in poor service to customers.
4. Employee or customer safety:
Worn-out equipment is likely to fail at any moment and these failures can cause injuries to the
workers, working on those equipments. Products such as two wheelers and automobiles, if not
serviced periodically, can break down suddenly and cause injuries to the stress.
5. Customer satisfaction:
When production equipments break own, products often cannot be produced according to the
master production schedules, due to work stoppages. This will lead to delayed deliveries of
products to the customers.
OBJECTIVES OF MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
The following are some of the objectives of maintenance management:
 Minimizing the loss of productive time because of equipment failure (i.e. minimizing idle
time of equipment due to break down).
 Minimizing the repair time and repair cost.
 Minimizing the loss due to production stoppages.
 Efficient use of maintenance personnel and equipments.
 Prolonging the life of capital assets by minimizing the rate of wear and tear.
 To keep all productive assets in good working conditions.
 To maximize efficiency and economy in production through optimum use of facilities.
 To minimize accidents through regular inspection and repair of safety devices.
 To minimize the total maintenance cost which includes the cost of repair, cost of
preventive maintenance and inventory carrying costs, due to spare parts inventory.
 To improve the quality of products and to improve productivity.
Maintenance management is what its name implies -- the effective management of workplace or
industrial maintenance. It details procedures that define manpower scheduling, equipment and
tool control, quality control, reporting, cost control, inventory control, training, loss prevention,
inspection and work status. According to "Principles of Controlled Maintenance Management,"
maintenance management applies management principles of organization, inventory, continuous
inspection, planning, and scheduling and management analysis to ensure that a system
performs designated functions economically, effectively and within the budget.
MANAGES CONTROL
One of the most significant advantages of maintenance management is the management of
control. Maintenance can be planned and serves a pre-active instead of a reactive (be put to
action after an event has come to pass). Management control ensures timely schedules, well-
defined job descriptions and the availability of standby equipment in times of disaster.
REDUCES OVERTIME
Maintenance management reduces and even eliminates overtime by reducing the chance of
surprises. It ensures all loose ends are tied and enough contingency planning is done to manage
operations in case of undesirable circumstances and situations. Management defines tasks and
allocates resources effectively, ensuring that all objectives are met in a timely and orderly fashion.
IMPROVES QUALITY
Effective maintenance management improves output and ensures quality. It gives a small amount
of leeway to tolerances but within well established control limits. Employee productivity improves,
improving the overall productivity of individual and collective processes. Investing in maintenance
management pays off for a company by increasing its revenues.
ENSURES BETTER SUPPORT & SERVICE
A well established and documented maintenance management system provides ample support to
production managers, equipment operators, and other personnel and users. An effective
maintenance management program needs to be made public (and/or published) for the benefit of
everyone involved. End users can benefit from a better level of support provided by maintenance
management. It allows for reliable, on time, and quality service.
ALLOWS EASY ERROR SPOTTING
Since maintenance management details the goals and objectives of departments and employees,
it makes it easier for managers to spot errors and deviations from established and desired
outcomes.
REDUCES RESOURCE WASTE
Maintenance management ensures that labor; materials and equipment are well utilized, which
reduces waste of allocated resources. Utility costs are lowered and the production of hazardous
waste material is decreased with managed effort.
IMPROVES SAFETY
Maintenance management promotes safety and health. It ensures everyone involved knows safety
procedures in case of a minor or major disaster. A well-implemented management program
examines the risk of potential hazards and finds ways of addressing them before they pose a risk.
Regular housekeeping programs promote fire prevention and safety measures.
RELIABILITY:
Reliability is defined as the probability that a component /system, when operating under given
condition, will perform its intended functions adequately for a specified period of time. It refers to
the like hood that equipment will not fail during its operation. Reliability engineering is
an engineering field, that deals with the study, evaluation, and life-cycle
management of reliability: the ability of a system or component to perform its required
functions under stated conditions for a specified period of time.[1] It is often measured as
probability of failure or a measure of availability. However, maintainability is also an important
part of reliability engineering.
Reliability engineering for complex systems requires a different, more elaborated systems
approach than reliability for non-complex systems / items. Reliability engineering is closely related
to system safety engineering in the sense that they both use common sorts of methods for their
analysis and might require input from each other. Reliability analysis have important links with
function analysis, requirements specification, systems design, hardware design, software
design, manufacturing, testing, maintenance, transport, storage, spare parts, operations, human
factors, technical documentation, training and more.
Most industries do not have specialized reliability engineers and the engineering task often
becomes part of the tasks of a design engineer, logistics engineer, systems engineer or quality
engineer. Reliability engineers should have broad skills and knowledge.
RELIABILITY MAY BE DEFINED IN SEVERAL WAYS:
 The idea that something is fit for a purpose with respect to time;
 The capacity of a device or system to perform as designed;
 The resistance to failure of a device or system;
 The ability of a device or system to perform a required function under stated conditions for a
specified period of time;
 The probability that a functional unit will perform its required function for a specified interval
under stated conditions.
 The ability of something to "fail well" (fail without catastrophic consequences)
Reliability theory is the foundation of reliability engineering. For engineering purposes, reliability is
defined as:
The probability that a device will perform its intended function during a specified period of time
under stated conditions. Mathematically, this may be expressed as,

Where, is the failure probability density function and t is the length of the period of time
(which is assumed to start from time zero).
RELIABILITY ENGINEERING IS CONCERNED WITH FOUR KEY ELEMENTS OF THIS DEFINITION:
 First, reliability is a probability. This means that failure is regarded as
a random phenomenon: it is a recurring event, and we do not express any information
on individual failures, the causes of failures, or relationships between failures, except
that the likelihood for failures to occur varies over time according to the given
probability function. Reliability engineering is concerned with meeting the specified
probability of success, at a specified statistical confidence level.
 Second, reliability is predicated on "intended function:" Generally, this is taken to mean
operation without failure. However, even if no individual part of the system fails, but
the system as a whole does not do what was intended, then it is still charged against
the system reliability. The system requirements specification is the criterion against
which reliability is measured.
 Third, reliability applies to a specified period of time. In practical terms, this means that
a system has a specified chance that it will operate without failure before time .
Reliability engineering ensures that components and materials will meet the
requirements during the specified time. Units other than time may sometimes be used.
The automotive industry might specify reliability in terms of miles; the military might
specify reliability of a gun for a certain number of rounds fired. A piece of mechanical
equipment may have a reliability rating value in terms of cycles of use.
  Fourth, reliability is restricted to operation under stated (or explicitly defined)
conditions. This constraint is necessary because it is impossible to design a system for
unlimited conditions. A Mars Rover will have different specified conditions than the
family car. The operating environment must be addressed during design and testing.
Also, that same rover may be required to operate in varying conditions requiring
additional scrutiny.
RELIABILITY REQUIREMENTS
For any system, one of the first tasks of reliability engineering is to adequately specify the
reliability and maintainability requirements, as defined by the stake holders in terms of their
overall availability needs. Reliability requirements address the system itself, test and assessment
requirements, and associated tasks and documentation. Reliability requirements are included in
the appropriate system/subsystem requirements specifications, test plans, and contract
statements. Maintainability requirements address system issue of costs as well as time to repair.
RELIABILITY PREDICTION
Reliability prediction is the combination of the creation of a proper reliability model together with
estimating (and justifying) the input parameters for this model (like failure rates for a particular
failure mode or event and the mean time to repair the system for a particular failure) and finally to
provide a system (or part) level estimate for the output reliability parameters (system availability
or a particular functional failure frequency).
RELIABILITY PREDICTIONS:
 Help assess the effect of product reliability on the maintenance activity and on the quantity of
spare units required for acceptable field performance of any particular system. For example,
predictions of the frequency of unit level maintenance actions can be obtained. Reliability
prediction can be used to size spare populations.
 Provide necessary input to system-level reliability models. System-level reliability models can
subsequently be used to predict, for example, frequency of system outages in steady-state,
frequency of system outages during early life, expected downtime per year, and system
availability.
 Provide necessary input to unit and system-level Life Cycle Cost Analyses. Life cycle cost
studies determine the cost of a product over its entire life. Therefore, how often a unit will
 have to be replaced needs to be known. Inputs to this process include unit and system failure
rates. This includes how often units and systems fail during the first year of operation as well
as in later years.
 Assist in deciding which product to purchase from a list of competing products. As a result, it is
essential that reliability predictions be based on a common procedure.
 Can be used to set factory test standards for products requiring a reliability test. Reliability
predictions help determine how often the system should fail.
 Are needed as input to the analysis of complex systems such as switching systems and digital
cross-connect systems. It is necessary to know how often different parts of the system are
going to fail even for redundant components.
 Can be used in design trade-off studies. For example, a supplier could look at a design with
many simple devices and compare it to a design with fewer devices that are newer but more
complexes. The unit with fewer devices is usually more reliable.
 Can be used to set achievable in-service performance standards against which to judge actual
performance and stimulate action.
DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY:

Design for Reliability (DFR), is an emerging discipline that refers to the process of designing
reliability into designs. This process encompasses several tools and practices and describes the
order of their deployment that an organization needs to have in place to drive reliability and
improve maintainability in products, towards a objective of improved availability, lower
sustainment costs, and maximum product utilization or lifetime. Typically, the first step in the DFR
process is to establish the system’s availability requirements. Reliability must be "designed in" to
the system. During system design, the top-level reliability requirements are then allocated to
subsystems by design engineers, maintainers, and reliability engineers working together.
Reliability design begins with the development of a (system) model. Reliability models use block
diagrams and fault trees to provide a graphical means of evaluating the relationships between
different parts of the system. These models incorporate predictions based on parts-count failure
rates taken from historical data. While the (input data) predictions are often not accurate in an
absolute sense, they are valuable to assess relative differences in design alternatives.
FAULT TREE DIAGRAM:
One of the most important design techniques is redundancy. This means that if one part of the
system fails, there is an alternate success path, such as a backup system. The reason why this is
the ultimate design choice is related to the fact that to provide absolute high confidence reliability
evidence for new parts / items is often not possible or extremely expensive. By creating
redundancy, together with a high level of failure monitoring and the avoidance of common cause
failures, even a system with relative bad single channel (part) reliability, can be made highly
reliable (mission reliability)on system level. No testing of reliability has to be required for this.
An automobile brake light might use two light bulbs. If one bulb fails, the brake light still operates
using the other bulb. Redundancy significantly increases system reliability, and is often the only
viable means of doing so. However, redundancy is difficult and expensive, and is therefore limited
to critical parts of the system. Another design technique, physics of failure, relies on
understanding the physical processes of stress, strength and failure at a very detailed level. Then
the material or component can be re-designed to reduce the probability of failure. Another
common design technique is component dating: Selecting components whose tolerance
significantly exceeds the expected stress, as using a heavier gauge wire that exceeds the normal
specification for the expected electrical current. Another effective way to deal with unreliability
issues is to perform analysis to be able to predict degradation and being able to prevent
unscheduled down events / failures from occurring. RCM (Reliability Centered Maintenance)
programs can be used for this.
Many tasks, techniques and analyses are specific to particular industries and applications.
Commonly these include:
  Built-in test (BIT) (Testability analysis)
 Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA)
 Reliability simulation modeling
 Reliability Hazard analysis
 Thermal analysis
 Reliability Block Diagram analysis
 Fault tree analysis
 Root cause analysis
 Sneak circuit analysis
 Accelerated Testing
 Reliability Growth analysis
 Weibull analysis
 Electromagnetic analysis
 Statistical interference
 Avoid Single Point of Failure
 Functional Analysis (Functional FMEA)
 Predictive and Preventive maintenance: Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)
analysis
 Testability analysis
 Failure diagnostics analysis
 Human error analysis
 Operational Hazard analysis
 Manual screening
 Integrated Logistics Support
Results are presented during the system design reviews and logistics reviews. Reliability is just
one requirement among many system requirements. Engineering trade studies are used to
determine the optimum balance between reliability and other requirements and constraints.
RELIABILITY TESTING:

The purpose of reliability testing is to discover potential problems with the design as early as
possible and, ultimately, provide confidence that the system meets its reliability requirements.
Reliability testing may be performed at several levels. Complex systems may be tested at
component, circuit board, unit, assembly, subsystem and system levels. (The test level
nomenclature varies among applications.) For example, performing environmental stress
screening tests at lower levels, such as piece parts or small assemblies, catches problems
before they cause failures at higher levels. Testing proceeds during each level of integration
through full-up system testing, developmental testing, and operational testing, thereby
reducing program risk. System reliability is calculated at each test level. Reliability growth
techniques and failure reporting, analysis and corrective active systems (FRACAS) are often
employed to improve reliability as testing progresses. The drawbacks to such extensive testing
are time and expense. Customers may choose to accept more risk by eliminating some or all
lower levels of testing.
Another type of tests is called Sequential Probability Ratio type of tests. These tests use both
a statistical type 1 and type 2 error, combined with a discrimination ratio as main input
(together with the R requirement). This test sets - Independently - before the start of the test
both the risk of incorrectly accepting a bad design (Type 2 error) and the risk of incorrectly
rejecting a good design (type 1 error) together with the discrimination ratio and the required
minimum reliability parameter. The test is therefore more controllable and provides more
information for a quality and business point of view. The number of test samples is not fixed,
but it is said that this test is in general more efficient (requires less samples) and provides
more information than for example zero failure testing.
It is not always feasible to test all system requirements. Some systems are prohibitively
expensive to test; some failure modes may take years to observe; some complex interactions
result in a huge number of possible test cases; and some tests require the use of limited test
ranges or other resources. In such cases, different approaches to testing can be used, such as
accelerated life testing, design of experiments, and simulations. The desired level of statistical
confidence also plays an important role in reliability testing. Statistical confidence is increased
by increasing either the test time or the number of items tested. Reliability test plans are
designed to achieve the specified reliability at the specified confidence level with the minimum
number of test units and test time. Different test plans result in different levels of risk to the
producer and consumer. The desired reliability, statistical confidence, and risk levels for each
 side influence the ultimate test plan. Good test requirements ensure that the customer and
developer agree in advance on how reliability requirements will be tested.
A key aspect of reliability testing is to define "failure". Although this may seem obvious, there
are many situations where it is not clear whether a failure is really the fault of the system.
Variations in test conditions, operator differences, weather, and unexpected situations create
differences between the customer and the system developer. One strategy to address this
issue is to use a scoring conference process. A scoring conference includes representatives
from the customer, the developer, the test organization, the reliability organization, and
sometimes independent observers. The scoring conference process is defined in the statement
of work. Each test case is considered by the group and "scored" as a success or failure. This
scoring is the official result used by the reliability engineer. As part of the requirements phase,
the reliability engineer develops a test strategy with the customer. The test strategy makes
trade-offs between the needs of the reliability organization, which wants as much data as
possible, and constraints such as cost, schedule, and available resources. Test plans and
procedures are developed for each reliability test, and results are documented in official
reports.
ACCELERATED TESTING:

The purpose of accelerated life testing is to induce field failure in the laboratory at a much
faster rate by providing a harsher, but nonetheless representative, environment. In such a test
the product is expected to fail in the lab just as it would have failed in the field—but in much
less time. The main objective of an accelerated test is either of the following:
 To discover failure modes
 To predict the normal field life from the high stress lab life
AN ACCELERATED TESTING PROGRAM CAN BE BROKEN DOWN INTO THE FOLLOWING STEPS:
 Define objective and scope of the test
 Collect required information about the product
 Identify the stress
 Determine level of stress
 Conduct the Accelerated test and analyze the accelerated data. Common way to
determine a life stress relationship are
  Arrhenius Model
 Eying Model
 Inverse Power Law Model
 Temperature-Humidity Model
 Temperature Non-thermal Model
FAILURE PATTERNS:
Many failure-causing mechanisms give rise to measured distributions of times-to-failure which
approximate quite closely to probability density distributions of definite mathematical form,
known as probability density functions, or p.d.f.s. These functions provide mathematical models of
failure patterns, which can be used in performance forecasting calculations. A probability
distribution of the variable data is known as continuous probability distribution. The commonly
used are;
 Normal distribution
 Exponential distribution
 Weibull distribution
In this case the p.d.f is: ƒ(t) = λ exp (- λt)
Where,
λ = average failure rate (failures/ unit time) per machine.
1/λ = average time to failure
Failure Probability, Survival Probability, Age-Specific Failure Rate
Failure probability: is the fraction of items which can be expected to fail by the running time, t ,
since new.
F(t) = probability of failure before a running time t.
F(t) = ∫ ƒ(t)dt
For the negative exponential p.d.f : F(t) = ∫ λ exp(-λt)dt = 1 – exp(-λt)
Failure Probability, Survival Probability, Age-Specific Failure Rate
P(t) = survival probability, at time t, for any one item or it is called the reliability of the item at time
P(t) = 1 – F(t)
For the negative exponential p.d.f : P(t) = exp(-λt)
Failure Probability, Survival Probability, Age-Specific Failure Rate
Age-specific failure rate: is the fraction, Z(t), of those items which have survived up to the time, t,
which can be expected to fail in the next unit of time. Some it is called instantaneous failure rate,
local failure rate, and local probability of failure, hazard function, or failure rate.
Z(t) = ƒ(t)/ P(t) =ƒ(t)/ 1-F(t)
For the negative exponential: Z(t) = λ exp (-λt)/ exp (-λt) = λ
Weibull p.d.f:
The form of the c.d.f is : F(t) = 1- exp (-ø(t))
Where: ø(t) = function of time to failure which has a definite form. This form should
be:
1. F(t) should never decrease as t increase.
2. F(t) should be zero at some threshold time to.
3. ø(t) should be dimensionless (since it is an exponent).
4. The suggested form of ø(t) that satisfies these conditions is:
ø(t) = { t- t۪ / ŋ} and the c.d.f for the time-to-failure is:
F(t) = 1 – exp { - (t- t۪ / ŋ)
The survival or the reliability function, the p.d.f and the failure rate are:
P(t) = exp { - (t- t۪ / ŋ) }
ƒ(t) = (β(t – t۪) / ŋ ) exp { - (t- t۪ / ŋ) }
Z(t) = (β/ ŋ ) (t – t۪) (non-zero and rising only after t۪)
Where,
T۪ = the threshold time-to-failure, or guaranteed life. In many cases of wear-out the first failure do
not appear until some significant running time t۪ has elapsed.
ŋ = the characteristic life. When t – t۪ = ŋ , P(t) = exp (-1) = 0.37, ŋ is the interval between t۪ and
the time at which it can be expected that 63% of the items will have failed.
β = the shape factor. In the case of a "running-in" or "infant mortality" failure pattern, it is less
than one and in the case of a wear-out failure patterns, it is has larger values (say larger than 3).
Whereas, in the case of "random failure' pattern and, it is fairly close to one. Also if β less than 3, a
purely random failure pattern is still significant.
 `
The bathtub curve is widely used in reliability engineering. It describes a particular form of
the hazard function which comprises three parts:
 The first part is a decreasing failure rate, known as early failures.
 The second part is a constant failure rate, known as random failures.
 The third part is an increasing failure rate, known as wear-out failures.
The name is derived from the cross-sectional shape of a bathtub.
The bathtub curve is generated by mapping the rate of early "infant mortality" failures when first
introduced, the rate of random failures with constant failure rate during its "useful life", and finally
the rate of "wear out" failures as the product exceeds its design lifetime.
In less technical terms, in the early life of a product adhering to the bathtub curve, the failure rate
is high but rapidly decreasing as defective products are identified and discarded, and early sources
of potential failure such as handling and installation error are surmounted. In the mid-life of a
product—generally, once it reaches consumers—the failure rate is low and constant. In the late
life of the product, the failure rate increases, as age and wear take their toll on the product. Many
consumer products strongly reflect the bathtub curve, such as computer processors.
While the bathtub curve is useful, not every product or system follows a bathtub curve hazard
function, for example if units are retired or have decreased use during or before the onset of the
wear-out period, they will show fewer failures per unit calendar time (not per unit use time) than
the bathtub curve. The term "Military Specification" is often used to describe systems in which the
infant mortality section of the bathtub curve has been burned out or removed. This is done mainly
for life critical or system critical applications as it greatly reduces the possibility of the system
failing early in its life. Manufacturers will do this at some cost generally by means similar
to accelerated stress testing. In reliability engineering, the cumulative distribution
function corresponding to a bathtub curve may be analyzed using a Weibull chart.
FAILURE RATE:
Failure rate is the ratio of the number of failures during particular unit interval to the average
population during that interval. This failure rate is also known as hazard rate and instantaneous
failure rate.
MEAN FAILURE RATE:
The mean failure rate h is obtained by finding the mean of the failures rates for specified period of
time.
h= (Z1 + Z2 + Z3+....+ZT)
________________
T
Where, Zt represents failure rates over the specified period of time T.
MEAN TIME TO FAILURE:
Let t1 is the time to failure for the first specimen, t2 is the time to failure for the second specimen
and t n is the time to failure for the N th specimen. Hence the mean time to failure for N specimens
are MTTR = (t1+t2+......+t N) /N
MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (MTBF):
Mean Time between Failures (MTBF) is the mean or average time between successive failures of a
product. Mean time between failures refers tom the average time of breakdown until the device is
beyond repair.
MEAN TIME TO REPAIR (MTTR):
Mean Time to Repair is the arithmetic mean of the time required to perform maintenance action.
MTTR is defined as the Ratio of total maintenance time and number of maintenance action.
MTTR = Total maintenance time/ Number of maintenance action.
MAINTENANCE ACTION RATE:
Maintenance action rate is the number of maintenance action that can be carried out on
equipment per hour.
FAILURE DENSITY:
Failure Density is the ratio of the number of failures during a given unit interval of time to the total
number of items at the very beginning of the test.
TYPES OF RELIABILITY:
Reliability can be generally of two types:
(i) Inherent Reliability: It is associated with the quality of the material and design of machine
parts.
(ii) Achievable Reliability: It depends upon other factors such as maintenance and operation of
the equipment.
EQUIPMENT LIFE CYCLE AND NAME THE VARIOUS PHASES:
Phase I - Failure pattern inherent in a new product because of manufacturing or design defects.
Phase II - Life period of an equipment
Phase III - Failures due to wear out conditions because to aging of the equipment.
RELIABILITY MODEL:
Failure Rates, MTBFs
Suppose we're given a batch of 1000 widgets, and each functioning widget has a probability of 0.1
of failing on any given day, regardless of how many days it has already been functioning. This
suggests that about 100 widgets are likely to fail on the first day, leaving us with 900 functioning
widgets. On the second day we would again expect to lose about 0.1 of our functioning widgets,
which represents 90 widgets, leaving us with 810. On the third day we would expect about 81
widgets to fail, and so on. Clearly this is an exponential decay, where each day we lose 0.1 of the
remaining functional units. In a situation like this we can say that widgets have a constant failure
rate (in this case, 0.1), which results in an exponential failure distribution. The "density function"
for a continuous exponential distribution has the form

Where, l is the rate. For example, the density function for our widgets is (0.1)exp(-t/10), which is
plotted below:
Notice that by assuming the probability of failure for a functioning widget on any given day is
independent of how long it has already been functioning we are assuming that widgets don't
"wear-out" (nor do they improve) over time. This characteristic is sometimes called "lack of
memory", and it's fairly accurate for many kinds of electronic devices with essentially random
failure modes. However, in each application it's important to evaluate whether the devices in
question really do have constant failure rates. If they don't, then use of the exponential
distribution may be misleading. Assuming our widgets have an exponential failure density as
defined by (1), the probability that a given widget will fail between t = t 0 and t = t1 is just the
integral of f(t) over that interval. Thus, we have

Of course, if t0 equals 0 the first term is simply 1, and we have the cumulative failure distribution

Which is the probability that a functioning widget will fail at any time during the next t units of
time. By the way, for any failure distribution (not just the exponential distribution), the "rate" at
any time t is defined as

In other words, the "failure rate" is defined as the rate of change of the cumulative failure
probability divided by the probability that the unit will not already be failed at time t. Notice that
for the exponential distribution we have
So the rate is simply the constant l. It might also be worth mentioning that the function e x has the
power series representation

So if the product lt is much smaller than 1 we have approximately ex ≈ 1 + x, which when

substituted into (2) gives a rough approximation for the cumulative failure probability F(t) ≈ lt.
Now, we might ask what is the mean time to fail for a device with an arbitrary failure density f(t)?
We just need to take the weighted average of all time values from zero to infinity, weighted
according to the density. Thus the mean time to fail is

of course, the denominator will ordinarily be 1, because the device has a cumulative probability of
1 of failing some time from 0 to infinity. Thus it is a characteristic of probability density functions
that the integrals from 0 to infinity are 1. As a result, the mean time to fail can usually be
expressed as

If we substitute the exponential density f(t) = le-lt into this equation and evaluate the integral, we
get MTTF = 1/l. Thus the mean time to fail for an exponential system is the inverse of the rate.
Now let's try something a little more interesting. Suppose we manufacture a batch of dual-
redundant widgets, hoping to improve their reliability in service. A dual-widget is said to be failed
only when both sub-widgets have failed. What is the failure density for a dual-widget? This can be
derived in several different ways, but one simple way is to realize that the probability of both sub-
widgets being failed by time t is

So this is the cumulative failure distribution F(t) for dual-widgets. From this we can immediately
infer the density distribution f(t), which is simply the derivative of F(t) (recalling that F(t) is the
integral of f(t)), so we have

Notice that this is not a pure exponential distribution anymore (unlike the distribution for failures
of a single widget). A plot of this density is shown below:

Remember that the failure density for the simplex widgets is a maximum at t = 0, whereas it
is zero for a dual-widget. It then rises to a maximum and falls off. What is the mean time for a
dual-widget to fail? As always, we get that by evaluating equation (5) above, but now we use our
new dual-widget density function. Evaluating the integral gives MTTF = (3/2)(1/l).
It sometimes strikes people as counter-intuitive that the early failure probability of a dual-
redundant system is so low, and yet the MTTF is only increased by a factor of 3/2, but it's obvious
from the plot of the dual-widget density f(t) that although it does extremely well for the early time
period, it eventually rises above the simplex widget density. This stands to reason, because we're
very unlikely to have them both components of a dual-widget fail at an early point, but on the
other hand they each component still has an individual MTTF of 1/l, so they it isn't likely
that either of them will survive far past their mean life.
MAINTAINABILITY:
Maintainability is defined as the probability that a unit or system will be restored to specified
working conditions within a given period when maintenance action is taken in accordance with the
prescribed procedures and resources.
AVAILABILITY:
Availability is the ratio of the time at which equipment is available for the designated
operation/service to the total time of operation and maintenance of the equipment. It is also
defined as the ratio of equipments uptime to the equipment uptime and downtime over a
specified period of time.
Availability of a system over its life-cycle is typically measured as a factor of its reliability - as
reliability increases, so does availability. However, no system can guarantee 100.000% reliability;
and as such, no system can assure 100.000% availability. Further, reliability
engineering and maintainability involve processes designed to optimize availability under a set
of constraints, such as time and cost-effectiveness. Availability is the goal of most system users,
and reliability engineering and maintainability provide the means to assure that availability
performance requirements are achieved.
The most simple representation for availability is as a ratio of the expected value of the uptime of
a system to the aggregate of the expected values of up and down time, or

If we define the status function X(t) as

Therefore, the availability A(t) at time t>0 is represented by

A(t) = Pr[X(t) = 1] = E[X(t)].
Average availability must be defined on an interval of the real line. If we consider an
arbitrary constant c > 0, then average availability is represented as

Limiting (or steady-state) availability is represented by

Limiting average availability is also defined on an interval (0,c] as,

AVAILABILITY CLASSIFICATIONS:
The definition of availability is somewhat flexible and is largely based on what types of downtimes
one chooses to consider in the analysis. As a result, there are a number of different classifications
of availability, such as:
 Instantaneous (or Point) Availability.
 Average Up-Time Availability (or Mean Availability).
 Steady State Availability.
  Inherent Availability.
 Achieved Availability.
 Operational Availability.
INSTANTANEOUS OR POINT AVAILABILITY, A(T):
Instantaneous (or point) availability is the probability that a system (or component) will be
operational (up and running) at any random time, t. This is very similar to the reliability function in
that it gives a probability that a system will function at the given time, t. Unlike reliability, the
instantaneous availability measure incorporates maintainability information. At any given time, t,
the system will be operational if the following conditions are met [7]:
The item functioned properly from 0 to t with probability R(t) or it functioned properly since the
last repair at time u, 0 < u < t, with probability:

With m(u) being the renewal density function of the system.

Then the point availability is the summation of these two probabilities, or:

(1)
AVERAGE UPTIME AVAILABILITY (OR MEAN AVAILABILITY)
The mean availability is the proportion of time during a mission or time period that the system is
available for use. It represents the mean value of the instantaneous availability function over the
period (0, T] and is given by:

(2)
STEADY STATE AVAILABILITY:
The steady state availability of the system is the limit of the instantaneous availability function as
time approaches infinity or:

(3)
(Note: For practical considerations, the instantaneous availability function will start approaching
the steady state availability value after a time period of approximately four times the average
time-to-failure.) Figure also illustrates this graphically.

Illustration of point availability approaching steady state.

INHERENT AVAILABILITY, AI :
Inherent availability is the steady state availability when considering only the corrective downtime
of the system. For a single component, this can be computed by:

This gets slightly more complicated for a system. To do this, one needs to look at the mean time
between failures, or MTBF, and compute this as follows:

This may look simple. However, one should keep in mind that until steady state is reached,
the MTBF may be a function of time (e.g. a degrading system), thus the above formulation should
be used cautiously. Furthermore, it is important to note that the MTBF defined here is different
from the MTTF (or more precisely for a repairable system, MTTFF, mean time to first failure).
ACHIEVED AVAILABILITY, AA :
Achieved availability is very similar to inherent availability with the exception that preventive
maintenance (PM) downtimes are also included. Specifically, it is the steady state availability when
considering corrective and preventive downtime of the system. It can be computed by looking at

the mean time between maintenance actions, MTBM and the mean maintenance downtime,
or:

OPERATIONAL AVAILABILITY, AO :
Operational availability is a measure of the average availability over a period of time and it
includes all experienced sources of downtime, such as administrative downtime, logistic
downtime, etc. Operational availability is the ratio of the system uptime and total time.
Mathematically, it is given by:

(4)
Where the operating cycle is the overall time period of operation being investigated and uptime is
the total time the system was functioning during the operating cycle. When there is no specified
logistic downtime or preventive maintenance, Eqn. (4) returns the Mean Availability of the system.
The operational availability is the availability that the customer actually experiences. It is
essentially the a posteriori availability based on actual events that happened to the system. The
previous availability definitions are a priori estimations based on models of the system failure and
downtime distsributions. In many cases, operational availability cannot be controlled by the
manufacturer due to variation in location, resources and other factors that are the sole province of
the end user of the product.
MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION:
Organizing is the process of arranging resources (people, materials, technology etc.) together to
achieve the organization’s strategies and goals. The way in which the various parts of an
organization are formally arranged is referred to as the organization structure. It is a system
involving the interaction of inputs and outputs. It is characterized by task assignments, workflow,
reporting relationships, and communication channels that link together the work of diverse
individuals and groups. Any structure must allocate tasks through a division of labor and facilitate
the coordination of the performance results. Nevertheless, we have to admit that there is no one
best structure that meets the needs of all circumstances. Organization structures should be
viewed as dynamic entities that continuously evolve to respond to changes in technology,
processes and environment
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS:
a) Line organization

C) MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

d) CENTRALLY CONTROLLED MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION

e) AREA MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION

MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION OBJECTIVES AND RESPONSIBILITY

A maintenance organization and its position in the plant/whole organization are heavily impacted
by the following elements or factors:
• Type of business, e.g., whether it is high tech, labor intensive, production or service;
• Objectives: may include profit maximization, increasing market share and other social objectives;
• Size and structure of the organization;
• Culture of the organization; and
• Range of responsibility assigned to maintenance.
THE FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF THE MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION ARE FOLLOWS:
 Identifying areas for implementation of preventive maintenance program
 Making suitable arrangements for maintenance facilities for carrying out the maintenance
work properly
 Planning and scheduling the total maintenance work
 Ensuring proper and timely supply of spare parts
 Managing proper inventory control of materials spates and tools required for the
maintenance
 Standardization of maintenance work
 Implementing modifications to the existing equipment wherever possible
 Assisting the purchase department in procuring materials Disbursement of services such as
water, electricity, steam, compressed air and other amenities required to carry out the
maintenance
 Identification of obsolete and surplus equipment for replacement and disposal
 Designing the systematic way for disposal of equipment and for maintaining floor space
 Training of maintenance personnel
 Analysis of future demands and forecast the role of maintenance activities
 Implementation safety norms and procedures
 Ensuring safety of personnel and equipment
DETERMINANTS OF A MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION
The maintenance organization’s structure is determined after planning the maintenance capacity.
The maintenance capacity is heavily influenced by the level of centralization or
decentralization adopted. In this section the main issues that must be addressed when forming the
maintenance organization’s structure are presented. The issues are: capacity planning,
centralization vs decentralization and in-house vs outsourcing.
MAINTENANCE CAPACITY PLANNING
Maintenance capacity planning determines the required resources for maintenance including the
required crafts, administration, equipment, tools and space to execute the maintenance load
efficiently and meet the objectives of the maintenance department. Critical aspects of
maintenance capacity are the numbers and skills of craftsmen required to execute the
maintenance load. It is difficult to determine the exact number of various types of craftsmen, since
the maintenance load is uncertain. Therefore accurate forecasts for the future maintenance work
demand are essential for determining the maintenance capacity. In order to have better utilization
of manpower, organizations tend to reduce the number of available craftsmen below their
expected need. This is likely to result in a backlog of uncompleted maintenance work. This backlog
can also be cleared when the maintenance load is less than the capacity. Making long run
estimations is one of the areas in maintenance capacity planning that is both critical and not well
developed in practice. Techniques for maintenance forecasting and capacity planning are
presented in a separate chapter in this handbook.
CENTRALIZATION VS DECENTRALIZATION
The decision to organize maintenance in a centralized, decentralized or a hybrid form depends
to a greater extent on the organization is philosophy, maintenance load, size of the plant and skills
of craftsmen.
THE ADVANTAGES OF CENTRALIZATION ARE:
1. Provides more flexibility and improves utilization of resources such highly skilled crafts and
special equipment and therefore results in more efficiency;
2. Allows more efficient line supervision;
3. Allows more effective on the job training; and
4. Permits the purchasing of modern equipment.
HOWEVER IT HAS THE FOLLOWING DISADVANTAGES:
1. Less utilization of crafts since more time is required for getting to and from jobs;
2. Supervision of crafts becomes more difficult and as such less maintenance control is achieved;
3. Less specialization on complex hardware is achieved since different persons work on the same
hardware; and
4. More costs of transportation are incurred due to remoteness of some of the maintenance
work.
In a decentralized maintenance organization, departments are assigned to specific areas or units.
This tends to reduce the flexibility of the maintenance system as a whole. The range of skills
available becomes reduced and manpower utilization is usually less efficient than in a centralized
maintenance. In some cases a compromise solution that combines centralization and
decentralization is better. This type of hybrid is called a cascade system. The cascade system
organizes maintenance in areas and whatever exceeds the capacity of each area is challenged to
a centralized unit. In this fashion the advantages of both systems may be reaped. For more on the
advantages and disadvantages of centralization and decentralization
In-house vs Outsourcing
At this level management considers the sources for building the maintenance capacity. The main
sources or options available are in-house by direct hiring, outsourcing, or a combination of in-
house and outsourcing. The criteria for selecting sources for building and maintaining maintenance
capacity include strategic considerations, technological and economic factors. The following are
criteria that can be employed to select among sources for maintenance capacity:
1. Availability and dependability of the source on a long term basis;
2. Capability of the source to achieve the objectives set for maintenance by the organization and
its ability to carry out the maintenance tasks;
3. Short term and long term costs;
4. Organizational secrecy in some cases may be subjected to leakage;
5. Long term impact on maintenance personnel expertise; and
6. Special agreement by manufacturer or regulatory bodies that set certain specifications for
maintenance and environmental emissions.
EXAMPLES OF MAINTENANCE TASKS WHICH COULD BE OUTSOURCED ARE:
1. Work for which the skill of specialists is required on a routine basis and which is readily available
in the market on a competitive basis, e.g.,:
• Installation and periodic inspection and repair of automatic fire sprinkler systems;
• Inspection and repair of air conditioning systems;
• Inspection and repair of heating systems; and
• Inspection and repair of main frame computers etc.
2. When it is cheaper than recruiting your own staff and accessible at a short notice of time.
The issues and criteria presented in the above section may help organizations in designing or re-
designing their maintenance organization
DESIGN OF THE MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION
A maintenance organization is subjected to frequent changes due to uncertainty and desire for
excellence in maintenance. Maintenance and plant managers are always swinging from supporters
of centralized maintenance to decentralized ones, and back again. The result of this frequent
change is the creation of responsibility channels and direction of the new organization’s
accomplishments vs the accomplishments of the former structure. So, the craftsmen have to
adjust to the new roles. To establish a maintenance organization an objective method that caters
for factors that influence the effectiveness of the organization is needed.
Competencies and continuous improvement should be the driving considerations behind an
organization’s design and re-design.
AMONG THE REASONS TO CHANGE A SPECIFIC MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION’S DESIGN ARE:
1. Dissatisfaction with maintenance performance by the organization or plant management;
2. A desire for increased accountability;
3. A desire to minimize manufacturing costs, so maintenance resources are moved to report to a
production supervisor, thereby eliminating the (perceived) need for the maintenance supervisor;
4. Many plant managers are frustrated that maintenance seems slow paced, that is, every job
requires excessive time to get done. Maintenance people fail to understand the business of
manufacturing, and don’t seem to be part of the team. This failure results in decentralization or
distribution of maintenance resources between production units; and
5. Maintenance costs seem to rise remarkably, so more and more contractors are brought in for
larger jobs that used to get done in-house.
CRITERIA TO ASSESS ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS
Rather than designing the organization to solve a specific problem, it is more important to
establish a set of criteria to identify an effective organization. The following could be considered as
the most important criteria:
1. Roles and responsibilities are clearly defined and assigned;
2. The organization puts maintenance in the right place in the organization;
3. Flow of information is both from top-down and bottom-up;
4. Span of control is effective and supported with well trained personal;
5. Maintenance work is effectively controlled;
6. Continuous improvement is built in the structure;
7. Maintenance costs are minimized; and
8. Motivation and organization culture.
BASIC TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL MODELS
To provide consistently the capabilities listed above we have to consider three types of
organizational designs.
• Centralized maintenance.
• Decentralized maintenance
• Matrix structure
MAINTENANCE ECONOMICS
The factors to be considered in the purchase of equipment for industries include the cost, quality,
performance and maintenance requirements.
ADVANTAGES OF LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS.
 Integration of engineering, economics and financial aspects lead to the way of robust
metric for the selection and purchase equipment required for the industry.
 Reduced operating and maintenance cost of equipments due to cost analysis over span of
time.
It leads to the selection of proper and economically viable equipment.
ECONOMIC LIFE OF EQUIPMENT
The economic life of equipment depends on the maintenance and repair costs, availability and
operational efficiency. A plot of cumulative efficiency and maintenance and repair cost per
cumulative hours Vs operating hours of the equipment to find the economic life of the equipment
COMPONENTS OF MAINTENANCE COST
The maintenance cost is comprised of two factors:
 Fixed cost: This includes the cost of support facilities including the maintenance staff.
 Variable cost: This includes the consumption of spare parts, replacement of components
 and cost other facilities requirements of maintenance.
THE ROLE OF MAINTENANCE BUDGET
The maintenance budget is used to set aside certain amount of money to meet the expenditures
incurred in achieving the objectives of maintenance.
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE BUDGET
 Appropriation Budget: Budget used to allocate money for each activity independently.
 Fixed Budget: Fixed used to allocate money for a specified period of time.
 Variable Budget: Dynamic allocation of expenditure based on maintenance requirements
and activities.
MAIN FACTORS OF MAINTENANCE COST
The maintenance cost is comprised of two factors:
 Fixed cost: This includes the cost of support facilities including the maintenance staff.
 Variable cost: This includes the consumption of spare parts, replacement of components
and cost other facilities requirements of maintenance.

PART-A (2 Marks)
01. What is meant by Breakdown maintenance approach?
02. Classify various planned maintenance approach.
03. Define Corrective maintenance approach.
04. What is meant by preventive maintenance approach?
05. List out the objectives of Corrective maintenance.
06. What is meant by Predictive Maintenance?
07. List out some condition based monitoring techniques and briefly discuss on them.
08. What is meant by Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)?
09. What is Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) and discuss it's similarities with TQM?
10. What is, meant by Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)?
11. What does Safety, Health and Environment pillar of TPM aims at?

PART-B (16 Marks)

1. What do you understand by maintenance categories? Explain common types and
explain the basis of their selection.
2. What are all the steps involved in preventive maintenance why preventive maintenance
is better than reactive maintenance.
3. Distinguish between fixed time maintenance and connect based maintenance. Give the
merits and demerits.
4. Briefly explain the procedure for TPM.
5. Explain the repair cycle of metallic materials.
6. What are the functions of lubrication and gives the tips on lubrication.
 UNIT - II
MAINTENANCE POLICIES – PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
MAINTENANCE POLICIES:
Plant capacity is considered to be the life blood of a company. Plant capacity must be reliable for
any company to produce products to have a competitive stay in the market. An effective
maintenance ensures a reliable plant capacity. Reliable plant capacity may be defined as an
investment in maintenance which helps in producing profitable product and makes a company
cost competitive.
Basically there are two types of maintenance tasks they are;
 Breakdown maintenance
 Planned maintenance

Planned maintenance may further be classified into;

 Preventive maintenance
 Corrective maintenance
 Predictive maintenance
 Condition based maintenance
 Reliability centered maintenance
REACTIVE MAINTENANCE
Reactive maintenance (also known as corrective maintenance) involves all unscheduled actions
performed as a result of system or product failure. Basically, it is an attempt to restore the
system/product to a specified condition. The spectrums of activities within this level are ;
  Failure identification
 Localization and isolation
 Disassembly
 Item removal and replacement or repair in place
 Reassembly
 Checkout and condition verification.
This approach is mainly a response to machine breakdowns. Unfortunately, many manufacturers
are still in a reactive mode of operation. Their main objective is to ship the product. If their
manufacturing equipment breaks down, they fix it as quickly as possible and then run it until it
breaks down again. This is an extremely unreliable process and is not the best way to maximize the
useful life span of one's assets. It leaves machine tools in a state of poor repair and can cause the
production of out-of-tolerance parts and scrap. Because of its unpredictable nature it can easily
cause disruptions to the production process.
SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE
Scheduled maintenance utilizes a previously developed maintenance schedule for each machine
tool. This is much like an oil change on an automobile that takes place every three months or
3,000 miles, whichever comes first. While this is a broadly practiced technique in many
manufacturing organizations, it does possess some distinct disadvantages. The scheduled
maintenance may take place too soon, while the machine still operates well (15-20 percent of all
components fail after a predictable time), or it may come too late if the machine fails before the
scheduled maintenance time. In some cases, the machine may still be running but producing
unacceptable parts. Scheduled maintenance can be considered a part of preventive maintenance
known as fixed-time maintenance (FTM). Preventive maintenance is discussed later.
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
Predictive maintenance involves performing maintenance on a machine in advance of the time a
failure would occur if the maintenance were not performed. Of course, this means that one must
calculate when a machine is predicted to fail. In order to do this, the firm must collect data on
variables that can be used to indicate an impending failure (vibration, temperature, sound, color,
etc.). This data is then analyzed to approximate when a failure will occur and maintenance is then
scheduled to take place prior to this time. By seeking the correct level of maintenance required,
unplanned downtime is minimized.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Preventive maintenance encompasses activities, including adjustments, replacement, and basic
cleanliness, that forestall machine breakdowns. Preventive activities are primarily condition based.
The condition of a component, measured when the equipment is operating, governs
planned/scheduled maintenance. Typical preventive maintenance activities include periodic
inspections, condition monitoring, critical item replacements, and calibrations. In order to
accomplish this, blocks of time are incorporated into the operations schedule. One can easily see
that this is the beginning of a proactive mode rather than a reactive one. The purpose of
preventive maintenance is to ensure that production quality is maintained and that delivery
schedules are met. In addition, a machine that is well cared for will last longer and cause fewer
problems.
Current trends in management philosophy such as just-in-time (JIT) and total quality management
(TQM) incorporate preventive maintenance as key factors in their success. JIT requires high
machine availability, which in turn requires preventive maintenance. Also, TQM requires
equipment that is well maintained in order to meet required process capability. Preventive
maintenance is also seen as a measure of management excellence. It requires a long-term
commitment, constant monitoring of new technology, a constant assessment of the financial and
organizational tradeoffs in contracting out versus in-house maintenance, and an awareness of the
impact of the regulatory and legal environment.
THE RESULTING BENEFITS OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE ARE MANY. SOME OF THEM ARE
LISTED BELOW:
 Safety: Machinery that is not well-maintained can become a safety hazard. Preventive
maintenance increases the margin of safety by keeping equipment in top running
condition.
 Lower cost: A modern and cost-effective approach to preventive maintenance shows that
there is no maintenance cost optimum. However, maintenance costs will decrease as the
costs for production losses decreases. Obviously, no preventive maintenance action is
performed unless it is less costly that the resulting failure.
 Reduction in failures and breakdowns: Preventive maintenance aims at reducing or
eliminating unplanned downtime, thereby increasing machine efficiency. Downtime is also
reduced when the preventive maintenance process gives maintenance personnel sufficient
warning so repairs can be scheduled during normal outages.
 Extension of equipment life: Obviously, equipment that is cared for will last longer than
equipment that is abused and neglected.
 Improved trade-in/resale value of equipment: If the equipment is to be sold or traded in,
a preventive maintenance program will help keep the machine in the best possible
condition, thereby maximizing its used value.
 Increased equipment reliability: By performing preventive maintenance on equipment, a
firm begins to build reliability into the equipment by removing routine and avoidable
breakdowns.
 Increased plant productivity: Productivity is enhanced by the decrease in unexpected
machine breakdown. Also, forecast shutdown time can allow the firm to utilize alternate
routings and scheduling alternatives that will minimize the negative effect of downtime.
 Fewer surprises. Preventive maintenance enables users to avoid the unexpected:
Preventive maintenance does not guarantee elimination of all unexpected downtime, but
empirically it has proven to eliminate most of it caused by mechanical failure.
 Reduced cycle time: If process equipment is incapable of running the product, then the
time it takes to move the product through the factory will suffer. Tininess found, from
an Industry Week survey, that there is a strong correlation between preventive
maintenance and cycle-time reductions as well as near-perfect on-time delivery rates. Also,
approximately 35 percent of the surveyed plants who widely adopted preventive
maintenance achieved on-time delivery rates of 98 percent, compared to only 19.5 percent
for non-adopters.
 Increased service level for the customer and reduction in the number of defective parts:
These have a positive direct effect on stock-outs, backlog, and delivery time to the
customer.
 Reduced overall maintenance: By not allowing machinery to fall into a state of disrepair,
overall maintenance requirements are greatly decreased.
TOTAL PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE
Total productive maintenance (TPM) is preventive maintenance plus continuing efforts to adapt,
modify, and refine equipment to increase flexibility, reduce material handling, and promote
continuous flows. It is operator-oriented maintenance with the involvement of all qualified
employees in all maintenance activities. TPM has been described as preventive maintenance with
these three factors added:
 Involving machine operators in preliminary maintenance activities by encouraging
them to keep machines clean and well lubricated
 Encouraging operators to report indications of incipient distress to the maintenance
department; and
 Establishing a maintenance education and training program.
Developed in Japan, TPM places a high value on teamwork, consensus building, and continuous
improvement. It is a partnership approach among organizational functions, especially production
and maintenance. TPM means total employee involvement, total equipment effectiveness, and a
total maintenance delivery system. In order to achieve this, machine operators must share the
preventive maintenance efforts, assist mechanics with repairs when equipment is down, and work
on equipment and process improvements within team activities. Tennessee Eastman found that
another employee, such as an equipment operator, with minimal training, could do 40 percent of
the traditional maintenance mechanic's work. Another 40 percent could be performed with
additional training, but still below the certified level. Only 20 percent of the maintenance tasks
actually required a certified mechanic's skills. They also reported that as much as 75 percent of
maintenance problems can be prevented by operators at an early stage. This frees maintenance
personnel to be responsible for the tasks that require their critical skills, such as breakdown
analysis, overhaul, corrective maintenance and root cause analysis. This places them in a
"consultant" role with the operators allowing them to:
 Help the operator diagnose problems and restore equipment to like-new condition;
 Use appropriate technologies and standards to verify that the equipment is in like-new
condition after repair, overhaul, or replacement;
 Use this knowledge to assess the root cause of the problem so that changes may be made
to the design, operation, or maintenance practices in the future;
  Work with purchasing, engineering, operations, and maintenance to modify procurement
standards to assure maximum reliability in future equipment.
Of course, for all of this to work, the firm must have an organizational culture which supports a
high level of employee involvement. Businesses must be willing to provide the necessary training
in order to allow production personnel to perform the required tasks.
TPM's focus is on elimination of the major losses or inefficiencies incurred in production activities.
These losses include those due to obstruction of equipment efficiency, manpower efficiency, and
material and energy efficiency. Based on their link to corporate goals, targets for eliminating or
reducing these losses are developed. Just as in activity-based cost accounting where cost drivers
are identified, the objective of TPM is to identify variables that can demonstrate improved
performance. All major equipment losses are functionally related to availability, performance,
efficiency and/or quality rate so the improvement resulting from the maintenance system can be
measured by its impact on overall equipment effectiveness.
IMPLEMENTATION OF TPM:

Step-1: Announcement by Management about TPM

Step-2: Initial Education.
Step-3: Setting up TPM department committees
Step-4: Establishing TPM working system and target
Step-5: Plan the institutionalizing
MAIN OBJECTIVES OF TPM ARE;
  To achieve zero defects
 Achieve zero accidents and zero break downs in all functional areas of an organization
 To create different team of people to have active participation.
 To aim at minimization of defects and
 To inculcate autonomous policy.
FIVE S PRINCIPLES USED FOR IMPLEMENTATIONS OF TPM.
 SEIRI – Sort out
 SEITON –Organize
 SEISO – Shine workplace
 SEIKETSU – Standardization
 SHITSUKE – Self discipline various pillars of TPM
PILLARS OF TPM:
 5, S Principle
 jishu hozen (JH)
 Kaizen
 Planned maintenance
 Quality maintenance.
 Training
 Office TPM
 Safety, health and environment
BENEFICIAL RESULTS OF TPM INCLUDE:
 Overall equipment effectiveness and overall efficiency are maximized.
 It takes the guesswork out of determining which machine needs major repairs or
rebuilding.
 It provides objectivity by converting the operator's intuition into quantifiable values.
 It pinpoints exact maintenance requirement. The operator carries out only the needed
corrective actions so no unnecessary work, beyond routine maintenance, is done.
 It rapidly verifies the effectiveness of major corrective work.
 Operators improve their job skills.
  Operators are motivated by involvement in maintaining their own machines and by
involvement in team-based concepts.
 Operator involvement in the process gives them ownership of making the project a
success.
 A preventive maintenance program for the lifecycle of the equipment is developed.
 By getting everyone involved in equipment design and selection, a better understanding of
why certain decisions and trade-offs is necessary results.
 Equipment and maintenance management (inherent in a reliability strategy) result.
 Capacity is maximized.
 Costs are minimized.
 Product quality is improved.
 Improved safety.
 The manufacturing process is continually improved.
As a final note on TPM, another school of thought holds that TPM can be adopted by continuous
diagnostic monitoring of a machine's conditions and establishing a trend line for it. Trend lines
approaching or veering into the domain that identifies poor operating conditions will trigger
maintenance action.
RELIABILITY-CENTERED MAINTENANCE
It has been assumed that preventive maintenance programs help to ensure reliability and safety of
equipment and machinery. However, tests performed by airlines in the mid-1960s showed that
scheduled overhaul of complex equipment had little or no positive effect on the reliability of the
equipment in service. These tests revealed the need for a new concept of preventive maintenance,
which later became known as reliability-centered maintenance (RCM).
OVERALL EQUIPMENT EFFECTIVENESS
Total productive maintenance provides a systematic procedure for linking corporate goals to
maintenance goals. This procedure calls for the consideration of external and internal corporate
environments, and then the development of a basic maintenance policy congruent with the
environments. Next key points for maintenance improvement are identified, which result in the
definition of target values for maintenance performance. These values, referred to as overall
equipment effectiveness (OEE), are a function of equipment availability, quality rate, and
equipment performance efficiency, and provide a starting point for developing quantitative
variables for relating maintenance measurement and control to corporate strategy.
Essentially, OEE offers a measurement tool that helps identify the real areas of opportunity within
an operation. These areas have been termed the "six big losses." OEE allows the firm to break
these losses into smaller components to better evaluate the impact the maintenance program is
making on the operation. The six losses are:
1. Breakdowns from equipment failure (unplanned downtime)
2. Setup and adjustments from product changes and minor adjustments necessary to get the
equipment operating properly after the line change
3. Idling and minor stoppages due to abnormal operation of the equipment causing
momentary lapses in production, but not long enough to track as downtime
4. Reduced speeds, the discrepancy between design and actual speed the equipment
operates
5. Process defects due to scrapped production and defects needing rework
6. Reduced yield and lost materials during the manufacturing process, from start-up to end of
production run
If a company has an OEE of 85 percent or more, then it is considered to be a world-class company.
TRENDS IN MAINTENANCE
Two major trends in the development of maintenance management research have been
identified:
 Emerging developments and advances in maintenance technology, information and
decision technology, and maintenance methods; and
 The linking of maintenance to quality improvement strategies and the use of
maintenance as a competitive strategy.
The first major trend has to do with the impact of artificial intelligence techniques, such as expert
systems and neural networks, on the formation of maintenance knowledge in industrial
organizations. There is a diverse application of expert systems within the maintenance area. A
number of these systems and their applications are listed below:
 CATS—an expert maintenance system for detecting sudden failures in diesel-electric
locomotive systems
  INNATE—an expert system used for electronic circuit diagnosis
 FSM—an expert system used by Boeing for continuous condition monitoring of aircraft
alarms
 RLA—an expert system developed by Lockheed for repair-level analysis for major parts in
an aerospace system
 GEMS-TTS—an expert system used by AT&T maintenance specialists to isolate faults in
communication links
 TOPAS—an expert system that diagnoses transmission and signaling problems in real time
that may arise on switched circuits.
 CHARLEY—an expert system used by General Motors to diagnose problems with broken
machine tools and to instruct less experienced individuals by providing explanations
 XCON—an expert system developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (now part of
Compaq) for product configuration
The second major trend is typified by the emergence of total productive maintenance, which must
be incorporated into the firm's strategy. In the quest for world-class manufacturing, many
industries are appreciating the need for efficient maintenance systems that have been effectively
integrated with corporate strategy. It is vital that maintenance management becomes integrated
with corporate strategy to ensure equipment availability, quality products, on-time deliveries, and
competitive pricing. Managerial attitudes have changed toward maintenance because of the
emergence of new management philosophies. In addition, social trends such as lack of capital,
fluctuations in currencies, competition, quality, and environmental consciousness, have also
encouraged a new focus on maintenance.
Maintenance will continue to be a major area of concern for manufacturers and other forms of
business. A study of some seventy manufacturing plants found that over 50 percent of the
maintenance work performed by these firms was reactive (run to failure, emergency breakdown).
The balance of maintenance work was preventive or period based (25 percent), predictive or
condition based (15 percent), and proactive or root-caused based (10 percent). A strong
correlation has been found to exist between manufacturing cost reduction and
preventive/predictive maintenance. Over a five-year period a study group of companies found that
productivity improvements correlated strongly with a number of variables, one of which was
preventive/predictive maintenance.
Mike Laskiewicz recommends that organizations recognize maintenance as a key department that
needs to be well managed. In addition, the maintenance department should be led by a strong-
minded individual who is a good motivator, technically competent, experienced and familiar with
advanced industry practices. Finally, Laskiewicz notes that maintenance planning must be a top
priority.
MAINTENANCE SCHEDULING
Scheduling is the center about which all other maintenance activities are conducted. Work
scheduling could be carried out only when work has been planned and the required material
availability is assured.
Maintenance scheduling is a joint maintenance operations activity in which maintenance agrees to
make the resources available at a specific time when the unit can also be made available by
operations. The work scheduling should be aimed at to have least adverse Effect on normal
operating schedule while optimizing the use of maintenance resources. Scheduling should be
viewed as marketing arm of the programme on start up of any new maintenance management
installation. Scheduling should be active and positive participation of users of maintenance service
and unlike preventive maintenance results in tangible measurable results often within a week.
THE SUCCESS OF ANY MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE DEPENDS ON TWO BASIC ELEMENTS:
 Work should not be scheduled which is not completely ready for scheduling, regardless of
pressure.
 People form other operating units should be involved while creating the schedule.
MAINTENANCE SCHEDULING PRINCIPLES
Effective maintenance scheduling can reduce production downtime. Improve your maintenance
and shutdown scheduling by implementing these six principles of scheduling:
Principle 1: Develop job plans that provide details such as number of persons required, minimum
skill level, and estimated labor hours.
Principle 2: Adhere to weekly and daily time schedules. Prioritize work.
Principle 3: Forecast a weekly labor hours schedule for each crew based on technician skills
available for the week.
Principle 4: The weekly schedule assigns work for every labor hour available. Use the details of job
plans to match labor hours available with estimated labor hours.
Principle 5: The maintenance crew supervisor schedules and assigns daily work. Use current job
progress, job priority, and other relevant information as a guide for planning the daily schedule.
Principle 6: Measure schedule success. Use schedule compliance with the one week schedule as
the measure of scheduling effectiveness.
Maintenance scheduling is a joint maintenance operations activity in which maintenance agrees
to make the recourses available at a specific time when the unit can also be made available by
operations
STAKEHOLDERS OF MAINTENANCE SCHEDULING:
Product development is one of the most important activities in an industrial company. It is a key
for future success. The ability to make competitive scenarios of future market demands and to
continuously adapt to new demands is also a critical factor for success. Furthermore, it is well
accepted that satisfied customers are a key characteristic for success in the market. However,
although we need to focus on customer requirements, we must not in so doing forget to look at
profitability. Therefore, we argue, it is important to consider other stakeholder needs and not only
the voice of the customer in order to create a well-balanced product. In this process, we need to
identify the relevant stakeholders and their relation to the product. Furthermore, we must
determine the requirements of each stakeholder in a life cycle perspective. Normally, there are
conflicting requirements from different stakeholders. These have to be negotiated and balanced
in order to develop a competitive product.
VARIOUS STAKEHOLDERS OF MAINTENANCE SCHEDULING:
 Operators
 Planners
 Schedulers
 Maintenance supervisors
 craftsman
 Store’s in charge
 operation superintendent
PLANNER:
He/She should ensure that the work is properly planned with respect to customer requirements,
stores material, directly purchased material and special service mentioned on work order. Also the
work to be carried out with the line of safety requirements should be described.
SCHEDULER:
He/She should ensure that,
 Trades are available to conduct the work during the schedule duration
 Materials and/or service availability
 Communicating the details of the above to person involved in maintenance and operations
MAINTENANCE SUPERVISOR:
He/She will be the responsible for the day-to-day activities comprised in weekly schedule and also
determines the business availability. They attend to specify such as to who-what-where-when.
CRAFTSMAN:
He/She executes the assigned task and keeps informing the maintenance team, the outcome as
well as any practical difficulty in their part, for any further analysis
STOREROOM PERSONNEL:
They maintain the records of the receipt of goods and notify if any damages exists.
OPERATIONS SUPERINTENDENT:
He must be kept informed in advance about the equipment condition. Since he is well aware of
production schedule, should determine the opportune time with maintenance to release the
equipment.
OPERATOR:
He is the person responsible for securing the equipment and report back to the maintenance
personnel if any deviation is observed.
REPAIR:
Generally, the maintenance scheduling embraces the following activities;
 Inspection
 Repair
 Overhauling
Here, the term ‘repair’ does not reflect the actual but only the time duration consumed to perform
the corrective action. Based on the time the repair may be one like reconditioning the bed
surfaces, guideways, cleaning of bearings etc.,
Maintenance activities may be classified into four categories which are as follows:
 INSPECTION
 MINOR REPAIR
 MEDIUM OR MAJOR REPAIR
 OVERHAULING
REPAIR CYCLE:
The repeated performance of the above mentioned activities in sequence between successive
overhauling is termed as repair cycle.The fig illustrates the activities of overhauling of equipments.

It is clear from the above figure that first an inspection activity is scheduled followed by minor
/major repair activities. Then an inspection takes place followed by a minor repair. Like this it goes
and completes one repair cycle. The set of these activities between two consecutive overhauling is
defined as a repair cycle. This typical cycle covers three inspection and two minor and major repair
activities.
LUBRICATION:
Lubrication is the process, or technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close
proximity, and moving relative to each another, by interposing a substance called lubricant
between the surfaces to carry or to help carry the load (pressure generated) between the
opposing surfaces. The interposed lubricant film can be a solid, (e.g. graphite, MoS2)[1] a
solid/liquid dispersion, a liquid, a liquid-liquid dispersion gasses exceptionally a gas. In the most
common cause the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the
frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Lubrication
can also describe the phenomenon such reduction of wear occurs without human intervention
(hydroplaning on a road). The science of friction, lubrication and wear is called tribology.
Adequate lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and
without excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other
components can rub destructively over each other, causing destructive damage, heat, and failure.
As the load increases on the contacting surfaces three distinct situations can be observed with
respect to the mode of lubrication, which are called regimes of lubrication:
 Fluid film lubrication is the lubrication regime in which through viscous forces the load is fully
supported by the lubricant within the space or gap between the parts in motion relative to one
another (the lubricated conjunction) and solid–solid contact is avoided.[2]
 Hydrostatic lubrication is when an external pressure is applied to the lubricant in the bearing,
to maintain the fluid lubricant film where it would otherwise be squeezed out.
 Hydrodynamic lubrication is where the motion of the contacting surfaces and the exact
design of the bearing is used to pump lubricant around the bearing to maintain the lubricating
film. This design of bearing may wear when started or stopped, as the lubricant film breaks
down.
 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication: The opposing surfaces are separated, but there occurs some
interaction between the raised solid features called asperities, and there is an elastic
deformation on the contacting surface enlarging the load-bearing area whereby the viscous
resistance of the lubricant becomes capable of supporting the load.
 Boundary lubrication (also called boundary film lubrication): The bodies come into closer
contact at their asperities; the heat developed by the local pressures causes a condition which
is called stick-slip and some asperities break off. At the elevated temperature and pressure
conditions chemically reactive constituents of the lubricant react with the contact surface
forming a highly resistant tenacious layer, or film on the moving solid surfaces (boundary film)
which is capable of supporting the load and major wear or breakdown is avoided. Boundary
lubrication is also defined as that regime in which the load is carried by the surface asperities
rather than by the lubricant. Besides supporting the load the lubricant may have to perform
other functions as well, for instance it may cool the contact areas and remove wear products.
While carrying out these functions the lubricant is constantly replaced from the contact areas
either by the relative movement (hydrodynamics) or by externally induced forces. Lubrication
is required for correct operation of mechanical
systems pistons, pumps, cams, bearings, turbines, cutting tools etc. where without lubrication
the pressure between the surfaces in close proximity would generate enough heat for rapid
surface damage which in a coarsened condition may literally weld the surfaces together,
causing seizure. In some applications, such as piston engines, the film between the piston
and the cylinder wall also seals the combustion chamber, preventing combustion gases from
escaping into the crankcase. A lubricant is a substance introduced to reduce friction between
moving surfaces. It may also have the function of transporting foreign particles. The property
of reducing friction is known as lubricity.
A GOOD LUBRICANT POSSESSES THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS:
 High boiling point.
 Low freezing point.
 High viscosity index.
 Thermal stability.
 Corrosion prevention.
 High resistance to oxidation.
One of the single largest applications for lubricants, in the form of motor oil, is protecting
the internal combustion engines in motor vehicles and powered equipment. Typically lubricants
contain 90% base oil (most often petroleum fractions, called mineral oils) and less than
10% additives. Vegetable oils or synthetic liquids such as
hydrogenated polyolefins, esters, silicones, fluorocarbons and many others are sometimes used as
base oils. Additives deliver reduced friction and wear, increased viscosity, improved viscosity
index, resistance to corrosion and oxidation, aging or contamination, etc.
Lubricants such as 2-cycle oil are added to fuels like gasoline which has low
lubricity. Sulfur impurities in fuels also provide some lubrication properties, which have to be
taken in account when switching to a low-sulfur diesel; biodiesel is a popular diesel fuel additive
providing additional lubricity.
Non-liquid lubricants include grease, powders (dry graphite, PTFE, Molybdenum
disulfide, tungsten disulfide, etc.), PTFE tape used in plumbing, air cushion and others. Dry
lubricants such as graphite, molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide also offer lubrication at
temperatures (up to 350 °C) higher than liquid and oil-based lubricants are able to operate.
Limited interest has been shown in low friction properties of compacted oxide glaze layers formed
at several hundred degrees Celsius in metallic sliding systems, however, practical use is still many
years away due to their physically unstable nature.
Another approach to reducing friction and wear is to use bearings such as ball bearings, roller
bearings or air bearings, which in turn require internal lubrication themselves, or to use sound, in
the case of acoustic lubrication. In addition to industrial applications, lubricants are used for many
other purposes. Other uses include cooking (oils and fats in use in frying pans, in baking to prevent
food sticking), bio-medical applications on humans (e.g. lubricants for artificial joints), ultrasound
examination, internal examinations for males and females, and the use of personal lubricant for
sexual purposes.
PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS
 Reducing Sliding and Rolling Friction
 The Nature of Wear and How it is Minimized
 Solid vs. Liquid Lubricants
LIQUID LUBRICANTS
 Common Oil and Grease Bases- Fatty, Petroleum Based, and Synthetic Oils
 Mineral Oil Additives
OIL PROPERTIES AND TERMS
  Viscosity - Interactive Interchange Chart
 ISO, AGMA, and SAE Cross Reference Guide
 Viscosity Index and Multi-Viscosity Oils
 Flash Point and Pour Point
 API and ASTM Identifiers
HYDRAULIC FLUID
 Hydraulic Fluids vs. Lubricating Oil
 Testing and Analysis of Hydraulic Oils
GREASE
 The Properties of Grease
 Grease Additives and Thickeners
OIL ANALYSIS
 Sampling Methods and Record Keeping
 Physical Tests - Viscosity Tests -Total Acid Number
 Spectrographic Analysis - Wear Metals- Additives
 Ferro graphic (Wear Particle) Analysis
 Lubrication Sampling Frequency
LUBRICATION DELIVERY AND MAINTENANCE
 Common Equipment Lubrication Systems - Re-lube Frequency Calculator (Interactive)
 Bearing, Compressor, and Industrial Gear Lubrication
 Chain Drive Lubrication
 Spindle Machinery Lubrication

PART-A (2 Marks)
01. What is meant by Breakdown maintenance approach?
02. Classify various planned maintenance approach.
03. Define Corrective maintenance approach.
04. What is meant by preventive maintenance approach?
05. List out the objectives of Corrective maintenance.
06. What is meant by Predictive Maintenance?
07. List out some condition based monitoring techniques and briefly discuss on them.
08. What is meant by Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)?
09. What is Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) and discuss it's similarities with TQM?
10. What is, meant by Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)?
11. What does Safety, Health and Environment pillar of TPM aims at?
PART-B (16 Marks)
1. What do you understand by maintenance categories? Explain common types and explain the
basis of their selection.
2. What are all the steps involved in preventive maintenance why preventive maintenance is
better than reactive maintenance.
3. Distinguish between fixed time maintenance and connect based maintenance. Give the
merits and demerits.
4. Briefly explain the procedure for TPM.
5. Explain the repair cycle of metallic materials.
6. What are the functions of lubrication and gives the tips on lubrication.
 UNIT – III
CONDITION MONITORING
CONDITION MONITORING:
Conditions monitoring is one of the maintenance methods which are used to assess the health and
condition of equipments machines, systems or process by absorbing checking, measuring and
monitoring several parameters. This technique is also called as equipment health monitoring.
Condition monitoring is the process of monitoring a parameter of condition in machinery, such
that a significant change is indicative of a developing failure. It is a major component of predictive
maintenance. The use of conditional monitoring allows maintenance to be scheduled, or other
actions to be taken to avoid the consequences of failure, before the failure occurs. Nevertheless, a
deviation from a reference value (e.g. temperature or vibration behavior) must occur to identify
impeding damages. Predictive Maintenance does not predict failure. Machines with defects are
more at risk of failure than defect free machines. Once a defect has been identified, the failure
process has already commenced and CM systems can only measure the deterioration of the
condition. Intervention in the early stages of deterioration is usually much more cost effective
than allowing the machinery to fail. Condition monitoring has a unique benefit in that the actual
load, and subsequent heat dissipation that represents normal service can be seen and conditions
that would shorten normal lifespan can be addressed before repeated failures occur. Serviceable
machinery includes rotating equipment and stationary plant such as boilers and heat
exchangers.
FACTORS FOR INCREASING THE DEMAND CONDITION MONITORING:
1. Increased quality expectations reflected in produces liability legislation
2. Increased automation to improve profitability and maintain competitiveness
3. Increased safety and reliability expectations
4. Increased cost of maintenance due to labour and material cost.
KEY FEATURES OF CONDITION MONITORING:
1. Links between cause and effect
2. Systems with sufficient response
3. Mechanisms for objective data assessment
4. Benefits outweighing cost
5. Data storage and review facilities.
BASIC STEPS IN CONDITION MONITORING:
1. Identifying critical systems
2. Selecting suitable techniques for condition monitoring
3. Setting baselines
4. Data collection
5. Data assessment
6. Fault diagnosis and repair
7. System review

1. Identifying critical systems

The first step in CM is to be identifying equipment which would be benefit from the application of
CM. This is achieved by examining all equipment in the industry or by looking only at problem
causing equipment. The selected equipments will probably have a poor record of efficiency,
availability, reliability and safety.
2. Selecting suitable techniques for condition monitoring:
The next step is to understand how the equipment deteriorates, its cause, warning effects and
critically of failure.
3. Setting baselines:
This stage involves identifying where and how often to take the measurements, collecting the
baseline reading and setting the threshold value for alarm or warning.
4. Data collection:
The heart of condition monitoring lies in the collection, storage and interpolation of data. The
collection of data is manual, computerized or automatic data collection system.
5. Data assessment:
Data assessment aims to detect the deterioration in the equipment condition. The readings should
be checked for validity to ensure that a false alert has not been generated.
6. Fault diagnosis and repair:
After identifying a problem, it is necessary to find the cause and to ensure that correct
maintenance action is taken.
7. System review:
Based on the fault diagnosis report, the workman can repair the equipment.
TYPES OF CONDITION MONITORING:
 Subjective condition monitoring
 Minimized breakdown costs
 Improved morality of the operating personnel and safety.
SUBJECTIVE CONDITION MONITORING :
Here the monitoring personnel use their perception of senses and judgment to note any change
of the condition. The four senses a man is bestowed with, like seeing (emanation of smoke),
hearing (bearing noise), smelling (burning of oil or rubber components due to excessive Heat),
feeling (touching the motor to feel the excessive heating or touching the housing to feel a
vibrating shaft) are used. It is important that the person carrying out subjective condition
monitoring has an adequate qualifications and skills as the result depends on their judgment and
experience. In subjective condition monitoring it is also possible to use instructions, guidelines or
hints where to look for leakage, bearing play etc. Posters or figures illustrating different conditions
of components may also be helpful
 Aided subjective or condition monitoring with simple gadgets:
Here the monitoring personnel use simple gadgets to add to their ability to perceive
conditions better. These gadgets are discussed more in detail in the following paragraphs.
 Objective condition monitoring:
 In objective condition monitoring different instruments and facilities are used for obtaining
data giving direct measure of the parametric condition of the components even while the
machine is working. In many cases these simple mechanical or complex electronic
measuring devices can be mounted on convenient locations for better monitoring
and control. A doctor feeling the pulse (subjective), his using a stethoscope to determine
any abnormal heart beat (aided subjective) or looking into the ECG monitor (objective)
form the examples of the above three categories.
SELECTING THE LEVEL CONDITION MONITORING:
Maintenance engineering and management monitoring the condition of plant, machinery and
equipment can result in a number of benefits, but its economic advantages are a major factor in
any decision to adopt it. To determine the level of condition monitoring activity appropriate to a
particular industry, it is first of all necessary to assess the potential economic savings. These arise
mainly from:
1. A reduction in the loss of production due to breakdowns.
2. A reduction in maintenance costs.
These will determine the possible level of expenditure and the level of application. The experience
of current users of condition monitoring suggests that its use can eliminate 75% of unscheduled
breakdowns in a typical plant. On this basis the possible annual gross savings by reducing
production losses due to breakdowns may be estimated from:- D x O x 75%
D = Average number of days production lost per year due to breakdowns.
O = Average daily added value output of the organization.
Added value output can be calculated from
 Total sales revenue minus
 Cost of raw-materials and energy bought in.
Additional annual gross savings arise from reduction of maintenance costs, due mainly to saving
in labour costs on breakdown maintenance. Based on the experience of existing users, a possible
average figure for this saving is:- Breakdown maintenance Labour cost x 50% . If a figure for
breakdown maintenance labour cost is not available, an alternative method of assessing the saving
is:- A x L x B x 50%
Where, A = Total annual cost of maintenance
 L = % of A which is for labour
B = % of A which is for breakdown work.
In most cases L & B are usually about 30%. So a more approximate of the gross saving is:-
A x 30% x 30% x 50%
i.e. A x 5%
The total potential gross savings are therefore:- (D x O x 75%) + (A x 5%)
SELECTING MACHINES AND COMPONENTS FOR MONITORING:
Machines or components for which condition monitoring is particularly effective will be those
which, on breakdowns, give rise to high costs. The costs will arise mainly from the following:
1. The loss of productive earning capacity.
2. The direct cost of damage occurring at the breakdown.
SELECTION OF MACHINES BY LOSS OF PRODUCTIVE EARNING CAPACITY:
Whatever the size of plant or factory, it is useful to obtain, or draw up, a flow diagram of the
production process which shows how the various machines may be linked together in terms of the
flow path of the product. The diagram will indicate where there are critical machines in which
failure can cause a disruption of the production process, and these machines will be the first
choice for monitoring. Machines giving rise to high losses in productive capacity will tend to be
those which:-
1. Are in continuous operation.
2. Have minimum parallel or standby capacity.
3. Have minimum intermediate product storage capacity on either side of them.
4. Are involved in a critical product transfer or transport function.
SELECTION OF MACHINES ON A BASIS OF FAILURE DAMAGE:
Any machines in the plant which are prone to high level of consequential damage, or machines
which are very expensive or difficult to replace, will be particularly suitable for application of
condition monitoring. Machines in which the direct cost of failure damage is likely to be high will
tend to be those which:-
1. Operate at high pressures, temperatures or voltages.
2. Handle dangerous working fluids.
3. Contain high inertia and high speed components.
4. Are arranged in very compact layouts.
Apart from any economic aspects, any machines which involved a safety hazard will be worth
monitoring for this reason alone. The safety hazard may arise because:
a. The machine explodes as a consequence of failure.
b. Dangerous materials are released as a consequence. Maintenance engineering and
management
c. The machine is used for transporting personnel.
GENERAL SCOPE OF MONITORING METHODS:
Condition monitoring is not new in that engineers, in-charge of machines, have always used their
own senses to obtain a general indication of machine condition.
SIMPLE MONITORING METHODS USING THE SENSES OF THE ENGINEER IN CHARGE:-
Sight Leaks -Smoke or casing colour change, indicating overheating.
Smell Overheating - Leaks
Hearing Abnormal noise, indicating some malfunction.
Feel Abnormal vibration, indicating some malfunction, high casing temperatures, indicating
overheating.
General Assessment of machine performance.
A great improvement in assessing the existence of a problem can be obtained, however, by the
use of simple instrumentation to give numerical readings. These numerical readings eliminate
the errors of personal opinion, and can be compared with data from the machine manufacturers
for normal operation, and with previous readings on the same instrument.
Simple instrumentation is usually fitted to most machines, and can give some numerical indication
of the existence of a problem in the machine. Typical examples are:-
 Pressure gauges
 Temperature indicators
 Tachometers
 Ammeters
Warning lights and other alarms set to operate at some particular measured value can also
indicate that a problem exists. In spite of the large number of techniques and the amount of
instrumentation that is available, there are really only four basic methods of condition
monitoring, and these are:
1. Visual monitoring
Machine components are visually inspected to determine their condition.
2. Vibration monitoring
Maintenance engineering and management the condition of moving components in a
machine is assessed from the amount and nature of vibration which they generate.
3. Thermal Monitoring
The conditions of the components are assessed based on the temperature levels.
3. Wear-debris monitoring
The condition of critical component surfaces, subject to loading and relative movement, is
assessed from the wear debris which they generate. They are usually oil washed components,
and the collection and analysis of debris is done by testing the lubricating oil.
4. Performance monitoring
The condition of a machine or component is assessed by measuring how well it is performing its
Intended duty. With each of the above methods of monitoring, the existence of a problem is
usually detected from the general level of measurement and its rate of change. While the nature
of the problem can generally be determined from a more detailed analysis of the measurements
obtained.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONDITION MONITORING.
Advantages
1. Improved availability of equipment
2. Minimized breakdown cost
3. Improved reliability
Disadvantages
1. Gives only marginal benefits
2. Increased running cost
3. Sometimes difficult to organize
VARIOUS COSTS INVOLVED IN COSTING OF CONDITION MONITORING:
 Installation cost:
Some of the capital cost will be clearly defined by the price of the equipment and any
 specialist installation cost. These costs include creating access, installing foundation,
covering, power supply and service. The cost of lost production during the installation may
be avoided .If the equipment is installed during normal product changes or shutdown
periods. Finally, the cost of training to the operator can also be included.
 Operating cost:
Once the equipment has been installed and commissioned, the major cost is likely to be its
manpower requirement. If the existing engineering staff has sufficient skill and training and
the improved plant performance reduces their workload sufficiently, then operating the
equipment and monitoring. Other continuing costs must also be considered, such as the
fixed consumables needed by the unit.
ON LINE AND OFF LINE TEST:
Condition monitoring can be done in two methods viz, “off-line and on line test.

METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS FOR THE CM:S

VISUAL MONITORING
 Microscopes - magnification
 Boroscopes - improved access
 Stroboscopes - makes moving parts appear stationary
RECORDED
 Photographs - to record surface condition
 Radiographs - to see internal parts
 Thermographs - to see surface temperature
 Surface prints - to record surface damage
 Surface costs - to record surface damage
  Witness indents- to indicate surface wear
 Dye penetrates - to detect surface cracks
 Performance and trend monitoring
 Machine Performance assessment by comparison of inputs and output components.
BEHAVIOR TO BE ASSESSED DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF COMPONENT:
 Stationary and Strain measurement
 Stressed
 Crack detection
 Sentinel holes in pressure vessels
 Bearings
 Temperature measurement
 Shaft position/clearance
 Seals
 Leak detection.
 Friction devices Temperature measurement
 Wearing Surfaces Dimensional measurement
 Wear depth indicators.
 Component position measurement.
 Pipes and valves Pressure drop/flow relationship
 Heaters & coolers Temp. Drop/flow relationship.
VIBRATION MONITORING:
VIBRATION MONITORING
Vibration is the motion of a machine or machine part, back and forth form it’s position of rest.
Vibration is essentially the heart beat of all mechanical equipment. The analysis of vibration
signals, produced during the operation of the machinery, provides important information about
the condition of the machinery. Vibration analysis can identify the
machine problems like imbalance, misalignment, mechanical looseness, bent shaft, bad bearings,
gear damage, electrical trouble, or faulty aerodynamic behavior. Since excessive vibration in
machinery can cause serious problems, it is essential to detect vibration well in advance to make
suitable repair or adjustment scheme.
Fundamentals of vibration:
Vibration is defined as the cyclic motion of rotating or reciprocating machine, bock and forth
from its position of rest. Whenever vibration occurs, there are actually four forces involved that
determine the characteristics of vibration. These forces are:
 The exciting force, such as unbalance or misalignment.
 The mass of the vibrating system.
 The stiffness of the vibrating system.
 The damping characteristics of the vibrating system.
A simple spring-mass system, as shown in Figure can better explain the vibration phenomenon.
This is a valid analogy since all machines and their components have weight (mass), springs like
properties (stiffness) and damping. Any external force applied on the
spring-mass system, will cause it to move upward and downward. The movement will continue in
the same manner, for as long as the force is applied, and it is this motion which is called vibration.

 Shafts and symmetrical components

 Shaft vibration measurements to check operation of rotors and journal bearings
 Natural/critical frequency checks response to excitation to indicate cracks and stiffness
changes.
 Bearing housings and casing.
 General vibration and noise level for overall machine condition. Spectral analysis to
indicate the component likely to be defective.
Wear debris and contaminant monitoring:
 Direct detection of the debris in the oil in the machine optical methods.
 Electrically conducting filters.
 Inductive and capacitative methods.
  Collection of the debris in the machine for regular examination.
 Existing filtration system.
 Special filters.
 Magnetic plugs.
 Regular sampling of the lubricant for an analysis of its contents.
 Elemental (spectrometric) analysis.
 Magnetic particle separation.
 Automatic particle counting.
Temperature monitoring:
Temperature is defined as a measure of velocity of fluid particles. It is a property which is used to
determine the degree of hotness or coldness or the level of heat intensity of a body. Instruments
for measuring ordinary temperature arc known as thermometers and those measuring high
temperatures are known as pyrometers. Since pressure, volume, electrical resistance, expansion
co-efficient, etc are all related to temperature through the fundamental molecular
structure, they change with temperature, and these changes can be used
to measure temperature. Most equipment operates on ambient temperature. Often, the
defects occurring because of wear friction, slippage, impact or other tribological reasons in part of
energy getting wasted and converted into heat energy which heats the connected components.
The difference between the ambient temperature and that of equipment operating under load is
the temperature rise, and this temperature rise is monitored to detect any faults. On large
engines, air handlers, boilers, turbines, etc., temperature transducers are included for all major
bearings. Some packages include shut-down circuits and alarms of temperature gets above certain
limits.
The hardware for infrared is becoming more and more powerful. An infrared gun takes spot
temperatures without imaging capability. The techniques used in such monitoring may be one or
more of the followings:
 Temperature crayons and tapes
 Thermometers and optical pyrometers
 Softening cones Avax/paints
 Bimetallic strips
  Thermocouples and fusible plugs
 Thermisters
TEMPERATURE CRAYONS AND TAPES
Temperature monitoring by feel of hand or by simple measuring items/instruments, like
thermometers, temperature crayons and tapes etc. is an age-old practice of finding out defects or
defective components. The subjective of temperature monitoring is touching the motor etc. and
assessing if overheated. Also, temperature sensitive stickers are the most common and cost
effective.
THERMOMETERS AND OPTICAL PYROMETERS:
Thermometers are use to measure the temperature of smaller ranges. The range of thermometers
is increased to certain limits by using infrared thermometers.
INFRARED THERMOMETERS:
Infrared thermometers or spot radiometers are designed to provide the actual surface
temperature at a single, relatively small point on a machine surface. Within a predictive
maintenance program, the point- of-use infrared thermometer can be used in conjunction with
many of the micro-processor-based vibration instruments to monitor the temperature at critical
points on plant machinery or equipment. This technique is typically used to monitor bearing cap
temperatures, motor winding temperature, spot checks of process piping temperatures, and
similar applications. It is limited in that the temperature represents a single point on the machine
or structure. However, when used in conjunction with vibration data, point-of-use infrared data
can be a valuable tool.
PYROMETERS:
When very high temperature is to be measured, and where physical
contact of probe cannot be made with the place being measured,
pyrometers arc used. h Radiation pyrometers measure the radiant heat emitted or reflected [S
by a hot object. Some Types of Pyrometers arc:
1. Total radiation pyrometers
2. Infrared pyrometers
3. Optical radiation pyrometers
(a) Total radiation pyrometers:
 These pyrometers receive all the radiation from a particular area of
the hot body. This, in turn b focused on a temperature sensitive
transducer like thermocouple. These consist of a radiation receiving
clement and a measuring device to indicate the temperature directly.
In the pyrometer shown in Figure, a diaphragm unit is used
along with a mirror to focus the radiation on a transducer. The lens to
transducer distance is adjusted for proper focusing. The receiver is so arranged that the image of
the front diaphragm is focused on thermocouple by the mirror. This means that temperature
measurement is independent of the distance of the target if the field of view is fixed.

As the heat radiated by a body is proportional to 7 at lower temperature this pyrometer has poor
sensitivity. So they have to be used to measure the temperature between 1200® - 3500°C. The
output from a total radiation pyrometer may be amplified. This
is then taken to PMMC instrument or a self balancing potentiometer to
give the temperature measurement.
LUBRICANT MONITORING OR LUBRICATION OIL ANALYSIS
The lubricating oil in any system is often required to perform a number of functions, such as to
reduce friction, to cool components and to clean load-bearing surfaces. Over the time, the oil is
likely to degrade, losing its lubrication properties due to chemical breakdowns
and becoming contaminated by the ingress of collates, fuels and other lubricants. In addition,
there may be a build-up of particles in the system, perhaps caused by component wear or the
generation soot.
The properties of the oil can be monitored in a number of ways: acidity for oxidation, viscosity
for lubrication, flash point for contamination, and chemical composition for chemical degradation.
In general, they indicate the quality of oil and whether it needs to be replaced. They also indicate
the failure of components such as seals, bearings, and heat exchangers, as well as components
overheating.
In addition to the oil properties, the presence of wear panicles in the oil can also be used to
predict a number of faults by observing their size, quantity, and shape and material composition.
These particles may be caused by wear (metal to metal contact), ingress (failure of filters) or
corrosion of components.
The chemical analysis of panicles can often identify particular component which arc failing. For
example, if silicon is found in the oil then a breach has occurred between the outside and the
lubricating systems. Another example would be an increase from four parts perpendicular
thousand (PPT) to 6PPT for bronze which probably indicates increasing normal bearing wear.
Lubricant analysis is an important aid to condition monitoring.
Laboratories recommended that samples of machine lubricant be taken as scheduled intervals to
determine the condition of the lubricating film that is critical to machine-train operation.
Oil monitoring is an extremely effective tool for assessing the condition of the oil itself and the
components with which the oil comes into contact. It is particularly useful in equipment where
vibration analysis is difficult to carryout, perhaps where components arc remote
from possible transducer mounting points. It is therefore typically used in compressors, gas
turbines, reciprocating engines, gear boxes and other low speed/variable speed machines.
TESTS ON LUBRICATING OIL
Typically ten tests are conducted on lubricating oil samples as given below:
1. Vbcosity
Due to internal friction, every fluid has a resistance to flow, called viscosity. A lubricant’s viscosity
is measured at either 40° or 100° C. Viscosity Index (VI) Improvers can be added to base stock to
help the lubricant maintain certain characteristics at given temperatures.
However, these VI improvers are sheared through the natural working of the mechanical system,
and thus over time, the lubricant loses its ability to maintain all of the proper characteristics and
has to be changed.
2. Oxidation
Oxidation is caused by a lubricant's natural tendency to bond with oxygen. Oxidation is a chemical
change that prevents the oil from performing its job. It naturally results when lubricant is
repeatedly heated up and cooled down. Proper change intervals prevent oxidation from becoming
a problem. Skipping or extending change intervals may cause the lubricant to become too oxidized
and lose some of its lubricating ability.
3. Nitration/sulfating
Sulfating/Nitration occur as a portion of the engine exhaust gets ingested back into the crankcase
and the lubricant bonds with the gases. Forming sulfates (sulfur compounds) and iterates
(nitrogen compounds) in the oil. The compounds attack metal surfaces and cause metal corrosion.
4. Fuel soot
Soot, or unburned carbon, is a physical contaminant. Soot in the oil is a natural occurrence for
diesel engines, however, too much soot causes the lubricant to become too viscous and thus not
lubricate well. Also, soot can build up or group together and cause significant deposits.
Additives such as calcium arc added to lubricants to prevent this.
5. Fuel dilution
Fuel dilution is an ionic of how much fuel is in the lubricant and indicates the condition of the
piston rings and fuel injection system. Fuel dilution is considered when it reaches a level of 2.5 to
5%.
6. Glycol
Glycol is an index of the amount of antifreeze/coolant in the lubricant. An increase in this number
indicates a leak between the lubricant and the coolant systems, such as a blown head gasket or a
cracked head or block.
7. Total Base Number (TEN)
The Total Base Number (TBN) is a measure of the reserve alkalinity in engine oils. Because acids
form in the oil (sulfates and nitrates), lubricants are manufactured with a high alkaline count to
counteract the acids. TBN should never be a problem if the proper lubricant change intervals are
followed. If the change intervals are lengthened' too much or skipped, then acids that form will
consume the alkaline reserve of the lubricant and advanced corrosion of the engine parts will
ensue.
TYPES OF LUBRICANT ANALYSIS
The lubricant analysis can be grouped into following three categories:
FLUID PROPERTIES ANALYSIS:
Information on a lubricant’s physical and chemical properties such as viscosity, total acid
number, dcmulsibility. Additives are considered during this analysis.
FLUID CONTAMINATION ANALYSIS:
The presence of contaminations such as dirt, glycol, soot, fuel, water etc., in the oil is analyzed to
monitor condition.
WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS
Wear debris analysis (WDA) is related to oil analysis only in that the particles to be studied are
collected through drawing a sample oil lubricating oil. Wear debris analysis provides direct
information about the wearing condition of the machine train, where as the lubricating oil
analysis determines the actual condition of the oil sample. Particles in the lubricant of a machine
can provide significant information about the condition of the machine. This information is
obtained from the study oil particle shape, composition, size and quantity.
Wear debris analysis is normally conducted in two stages. The first method is routine monitoring
and trending of the solid content of the machine lubricant. The continuous trending of wear rate
monitors the performance of machine and provides early warning and diagnosis. In
simple terms, the quantity, composition, and size of particulate matter in the lubricating oil are
indicative of the mechanical condition of the machine. A normal machine will contain low levels of
solids with a size less than 10 micrometers. Different mechanical systems have different
life and minimum component wear. International organization for standardization (ISO) set up
cleanliness codes for proper lubricating analysis defined as the number of particles per milliliter
greater than 5. 15.25.50 and 100 microns.
The second method involves analysis of the particulate matter in each lubricating oil sample. In his
test, the lubricant sample is run through a particle counter. The counter passes the lubricant
stream through a beam that measures the number and sizes of the solid particle contained in the
fluid. If the wear debris concentration indicates that are too many particles in a given size range,
then further investigation is required. The solid components are then inspected under a
microscope. The results of this test include particle identification, possible sources.
Suggestions on corrections, and picture of the particles.
RUBBING WEAR:
This is the result of normal sliding wear in a machine. During a normal breaking of a wear surface,
a unique layer is formed at the surface. As long as this layer is stable, the surface wears normally. If
the layer is removed faster than it is generated, the rate increases and the
maximum particle size increases. Excessive quantities of contaminate in a lubrication system can
increase rubbing wear by more than an order of magnitude without completely removing the
shear mixed layer. Although catastrophic failure b unlikely, these machines can wear out rapidly.
Impending trouble b indicated by a dramatic increase in wear particles.
CUTTING WEAR PARTICLES:
These are generated when one surface penetrates another. They are produced when a misaligned
or fractured hard surface produces an edge that cuts into a softer surface, or when abrasive
contaminate becomes embedded in a soft surface and cuts an opposing surface. Cutting wear
particles are abnormal and arc always worthy of attention. If they are only a few micrometers long
and a fraction of micrometer wide, the cause b probably a contaminate. Increasing quantities of
longer particles signal a potentially imminent component failure.
ROLLING FATIGUE:
This is associated primarily with rolling contact bearings and may produce three distinct panicle
types: fatigue spall particles, spherical Particles, and laminar particles. Fatigue spall particles are
the actual material removed when a pit or spall opens up on a bearing surface. An increase in the
quantity or size of these particles is the first indication of an abnormality. Rolling fatigue does not
always generate spherical particles, and they may be generated by other sources. Their presence is
important in that they are detectable before any actual spalling occurs. Laminar particles are very
thin and are thought to be formed by the passage of a wear particle through a rolling contact.
They frequently have holes in them. Laminar particles may be generated throughout the life of a
bearing, but at the onset of fatigue spalling the quantity increases.
COMBINED ROLLING AND SLIDING WEAR:
The results from the moving contact of surface in gear systems. These larger particles result from
tensile stresses on the gear surface, causing the fatigue cracks to spread deeper into the gear
tooth before pitting. Gear fatigue cracks do not generate spheres. Scuffing of gears is
caused by too high a load or speed. The excessive heat generated by this condition breaks down
the lubricating film and causes adhesion of the mating gear teeth. As the wear surfaces become
rougher, the wear rate increases. Once started, scuffing usually affects each gear too.
SEVERE SLIDING WEAR:
This is caused by excessive loads or heat in a gear system. Under these conditions, large panicles
break away from the wear surfaces, causing an increase in die wear rate. If the stresses applied to
the surfaces are increased further, a second transition point is reached. The
surface breaks down and catastrophic wear ensues.
WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS METHODS
A wide variety of basic techniques are used in the detection, and/or evaluation, of the wear debris
present in a lubrication system. The equipment which has evolved from these techniques may be
used on-line or off-line. The various basic techniques used are briefly
described as follows:
OPTICAL METHODS:
There are three techniques used by applying optical method.
LIGHT OF OBSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE:
This technique uses the change in light intensity which occurs when particle debris pass though a
light beam. The intensity change is detected using a photodiode and the output is calibrated to
give the particle size for the flow conditions. Any change in flow conditions and/or particle
properties requires a recalibration of the instrument.
TIME OF TRANSITION TECHNIQUE:
This technique uses a scanning laser beam and is based on the principle that the time of
interaction of a particle within the beam depends directly on the particle size. The technique is
independent of the type of fluid used and therefore does not require calibration.
FORWARD REFLECTANCE TECHNIQUE:
This technique is based upon the reflectance of light at a very shallow angle of incidence. The light
is reflected forward in a narrow » angle band, and occurs at an intensity depending upon the
surface area which is impinged by the light beam. This in turn depends upon the
particle size.
FILTER BLOCKAGE:
This technique depends upon the change in the pressure/flow characteristics which occur when an
orifice is blocked by debris within the liquid passing though that orifice. In practice, screen or-
mesh is used which consists of a number of same-sized orifices.
Any particles in the fluid which are larger than the orifice size will cause a blockage, thereby
decreasing the flow rate through the mesh.
MAGNETIC ATTRACTION:
This technique uses the magnetic susceptibility of ferrous contaminants to separate the debris
from the carrying fluid. The separation is brought about by a variety of methods such as the use
of a permanent magnet or a magnetic filter. Those instruments which separate the debris in a
manner suitable for further examination and analysis are generally offline monitors. Magnetic
plug method is an on-line debris collector. This technique collects the ferrous debris from the
passing fluid by using magnetized sensing heads. The debris are allowed to build up over a
specified period of time, and the wear rate is calculated from the weight collected or the change in
magnetic flux. The debris is released back into the system at the end of each measuring cycle by
demagnetizing the collecting zone.
WEAR:
This is a technique whereby the electrical resistance of a wear debris contained within the flowing
fluid are allowed to impinge upon the sensor, causing a wearing away of the sensor material, and
hence increasing its electrical resistance. The change in resistance depends upon the rate change
in sensor wear and therefore, upon the hardness, sharpness and frequency of the
particles striking the sensor.
Ultrasound:
This technique uses a pulsed ultrasonic acoustical beam focused into a fluid, such that it will
sense the presence of particulate matter within that liquid. Maximum sensitivity is achieved at the
focus of the acoustic beam. Hence, any passing debris will the beam and cause a change in the
strength of the reflected pulse signal, as seen by the receiver. The rate of change in the strength of
the reflected pulse can be used to quantify and/or size the particles present in the fluid stream.
RADIOACTIVITY:
This technique involves the monitoring of irradiated wear particles which have resulted from the
wear of an irradiated component. The method is carried out by cither, monitoring the particles
using Gamma ray detection units within the vicinity of the irradiated work part, or by monitoring
the decrease in radioactivity of the component itself.
CRACK MONITORING
Crack monitoring is mostly used for quality assurance and metallographic analysis to assess the
quality of metals and quality of procedures during making, shaping and treating of metals in
Industries. Crack detection/monitoring are also used in condition monitoring of 1 many metallic
components. Crack monitoring program does not measure total crack depth and width but change
in crack width. This change in crack width is called crock displacement. The crack displacement
measured by the sensors may be driven by any combination of the factors listed below:
1. Differential thermal expansion
2. Structural and machine overloading
3.Chemical changes in various components of machine
4. Shrinkage and twisting of different components temperature and humidity changes etc,
5. Fatigue and aging of components etc.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) plays important role in crack monitoring. NDT is defined as a
method of inspecting an object without impairing its future usefulness. A simple technique such as
a visual inspection is a form of non-detective testing method. Major methods include:
 Penetrate testing
 Magnetic particle testing
 Ultrasonic testing
 Radiography testing
There are also some ranges of other new techniques that have particular specialized applications
in limited fields. They include:
 Eddy current testing
 Acoustic emission methods
 Thermography
 Holography
 Leak testing
LIQUID PENETRATE TEST:
The liquid penetrate test is one of the oldest methods of nondestructive testing. It is based on the
old oil and whiting process, formerly widely employed on steel parts, particularly in the railroad
industry. The oil and whiting method consisted of applying a dirty penetrating oil to the test
surface, wiping the oil from the surface after a few minutes, and then coating parts with an
alcohol-chalk suspension solution. Where cracks existed, the dirty oil seeped through the white
coating, thus indicating the presence of discontinuities. Obviously, only gross cracks or surface
cavities could be revealed by the oil-stained powder streaks that formed the indications with oil
and whiting inspection technique.
DEVELOPMENT OF LIQUID PENETRATE LEST
Since the I940‘s. penetrate inspection has been developed from a I method used by very few
plants to a method employed in thousands of T plants in all types of industries. It has achieved
recognition as a basic nondestructive test method. Techniques other than wiping have been found
to remove the excess surface oil or penetrate from test objects.
Agents other than whiting were found to develop and enhance the flaw indications. As with other
inspection techniques, no single penetrate material or process serves best in all test applications in
industry. Thus, an adequate understanding of penetranat test technology is an invaluable aid to
management, test supervision, and test operators who seek to attain optimum results with the
variety of materials and methods available. Liquid Penetrate inspection is often the first
nondestructive testing method. Management considers for inspection of industrial products
because it often requires minimal capital expenditure for implementation, and it can
accommodate a variety of test-object materials, shapes and sizes, test locations, and
environmental conditions. However, the outcome of a penetrate inspection is largely dependent
on the human operator.
WHEN TO USE LIQUID PENETRATE TEST
Liquid penetrate inspection detects only those discontinuities that arc present on or are open to
the surface of the part. Therefore, if only surface defects arc of interest, liquid penetrate process
may be used in the following situations:
1. When the test material is a nonmagnetic metal (such as annealed austenitic stainless steel,
titanium, aluminum, etc.)
2. Magnesium, and copper alloys) or a nonmetallic material (such as plastics or ceramics)
3. When the geometry of the part is such that the shape itself may hide or obscure indications (of
surface defects) produced by another nondestructive test techniques.
4. When the size or shape of the surface defect is such that it can escape detection by other
techniques.
5. When parts are to be inspected in locations where electric power is not available, or is too
 expensive or too inconvenient to use. Or where the use of electricity creates a safety hazard.
However, if the test material is ferromagnetic, magnetic particle tests may offer advantages over
penetrate tests in detection of near- surface defects and surface defects that do not permit entry
of a liquid penetrate. If test for both internal and surface soundness are required,
then liquid penetrate inspection can be used in addition to other nondestructive test methods
such as penetrating radiation, ultrasonic, or eddy current tests.
ADVANTAGES OF LPI
 The method has high sensitive to small surface discontinuities.
 The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
 Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low
cost.
 Parts with complex geometric shapes arc routinely inspected.
 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
 Aerosol spray cans make penetrate materials very portable.
DISADVANTAGES OF LPL
 Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
 Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be inspected.
 Pre cleaning is critical as contaminants can mask defects.
 Metal smearing from machining, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed prior to LPI.
 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
 Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
 Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
 Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
 Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
MAGNETIC FLUX TESTING
Magnetic particle testing (MT) is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method for detecting
discontinuities that arc primarily linear and located at or near the surface of ferromagnetic
components and structures. MT is governed by the laws of magnetism and is therefore restricted
to the inspection of materials that can support magnetic flux line. Metals can
be classified as ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, or diamagnetic. Ferromagnetic metals arc those
strongly attracted to a magnet and can become easily magnetized. Examples include iron, nickel,
and cobalt. Paramagnetic metals such as austenitic stainless steel are very weakly attracted by
magnetic forces of attraction and cannot be magnetized. Diamagnetic metals are very slightly
repelled by a magnet and cannot be magnetized. Examples include bismuth, gold, and antimony.
Only those metals classified as ferromagnetic can be effectively inspected by MT. In order to
understand MT. one should have a basic understanding of magnetism and electromagnetism.
REQUIREMENTS OF SURFACE CONDITIONING OF PREPARATIONS:
(a) Satisfactory results are usually obtained when the surfaces are in the as-welled, as-rolled, as-
cast, or as-forged conditions. However, surface preparation by grinding or machining may be
necessary where surface irregularities could mask indications due to discontinuities.
(b) Prior to magnetic particle examination, the surface to be examined and all adjacent areas
within at least 2.5 mm shall be dry and free of all dirt, grease, lint, scale, welding flux and spatter,
oil, or other extraneous matter that could interfere with the examination.
(c) Cleaning may be accomplished using detergents, organic solvents, disvaluing solutions, paint
removers, vapor degreasing, sand or grit blasting, or ultrasonic cleaning methods.
SURFACE CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT:
When coatings are applied temporarily to uncoated surfaces only in amounts sufficient to enhance
particle contrast, it must be demonstrated that indications can be detected through the
enhancement coating.
PROCEDURE/TECHNIQUE
Examination procedures shall be based on the following information:
 the materials, shapes, or sizes to be examined, and the extent of the examination;
 magnetization techniques to be used;
 equipment to be used for magnetization;
 surface preparation (finishing and cleaning);
 type of ferromagnetic particles to be used: manufacturer, color, wet or dry, etc.;
 magnetization currents (type and amperage);
 Demagnetization.
This method can be used for the detection of defects which break the surface or are close to the
surface of the ferromagnetic materials. When a ferromagnetic component is magnetized, any
discontinuity that is approximately at right angles to the magnetizing field direction will
distort the magnetic field lines and if at the surface or close to the

Magnetic flux around a bar magnet Leakage field

The magnetic field in a material is generally produced by passing a heavy current through the
component, by placing it in a coil through engine\which a current passes or making it part of a
magnetic current. Magnetic particles, a fine powder of metals or metal oxides, is then
sprayed over the surface, cither dry in air or a gas or wet on some liquid suspension. The particles
stick to the regions of leakage flux and thus render them clearly visible.
METHOD OF EXAMINATION
Examination shall be done by the continuous method; that is, the magnetizing current remains on
while the examination medium is being applied and while excess of the examination medium is
being removed.
TECHNIQUES
The ferromagnetic particles used as an examination medium shall be either wet or dry. and may
be either fluorescent or non-fluorescent. One or more of the following five magnetization
techniques shall be used:
 prod technique
 longitudinal magnetization technique
 circular magnetization technique
 yoke technique
  Multi-directional magnetization technique.
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE TESTING
There are many methods of measuring the depth of surface- breaking cracks on electrically
conductive components and structures. The principle of working is based on electrical resistance.
A potential difference is applied on the component to be tested by two electrodes named A and B.
Then potential difference is measured between other two electrodes called C and D. If any crack is
present, the potential difference between C and D will not be proportional to the potential
difference between electrodes A and B. If the potential difference between electrodes C and D is
proportional to A and B, the component is perfect without defects.

Potential difference crack depth measurement

The proportionality of the potential difference induced between electrodes C and D is based on
the distance between electrodes. If the distance between electrodes increases, the voltage
induced between C and D will be less. The test system is calibrated against artificial defects of
known depths, and then it is possible to adjust the system to give a direct reading in crack depth. If
the depth change is assumed to be linear along the saw-cut. Then the depth will vary linearly from
IO mm to 0mm. DC potential measurements were the first used for this technology. AC does not
penetrate so deeply as direct currents, and the current flow differences become more pronounced
for smaller depths of crack. DC systems are simpler, and cheaper, for portable use. The technology
is somewhat restricted in its application because the surfaces on either side of the crack must be
similar, and without any grease, corrosion products, paint or other coatings, because these will
cause extra resistance in the electrical circuits. Typical accuracy of this type of technology is about
10-20%, and crack depths from cracks shallower than a few tenths of a mill meter cannot
accurately be measured.
EDDY CURRENT TESTING (ECT)
ECT is a NDT technique based on the induction of electrical currents in the material being
inspected and observing the interaction between those currents and the materials. ECT is used
extensively to identify or differentiate between a wide variety of physical, structural
and metallurgical conditions in welded stainless steel tubes. The test coil is the main link between
the test instrument and test object and serves two main functions-the first to establish a varying
electromagnetic field which includes eddy currents within the test object and the second is to feed
the response due to the electromagnetic to a signal analysis system.
Welded tubes up to 75mm diameter are tested for discontinuities using an external encircling coil.
When the diameter of the tube exceeds 75mm, it is generally no longer practical to inspect with an
external encircling coil for reasons of flaw resolution. A satisfactory technique is the use of
multiple probes with sensitivity similar to the encircling coil inspection.
Eddy current is generated by utilizing a coil excited by AC to produce an alternating magnetic field.
This field, when placed in close proximity to a conductive material, induces a secondary current
within the material. The secondary current opposes the primary magnetic field by producing an
opposing magnetic field, which is less than but proportional to the primary field strength. Such
opposition is registered electronically by the eddy current flaw detector, and is used for initial
calibration or balancing. Changes to the eddy current flow can be registered as change in the
primary field thus indicating a shift on an instrument scale. Therefore, factors within a material
that constitute possible eddy current variations become important variables. Therefore, great care
must be taken to obtain a systematic approach for reliable results. The following principle
variables are very much important in the study of eddy current as follows:
 Permeability
 Conductivity
 Material thickness
 Edge effect and end effect
 Lift off
 Fill factor
1. PERMEABILITY
The tendency of a material can be magnetized by adding alloys and heat treatment process
which will change permeability. Magnetic saturation is required to minimize the effect of
permeability variations. This can be obtained locally by using a DC coil within the test probe
arrangement.
2. CONDUCTIVITY
This property will also vary with alloy and heat treatment process. Dedicated eddy current
conductivity meters are used to know the conductivity values of material.
3. MATERIAL THICKNESS
Generally, eddy current do not penetrate great depths into a material. So the frequency at which
the test coil or probe is excited will govern the depth of eddy current penetration, which ranges
from 1mm to 10mm.
4. EDGE EFFECT AND END EFFECT
The eddy current produced in the material travels in a circular path. These paths arc interrupted
by the test component geometry by moving the test coil to or near a sharp change in section. The
instruments are balanced and calibrated usually to eliminate edge effect and end effect from the
test variables.
5. LIFT OFF
This is generally undesirable effect when the probe coil varies in distance from the test item. Eddy
current density is rapidly changed with slight variations in probe contact with the test item, thus
leading to irregular or false indications. In flaw detection and conductivity
measurements, these effects should be minimized.
6. FILL FACTOR
The degree to which an item fills the coil, or the coil fills the test item bore will dictate eddy
current induction levels within the test material, when encircling coils and bobbin coils arc used.
Variations due to dimensional inaccuracies may cause fluctuations in test data which
will affect the results.
TYPES OF EDDY CURRENT TEST COILS
There are two types of eddy current test coils used in testing such
(A) ABSOLUTE ARRANGEMENT:
This is arrangement is used as a coil solely on its own, without any simultaneous reference to a
standard or different parts of the material.
(B) DIFFERENTIAL ARRANGEMENT:
(C) SINGLE DIFFERENTIAL COD
Differential arrangement uses two coils wound in opposing direction for single probe applications,
or two individual coil probes when using the reference standard technique. It is often used for bar
or tube inspection as an on-site examination method, and compares two
sections of the one sample enclosed by the two parts of the coil.
TESTING PROCEDURE
In eddy current testing eddy currents induced in a part generate their own magnetic field.
Variations in a part, such as discontinuities, alloy composition, hardness, corrosion, cracking
modifies the magnetic permeability, change the eddy current, leading to possible detection.
Point-by-point measurement is not the strong feature of this method.
Magnet

Metal loss-Distorted flux

APPLICATIONS:
 To measure or identify such conditions and properties as electrical conductivity, magnetic
permeability, grain size, heat treatment conditions, hardness and physical dimensions,
 To detect seam, laps, cracks, voids and inclusions,
 To sort dissimilar metals and detect differences in composition, micro-structure and other
 properties and
 To measure the thickness of a non-conductive coating on a conductive metal or the
thickness of a non-magnetic metal coating on a magnetic metal
Limitations:
The main limitation is the low penetration of parts being examined, limited to thin walls or near
surface flaws. It is difficult to use on ferromagnetic materials. False indications are possible
because of mixed variables, edge effects and lift-off effects. Extensive technical knowledge is
required for the development of inspection procedures, specific probes and to interpret the
inspection data.
RADIOGRAPHY TEST
Radiography b a non-destructive examination method that uses a beam of penetrating radiation
such as x-rays and gamma rays. When the beam passes through a component, some of the
radiation energy is absorbed and the intensity of the beam is reduced. Variations in beam intensity
arc recoded in film, and arc seen as difference in shading that is typical types and sizes of any flaws
present It may be seen from the above that three basic elements, a radiation source or probing
medium, the test piece or object being evaluated, and a recording medium, (usually film) combine
to produce a radiograph.
1. SOURER OF RADIATION

Two types of radiation are used for NDE, namely (i) Electromagnetic radiation and (ii) Particulate
radiation. X-rays and gamma rays with relatively short wave lengths and with the capability of
penetrating opaque materials are mainly used in Industrial radiography. X-rays and gamma rays
differ only in the manner in which they are produced. Particulate radiation refers to a stream of
sub-atomic panicles that is capable of interacting with matter and thereby releasing energy. The
most commonly known subatomic particles arc alpha (a), beta (P) particles and neutrons, all of
which are emitted from the nuclei of various atoms during radioactive decay. X-ray equipments
used for Industrial X-ray, generally range from l00 kV to 450kV. Modem X-ray generators are
available up to 450kV and 15mA and the tube voltage can be varied from 20kV to 450kV.
Equipments with dual focal spot sizes and ultra- small and portable equipment with an output
voltage of 200kV and 3mA current arc also available. Examination of thicker sections is carried out
using high energy X- rays, whose energy value is 1 MV or more. A number of machines such as
synchrotron bettering, van-Dc-Graff type electrostatic generator etc. are available of which
electron Linear Accelerator (LINAC) is the most popular.
GAMMA RAY SOURCES:
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted from an instable source, i.e. an isotope. Each
isotope will have characteristic nuclear energy levels, which remains constant and intensities
which decays with time, as indicated by ‘half life’.
RECORDING MEDIUM:
Variations in the intensity of x-rays or gamma rays that pass through a material can be presented
as (a) a visible permanent image, (b) a visible real time image and (c) a meter reading. Permanent
image ire recorded in an X-ray film, radiographic paper etc. X-ray film is used more extensively
than all other recording mediums.
TESTING PROCEDURE

The radiography test is based on the use of X-rays or gamma radiation and is the same technique
as that used for obtaining X-rays of the human body in, say, looking for the fracture of a bone.
Radiography can be used with most materials for the detection of both internal and
surface defects.
APPLICATIONS:
 Radiography can be used to inspect most types of solid material, both ferrous and non-
ferrous alloys as also non- metal lie materials and composites.
  It can be used to inspect the condition and proper placement of components, for proper
liquid fill level in scaled components, etc.
 The method is used extensively on castings, weldments, forgings and parts when there is a
critical need to ensure freedom from internal flaws.
 Radiography is well suited to the inspection of semiconductor device for cracks, broken
wires, unsoldered connections,
 Foreign material and misplaced components, whereas other methods are limited in ability
to inspect semiconductor devices.
LIMITATIONS:
1. Certain types of flaws arc difficult to detect for e.g., cracks cannot be detected unless they are
parallel to the radiation beam. Tight cracks in thick sections usually cannot be detected
at all. Even when properly oriented. Minute discontinuities such, as inclusion in rough material,
flakes, micro-porosity and micro-fissures cannot be detected unless they are sufficiently large
in size. Laminations are nearly impossible to detect with radiography because of their
unfavorable orientations.
2. The defect or discontinuity must be parallel to the radiation beam, or sufficiently large, to
register on the radiograph. A defect usually must be at least 2% of the thickness of the
material before it can register on a radiograph with sufficient contrast to be detected.
3. Certain areas in many items cannot be radio graphed because of the geometric consideration
involved. Often it is difficult, if not impossible, to position the film and source of radiation so as
to obtain a radiograph of the area desired.
4. Compared to other NDT methods of inspection, radiography is expensive.
ULTRASONIC TEST
Ultrasonic Examination is a NDT method that uses sound waves having frequencies in the mega
cycle range. Ultrasonic evaluation can detect discontinuities oriented both in the plane of and
normal to the surface of components. Generally, only one transducer is used for both transmission
and reception to scan the entire volume of the components. The direction of scanning is changed
suitably to detect defects oriented in different directions. This volumetric method can be used to
test materials of thickness from a few mm to a few meters.
Ultrasonic testing is widely used for the detection of internal defects in materials. Audible sound
waves have frequencies ranging from about 20Hz to 20Hz. The waves used in ultrasonic arc way
beyond the audible region, having frequencies ranging from about 0.5MHz to
20MHz.
TESTING PROCEDURE

The Figure shows the basic principles of the ultrasonic method for detecting internal defects. The
probe contains a piezoelectric crystal which, when an alternating potential difference is applied
across h. transmits ultrasonic waves into the material. Some of these pass
through to the rear side of the material before being reflected back to the probe, others arc
reflected back from the internal defects In some probes, two piezoelectric crystals are used, one to
transmit the waves and one to detect the reflections. However, a single crystal can be used for
both purposes. The simplest method, termed the A-scan, involves a pulse of ultrasonic waves
being transmitted into the material and the reflections detected from the back wall and the
defect. The initial pulse and the reflected pulses arc then displaced on a cathode ray tube as
shown in Figure

PROBLEMS IN ULTRASONIC WAVES

High frequencies of waves will improve its sensitivity and that is true. The major problem is
attenuation. Each material has a grain structure and the density of grain dislocation, together with
the physical size of the grains, will govern attenuation. Attenuation means the loss of
sound as it travels through a material. Coarse-grained materials cause large amounts of sound loss,
and in extreme cases can be unstable. Heat treatment is often used to refine grain structures
where high attenuation loss is problem. The absence of fine grain structure is
produced by low-frequency probes. The surface finish of the instrument
is also an important factor. Rough surface scatters sound. It will lead to loss frequency waves. For
sound to be transmitted in and out of the material to the probe, a liquid film known as a coolant
must be used. The film has the primary function of expelling air. Air has a very poor match of
acoustic impedance to most solid materials, so an interface with air on one side
acts as an almost perfect reflector. The coolant also conforms the slightly irregular surfaces, and
allows the probe contact to be bedded down, smoothing out small geometric changes. Grease or a
suspension of wallpaper paste in water is frequently used as coolants. The fluids have a much
higher viscosity than water, and tend to ‘fill* small irregularities better than plain water.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Time or distance.

Figure Manual flaw detection system plotting time or distance against signal strength or
amplitude. Ultrasonic testing can be conducted by placing the probe on the specimen or
submerging the system in a water tank and transmitting the sound waves through the probe with
fixed offset distance. Due to this, friction is produced by producing wear on the probe. The
physical size of the flaws can be improved by microchip technology. It will reduce the cost of
maintenance for testing instruments. Sound signals produced by the instruments arc shown in
Figure
APPLICATIONS:
Ultrasonic Examination is principally used for the detection of internal flaws in most engineering
metals and alloys. Bonds, produced by welding, brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding also can
be examined. In-line techniques have been developed (a) to monitor and
classify materials as “acceptable" or “Scrap" and (b) for process control. UE is used for quality
control and material inspection in all major industries, such as electrical and electronics
components, production of steel. Aluminum and titanium, and fabrication of structures like
pressure vessels, ships, motor vehicles, machinery and jet engines. It is used
very extensively for in-service inspection for preventive maintenance and life prediction etc. for
many of the process industries.
LIMITATIONS:
1. Unfavorable geometries and coarse anisotropic grain structures are difficult to inspect.
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedures.
3. Parts that arc rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin or not homogenous are difficult to
examine, procedures, specific probes and to interpret the inspection data.
LEAKAGE MONITORING
Leakage is unintended discharge or oozing of fluids and gasses from mechanical components,
occurring because of increase in clearance or wear-out or erosion of parts like valve seats, puppets
and spools etc or damage of seals and packing or incorrect fitting of seals and components or
other reasons.
Leakages are both, external or internal. External leakages are relatively easy to detect as some
fluid or gases flow out of leaking components. Internal leakages arc little difficult to detect as the
leakage fluid/gas goes back to reservoir directly or through existing pipelines and is normally not
seen flowing outside. Their detection is done through correlation with malfunctioning or reduced
output performance of components/equipments or through contamination of the original
fluid etc. External monitoring is relatively easier.
For detecting fluid leakages of underground pipelines, one crude method is that the area around
the leakage gets wet and the fluid starts coming/oozing out from any soft location nearby. Few
sensors are connected at some distances for timely indication of leakages for very
long lines. In some cases, pressure drops arc also indicated by leakages.
Leak testing is the determination of the rate at which a liquid or gas will penetrate from inside a
“tight” component or assembly to the outside, or vice versa, as a result of a pressure differential
between the two regions. This technique is a very reliable and fast technique for some enclosed
welded components like pressure vessels, pipelines and vacuum devices. Leak testing methods can
be classified according to the pressure and fluid (gas or liquid) in the system. The commonly used
leak testing methods are;
1. Acoustic methods,
 2. Bubble testing.
3. Flow detection.
4. Specific gas detectors,
5. Quantity loss determination etc.
Direct sensing in gas systems at pressure is done by acoustic
method, bubble method or flow detection. Specific gas detectors like sulphur hexafluoride.
halogen, thermal conductivity, mass spectrometer (Helium) leak Detector etc. arc also used to
detect and quantify the leaks for the components at pressure or at vacuum. The major factors
that determine the choice of the leak testing methods is; the physical characteristics of the
system, the tracer fluid, the size of the anticipated leak and the reason for conducting the test. i.e.
whether to locate or detect the leak of measure the leak rate.
Some leakage detect monitoring methods are;
 Interstitial monitoring
 Level monitoring
 Vapor monitoring
 Liquid monitoring
Interstitial monitoring: A detector installed between the walls should activate an alarm in
the event of liquid penetration due to leakage from one of the walls.
Level monitoring: Level Gauges and alarms in tanks, sups etc.
Vapour monitoring: Vapour sensors installed around underground tanks etc.
Liquid monitoring: Cable sensors set off an alarm due to change in conductivity or
resistance, when contacted by leakage fluids.
Monitoring of air or gaseous leakages is identified by the following methods;
 Sound is checked by hissing or whistling sound coming out from leaked point.
 Smell is checked for coke-oven gas or other such gases
 Fiber strips are used to suck leakages in vacuum or low pressure systems.
 Bubbles are allowed to come out of the leakages by immersing in the water or in other
color liquids.
 Sensors are installed to detect the leakage points by audio sound or visual alarms or
indications etc.
APPLICATIONS:
Leak testing can be employed in a variety of components and ways, in both pressure and vacuum
modes. It can be used for jobs as big as reactor vessels, piping systems and heat exchanges and as
small as hermetically sealed components like transistors. It is widely used to
detect leaks in weld, braze and adhesive bonds, glass envelopes, vacuum
chambers, elastomeric and metal gasket seals, fuel pins, liquid metal
containers and components.
CORROSION MONITORING
The environment or process fluid used in plant operation can lead to corrosion of certain parts
followed by gradual or catastrophic breakdowns. The corrosion may lead to deterioration in
performance of a machine, and this may be detected by performance or vibration monitoring
methods, e.g. bearing failure or impeller unbalance. Corrosion is usually a greater problem for
structural components than for rotating machines, and a number of techniques are commonly
used to determine its extent. The use of such techniques for condition monitoring of
machines/components is very limited and selective. Few common corrosion monitoring
techniques are discussed below:
WEIGHT LOSS METHOD:
This technique is the most commonly used for general and localized corrosion. The weight loss of
the material of known surface area is determined in the specific environment for a known time
period.From this, the corrosion rate can be calculated.
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE METHOD:
A probe which consists of a thin wire is inserted into the process fluid. As the wire corrodes, its
cross-sectional area reduces and the electrical resistance increases. This can be measured with a
suitable bridge circuit to give a continuous signal related to the rate of corrosion.
LINEAR POLARIZATION METHOD:
Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction and it has been found that the slope of the
potential/applied current curve is inversely proportional to the reaction rate on the electrode
surface. This can be related to the rate of corrosion. Probes (either two or three) are widely used
to facilitate these measurements. This technique is used for finding out the rate of corrosion in
electrically conductive corrosion fluid.
CORROSION POTENTIAL MEASUREMENT:
The electrical potential between the plant being maintained and a reference electrode can be
related to the rate of corrosion. This technique is useful where the material shows both the active
and passive corrosion behavior in the process, and can be used to indicate the
development of active corrosion.
ULTRASONIC TESTING:
An ultrasonic pulse is sent from one side of the component and the time is measured for it to
reflect from the other side and return. This indicates the thickness of the material and is a valuable
method for % monitoring pipe wall thickness and pressure vessel wall thickness.
SENTINEL HOLE METHOD:
In this method, small holes arc drilled to specific depths in a pipe wall or similar components.
When the corrosion readies the bottom of the hole, the wall will leak. Single or multiple holes of
varying depths can be used to access corrosion. The holes arc often plugged once leakage has
been detected so that the plant may run until a suitable outage can be arranged.

UNIT-III CONDITION MONOTORING

PART-A (2 Marks)
1. What is equipment health monitoring?
2. List down the factors for increasing the demand condition monitoring.
3. List down the key features of condition monitoring.
4. Write down the basic steps in condition monitoring.
5. What are three types of condition monitoring?
6. State the advantages and disadvantages of condition monitoring.
7. Mention the various costs involved in costing of condition monitoring mainly.
8. State the methods of measuring vibration.
9. Describe briefly pistol thermometer.
10. Name the types of pyrometers.
11. Mention title applications of bimetallic strip.
12. List down the features of RTD.
13. State the applications and limitations of thermisters.
 PART-B (16 Marks)
1. What is condition monitoring and explain condition monitoring what type of condition
monitoring are normally used in industry.
2. What is leakage monitoring? Explain some of the leakage mediums used for condition
monitoring.
3. What is wear debris analysis what are the three wear debris analysis techniques commonly used
and compare their performance and uses?
4. Briefly explain the cost comparison with and without condition monitoring.
5. What is thermal monitoring and what thermal monitoring are used in industries Explain
principle and uses of thermograph.
6. Briefly explain various methods and instruments for condition monitoring.
 UNIT-IV
REPAIR METHODS FOR BASIC MACHINE ELEMENT
FAILURE:
Event in which any part of an equipment or machine does not perform according to its
operational specifications. Failures are classified into several categories: dependent
failure, non-critical failure, random failure, etc. Failure is also define by the following terms;
 Failure is any loss that interrupts the continuity of production.
 Failure is a loss of asset availability.
 Failure is the unavailability of equipment.
 Failure is a deviation from the status quo.
 Failure is not meeting target expectations.
 Failure is any secondary defect.
The definitions above are some common industrial failure definitions. Please note that there are
no perfect failure definitions. For instance, "Failure is any loss that interrupts the continuity of
production" has to include planned shutdowns, rate reductions for decreased sales, etc. It would
not pick up failures on equipment that is spared since it does not interrupt the continuity of
production.
A precise failure definition is important since it focuses the facility on the priority issues. It fosters
good communications since everyone knows what is important and it also provides a basis for a
common understanding of what the facility's needs are. Not to mention, it is an essential step in
the development of a "Significant Few" failure list.
There may be many factors which cause mechanical failure of equipment/system in industries. The
figure depicts the various possible causes for mechanical failure.

Possible Causes for failure

As regard to industries, it can be said that the cause of failure of an equipment/system may faJl
under any one of the following categories:
1. Unexpected and unintentional damage - bearing seizure, gear teeth breakage etc
2. Workmanship- unskilled, undivided and not motivated e.g. inaccurate measurement,
mismatching, not considering safety aspects etc.,
3. Design- Improper design which does not meet the requirement and working conditions
4. Material - Manufacturing defects, mishandling and storage etc.
5. Operation- incorrect usage of equipment etc
FAILURE ANALYSIS:
Failure analysis is the process of collecting and analyzing data to determine the cause of
a failure. It is an important discipline in many branches of manufacturing industry, such as
the electronics industry, where it is a vital tool used in the development of new products and for
the improvement of existing products. It relies on collecting failed components for subsequent
examination of the cause or causes of failure using a wide array of methods,
especially microscopy and spectroscopy. The NDT or nondestructive testing methods are
valuable because the failed products are unaffected by analysis, so inspection always starts using
these methods.
FORENSIC INVESTIGATION:

Forensic inquiry into the failed process or product is the starting point of failure analysis. Such
inquiry is conducted using scientific analytical methods such as electrical and mechanical
measurements, or by analyzing failure data such as product reject reports or examples of previous
failures of the same kind. The methods of forensic engineering are especially valuable in tracing
product defects and flaws. They may include fatigue cracks, brittle cracks produced by stress
corrosion cracking or environmental stress cracking for example. Witness statements can be
valuable for reconstructing the likely sequence of events and hence the chain of cause and
effect. Human factors can also be assessed when the cause of the failure is determined. There are
several useful methods to prevent product failures occurring in the first place, including failure
mode and effects analysis (FMEA) and fault tree analysis (FTA), methods which can be used
during prototyping to analyze failures before a product is marketed.
Failure theories can only be constructed on such data, but when corrective action is needed
quickly, the precautionary principle demands that measures be put in place. In aircraft
accidents for example, all planes of the type involved can be grounded immediately pending the
outcome of the inquiry.
Another aspect of failure analysis is associated with No Fault Found (NFF) which is a term used in
the field of failure analysis to describe a situation where an originally reported mode of failure
can't be duplicated by the evaluating technician and therefore the potential defect can't be fixed.
NFF can be attributed to oxidation, defective connections of electrical components, temporary
shorts or opens in the circuits, software bugs, temporary environmental factors, but also to the
operator error. Large number of devices that are reported as NFF during the first
troubleshooting session often return to the failure analysis lab with the same NFF symptoms or a
permanent mode of failure. The term Failure analysis also applies to other fields such as business
management and military strategy. The failure analysis of many different products involves the
use of the following tools and techniques:
MICROSCOPES
 Optical microscope
 Liquid crystal
 Scanning acoustic microscope (SAM)
 Scanning Acoustic Tomography (SCAT)
 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
 Stereomicroscope
 Photo emission microscope (PEM)
 X-ray microscope
 Infra-red microscope
 Scanning SQUID microscope
SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
 Transmission line pulse spectroscopy (TLPS)
 Auger electron spectroscopy
 Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS)
DEVICE MODIFICATION
 Focused ion beam etching (FIB)
SURFACE ANALYSIS
 Dye penetrate inspection
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
 Electron beam induced current (EBIC) in SEM
 Charge Induced Voltage Alteration (CIVA) in SEM
 Voltage contrast in SEM
 Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) in SEM
 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) in SEM
 Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
LASER SIGNAL INJECTION MICROSCOPY (LSIM)
 Photo carrier stimulation
o Static
 Optical beam induced current (OBIC)
 Light Induced Voltage Alteration (LIVA)
o Dynamic
 Laser Assisted Device Alteration (LADA)
 Thermal Laser Stimulation (TLS)
o Static
 Optical Beam Induced Resistance Change (OBIRCH)
 Thermally Induced Voltage Alteration (TIVA)
 External Induced Voltage Alteration (XIVA)
 See beck Effect Imaging (SEI)
o Dynamic
 Soft Defect Localization (SDL)
 Semiconductor Probing
 Mechanical Probe Station
 Electron Beam Prober
  Laser Voltage Prober
 Time-Resolved Photon Emission Prober (TRPE)
 Software Based Fault Location Techniques
 CAD Navigation
 Automatic Test Pattern Generation (ATPG)
o This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
 Metallurgical Failure Analysis
 Acronyms in microscopy
 Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA)
 Failure rate
 Forensic electrical engineering
 Forensic engineering
 Forensic materials engineering
 Forensic polymer engineering
 Forensic science
 Microscope
 Material science
 Sample Preparation Equipment
 Accident Analysis
 Characterization (materials science)
 Failure Reporting, Analysis and Corrective Action Systems (Failure Data Collection)
FAILURE MODELS:
It is dear that generally the causes for failure may be predictable and sometimes may not be
possible. So failures are classified as cither predictable or unpredictable, in order to select the best
possible maintenance programs. Failures follow any one of the failure models or patterns which
arc shown in fig. It is obvious that the failure inducing mechanism will give rise to a measured
distribution of time-to-failure. Which approximately closer to analytical probability density
functions. Such functions follow some mathematical models which could be used to make
appropriate maintenance decision.
PREDICTABLE FAILURE MODEL (AGE- DEPENDENT FAILURES)
Time dependent failures are called age dependent failures. A simplified model of age dependent
model is shown in figure. It is quite natural that the chances of failure of components increases as
the time -to-failure of a large number of such components would therefore be distributed as in fig
(a, b)) The figure ( c) depicts the fraction of items expected to have failed at any time (t) i.e.
probability of failure F(t).

The figure (d). Presents the fraction of items surviving at running time t. The survival probability
P(t).

Unpredictable Failure Model (Purely Random Failure):

It is experience that most of the components would reach a point of worn out failure at the time
of its old age, which a quite common phenomenon. On contrary to this, sometimes the
components may fail within a week time or a month after installation. In these cases, the
probability of failure is constant and independent of running time. Inspire of all the working
conditions maintained at same level, the cause of failure will be random in nature and cannot be
assigned to any particular mechanism of failure. Similar to age-dependent failure, for this type in
fig (a,b,c,d) it is graphically illustrated.

FAULT TREE ANALYSIS (FTA):

Fault tree analysis (FTA) is a top down, deductive failure analysis in which an undesired state of a
system is analyzed using logic to combine a series of lower-level events. This analysis method is
mainly used in the field of safety engineering and Reliability engineering to determine the
probability of a safety accident or a particular system level (functional) failure.
In Aerospace the more general term "system Failure Condition" is used for the "undesired state" /
Top event of the fault tree. These conditions are classified by the severity of their effects. The
most severe conditions require the most extensive fault tree analysis. These "system Failure
Conditions" and their classification are often previously determined in the functional Hazard
analysis.
FTA CAN BE USED TO:
 Understand the logic leading to the top event / undesired state.
 Show compliance with the (input) system safety / reliability requirements.
 Prioritize the contributors leading to the top event - Creating the Critical
Equipment/Parts/Events lists for different importance measures.
 Monitor and control the safety performance of the complex system
 Minimize and optimize resources.
 Assist in designing a system. The FTA can be used as a design tool that helps to create
(output / lower level) requirements.
 Function as a diagnostic tool to identify and correct causes of the top event. It can help
with the creation of diagnostic manuals / processes.
WHEN TO USE IT:
Fault tree analysis is useful both in designing new products/services and in dealing with identified
problems in existing products/services. In the quality planning process, the analysis can be used to
Optimize process features and goals and to design for critical factors and human error. As part of
process improvement, it can be used to help identify root causes of trouble and to design
remedies and countermeasures.
HOW TO USE IT:
 Select a component for analysis. Draw a box at the top of the diagram and list the
component inside.
 Identify critical failures or “faults” related to the component. Using Failure Mode and
Effect
 Analysis is a good way to identify faults during quality planning. For quality improvement,
faults may be identified through Brainstorming or as the output of Cause and Effect
Analysis.
 Identify causes for each fault. List all applicable causes for faults in ovals below the fault.
 Connect the ovals to the appropriate fault box.
 Work toward a root cause. Continue identifying causes for each fault until you reach a root
or controllable cause.
 Identify countermeasures for each root cause. Use Brainstorming or a modified version of
  Force Field Analysis to develop actions to counteract the root cause of each critical failure.
Create boxes for each countermeasure, draw the boxes below the appropriate root cause,
and link the countermeasure and cause.

BENEFITS OF FAULT TREE ANALYSIS:

The fault tree analysis is very good at looking at a problem from different angles. It requires a very
honest approach in order to get to the root cause of problems that result in fault. So human error
has to be looked at and also what caused the human error to happen. Was it the result of staff not
caring, staff being pressurized in terms of time, or are there issues of staff training that need to be
addressed.
The process of getting to the ‘root cause’ for a fault is often quite lengthy, so the fault tree analysis
diagram, if it is to be done properly, has to focus on a number of aspects of the production
process. Failure to properly identify the root causes and the countermeasures will result in a fault
tree analysis that simply fails to elicit improvements. However, when done properly and the root
causes and countermeasures are all listed, this analysis can be a powerful catalyst for
improvements to production.
EVENT TREE ANALYSIS
An event tree is a graphical representation of the logic model that identifies and quantifies the
possible outcomes following an initiating event. Event tree analysis provides an inductive
approach to reliability assessment as they are constructed using forward logic. Fault trees use a
deductive approach as they are constructed by defining TOP events and then use backward logic
to define causes. Event tree analysis and fault tree analysis are, however, closely linked. Fault trees
are often used to quantify system events that are part of event tree sequences. The logical
processes employed to evaluate event tree sequences and quantify the consequences are the
same as those used in fault tree analyses.
EVENT TREE CONSTRUCTION AND ANALYSIS
The Fault Tree in Reliability Workbench event tree analysis module is unique in it's ability to
handle large scale problems and to fully handle success logic. The event tree model may be
created independently of the fault tree model or may use fault tree analysis gate results as the
source of event tree probabilities.
The event tree module handles both primary and secondary event trees, multiple branches and
multiple consequence categories.
The screen shot below shows the Fault Tree+ in Reliability Workbench event tree construction
area.
EVENT TREE CONSTRUCTION FEATURES:
 Primary and secondary event trees
 Multiple branching supported for event trees
 Multiple consequence categories for event trees
 Pruning of event trees
 Insert new columns retaining existing data
 Copy and paste event trees
 Descriptive text labels and bitmap images may be placed anywhere on an event tree
page
  Font selection for names, descriptions and labels
 Undo and automatic backup facilities
EVENT TREE ANALYSIS FEATURES:
 Full minimal cut set analysis. Success states are fully handled.
 Range of event failure and repair models including fixed rates, dormant, sequential,
standby, time at risk, binomial, Poisson and initiator failure models
 Basic events may be linked to Markov models created in the Markov analysis module
 Comprehensive risk calculation
 Risk importance analysis identifying the major contributors to risk
 Sensitivity analysis allowing the automatic variation of event failure and repair data
between specified limits
Event Tree Example:
 A simple example of an event tree is shown below.

 Figure Event Tree Structure This event tree was constructed to analyze the possible
outcomes of a system fire. The system has 2 components designed to handle this event: a
sprinkler system and an automated call to the fire department. If the fire department is not
notified, the fire will be mostly contained by the sprinkler system. If the sprinkler system
fails as ‘veil, the system will be destroyed.
 The aim of an event tree is to determine the probability of an event based on the outcomes
of each event in the chronological sequence of events leading up to it. By analyzing all
possible outcomes, we can determine the percentage of outcomes which lead to the
desired result.
Root cause analysis (RCA) is a class of problem solving methods aimed at identifying the root
causes of problems or events. Root Cause Analysis is any structured approach to identifying the
factors that resulted in the nature, the magnitude, the location, and the timing of the harmful
outcomes (consequences) of one or more past events in order to identify what behaviors, actions,
inactions, or conditions need to be changed to prevent recurrence of similar harmful outcomes
and to identify the lessons to be learned to promote the achievement of better consequences.
The practice of RCA is predicated on the belief that problems are best solved by attempting to
address, correct or eliminate root causes, as opposed to merely addressing the immediately
obvious symptoms. By directing corrective measures at root causes, it is more probable that
problem recurrence will be prevented. However, it is recognized that complete prevention of
recurrence by one corrective action is not always possible. Nevertheless, in the U.S. nuclear power
industry the NRC requires that "In the case of significant conditions adverse to quality, the
measures shall assure that the cause of the condition is determined and corrective action taken to
prevent repetition." In practice more than one "cause" is allowed and more than one corrective
action is not forbidden.
Conversely, there may be several effective measures (methods) that address the root causes of a
problem. Thus, RCA is often considered to be an iterative process, and is frequently viewed as a
tool of continuous improvement. RCA is typically used as a reactive method of identifying event(s)
causes, revealing problems and solving them. Analysis is done after an event has occurred. Insights
in RCA may make it useful as a pro-active method. In that event, RCA can be used to forecast or
predict probable events even before they occur. While one follows the other, RCA is a completely
separate process to Incident Management.
Root cause analysis is not a single, sharply defined methodology; there are many different tools,
processes, and philosophies for performing RCA. However, several very-broadly defined
approaches or "schools" can be identified by their basic approach or field of origin: safety-based,
production-based, process-based, failure-based, and systems-based.
 Safety-based RCA descends from the fields of accident analysis and occupational safety and
health.
 Production-based RCA has its origins in the field of quality control for
industrial manufacturing.
 Process-based RCA is basically follow-on to production-based RCA, but with a scope that has
been expanded to include business processes.
 Failure-based RCA is rooted in the practice of failure analysis as employed
in engineering and maintenance.
 Systems-based RCA has emerged as an amalgamation of the preceding schools, along with
ideas taken from fields such as change management, risk management, and systems
analysis.
Despite the different approaches among the various schools of root cause analysis, there are some
common principles. It is also possible to define several general processes for performing RCA.
PRINCIPLES OF ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS:

1. The primary aim of RCA is to identify the factors that resulted in the nature, the magnitude,
the location, and the timing of the harmful outcomes (consequences) of one or more past
events in order to identify what behaviors, actions, inactions, or conditions need to be
changed to prevent recurrence of similar harmful outcomes and to identify the lessons to
be learned to promote the achievement of better consequences.
2. To be effective, RCA must be performed systematically, usually as part of an investigation,
with conclusions and root causes identified backed up by documented evidence. Usually a
team effort is required.
3. There may be more than one root cause for an event or a problem, the difficult part is
demonstrating the persistence and sustaining the effort required to develop them.
4. The purpose of identifying all solutions to a problem is to prevent recurrence at lowest cost
in the simplest way. If there are alternatives that are equally effective, then the simplest or
lowest cost approach is preferred.
5. Root causes identified depend on the way in which the problem or event is defined.
Effective problem statements and event descriptions (as failures, for example) are helpful,
or even required.
6. To be effective, the analysis should establish a sequence of events or timeline to
understand the relationships between contributory (causal) factors, root cause(s) and the
defined problem or event to prevent in the future.
7. Root cause analysis can help to transform a reactive culture (that reacts to problems) into a
forward-looking culture that solves problems before they occur or escalate. More
 importantly, it reduces the frequency of problems occurring over time within the
environment where the RCA process is used.
8. RCA is a threat to many cultures and environments. Threats to cultures often meet with
resistance. There may be other forms of management support required to achieve RCA
effectiveness and success. For example, a "non-punitory" policy towards problem
identifiers may be required.
EVALUATING ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS:

Root Cause Analysis Reports, like other 'deliverables' can vary in quality. Each stakeholder can
have their own qualitative and quantitative acceptance criteria. There are some general
possibilities for evaluating root cause analysis outputs.
First: Is it readable? If it is readable it will be grammatically correct, the sentences will make sense,
it will be free on internal inconsistencies, terms will be defined, it will contain appropriate
graphics, and the like. Second: Does it contain a complete set of all of the causal relationships? If it
did contain a "complete set of all of the causal relationships" one could (at least):
1. Trace the causal relationships from the harmful outcomes to the deepest conditions, behaviors,
actions, and inactions.
2. Show that the important attributes of the harmful outcomes were completely explained by the
deepest conditions, behaviors, actions, and inactions.
GENERAL PROCESS FOR PERFORMING AND DOCUMENTING AN RCA-BASED CORRECTIVE
ACTION:

Notice that RCA (in steps 3, 4 and 5) forms the most critical part of successful corrective action,
because it directs the corrective action at the true root cause of the problem. The root cause is
secondary to the goal of prevention, but without knowing the root cause, we cannot determine
what an effective corrective action for the defined problem will be.
1. Define the problem or describe the event factually. Include the qualitative and quantitative
attributes (properties) of the harmful outcomes. This usually includes specifying the
natures, the magnitudes, the locations, and the timings.
2. Gather data and evidence, classifying that along a timeline of events to the final failure or
crisis. For every behavior, condition, action, and inaction specify in the "timeline" what
should have been when it differs from the actual.
 3. Ask "why" and identify the causes associated with each step in the sequence towards the
defined problem or event. "Why" is taken to mean "What were the factors that directly
resulted in the effect?"
4. Classify causes into causal factors that relate to an event in the sequence, and root causes,
that if applied can be agreed to have interrupted that step of the sequence chain.
5. If there are multiple root causes, which is often the case, reveal those clearly for later
optimum selection. Identify all other harmful factors that have equal or better claim to be
called "root causes."
6. Identify corrective action(s) that will with certainty prevent recurrence of each harmful
effect, including outcomes and factors. Check that each corrective action would, if pre-
implemented before the event, have reduced or prevented specific harmful effects.
7. Identify solutions that effective, prevent recurrence with reasonable certainty with
consensus agreement of the group, are within your control, meet your goals and
objectives and do not cause introduce other new, unforeseen problems.
8. Implement the recommended root cause correction(s).
9. Ensure effectiveness by observing the implemented recommendation solutions.
10.Other methodologies for problem solving and problem avoidance may be useful.
11.Identify and address the other instances of each harmful outcome and harmful factor.
FAILURE MODE AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS (FMEA):
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is a systematic team driven approach that identifies
potential failure modes in a system, product, or manufacturing / assembly operation caused by
design or manufacturing / assembly process deficiencies. It also identifies critical or significant
design or process characteristics that require special controls to prevent or detect failure modes.
FMEA is a tool used to prevent problems from occurring.
FMEA DEVELOPMENT:
FMEAs are developed in three distinct phases where actions can be determined. It is also
imperative to do pre-work ahead of the FMEA to assure that the Robustness and past history are
included in your analysis.
 Step 1 is to determine all failure modes based on the functional requirements and their
effects. If the severity of the effect is a 9 or 10 (meaning safety or regulatory in nature)
 actions are considered to change the design or process by eliminating the Failure Mode if
possible or protecting the customer from the effect.
 Step 2 adds causes and Occurrences to each Failure Mode. This is the detailed
development section of the FMEA process. Reviewing the probability or occurrence
number in order of the highest severity and working downwards, actions are determined if
the occurrence is high (> 4 for non safety and regardless of occurrence >1 when the
severity is 9 or 10)
 Step 3 considers testing, design verification and inspection methods. Each combination
from steps 1 and 2 which are considered at risk requires the detection number to be
selected. The detection number represents the ability of planned tests and inspections at
removing defects or excites failure modes to fail.
After each of these steps actions are developed. Next, Risk Priority Numbers (RPN) is calculated.
Please note that RPN's are calculated after three possible action opportunities have occurred.
Actions are not only determined based on RPN values. RPN threshold values do not play an
important role in action development, only in action evaluation when completed.
Selecting an arbitrary RPN to fall below is both ineffective at driving change and foolhardy if the
order of the improvement is not controlled (severity, occurrence, detection) steps 1,2,3 as
described above. In past years, setting an RPN would immediately be met with lower numbers
without any real change or improvement. This is not preventing failure, but in fact driving bad
behavior of the design and process teams required to perform the FMEA.
PROCESS FAILURE MODE AND EFFECTS AND ANALYSIS
The second part of a collaborative FMEA deployment is the Process FMEA. Process Failure Mode
and Effects Analysis takes a product or service design and considers all the steps that are necessary
to be successful. Each step is considered as to its impact on the product or service to be provided
with the idea that each step may inhibit or cause the product/service to fail. As the Process FMEA
progresses, each potential cause which has risk (measured with severity, occurrence (criticality)
and detection capability) is the topic of actions which are counter measures to the risk. When
completed, these actions reduce risk and increase the probability of success. Process FMEA is an
integral part of the Lean Product Development process and APQP (Advanced Product Quality
Planning). Process and Design FMEA are linked and should be used in coordination of timing and
collaboration in feedback. The proper time to do a Process FMEA is just after the Design FMEA has
indicated certain Special Characteristics which are at risk that are likely related to a process or
delivery step. These characteristics, special or otherwise should be investigated and finding fed
back to the product/service design team prior to design completion. This provides an excellent
opportunity for the product or service design to take full advantage of the knowledge of the
process experts. This collaboration can have benefits such as cost savings, Design for Assembly and
Manufacturing, and increased use of Error Proofing required avoiding problems as opposed to
detecting and sorting.
PROCESS FMEA CAN BE PROMPTED BY ONE OF SEVERAL EVENTS:
 New Design Special Characteristics
 New Product Design Drawing or Design record
 Process Changes due to Lean events or Six Sigma Projects
 Process Changes due to upgrades in machinery, personnel or as a result of a corrective
action process
HUMAN FACTORS
Operator error is never an acceptable cause of failure. Operators can make errors, but operator
error alone is not actionable and therefore more detail is needed to get closer to a root cause.
Human factors provide some thought into where the root cause may be found for the purpose of
preventing or error proofing that cause. Learn more about the impact of human factors.
FMEA IN SELECTING SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS:
FMEA is used to refine special characteristics that the design community may be concerned about
as these characteristics may affect performance. These characteristics are translated into
dimensions or features and provided for the Process design activity to error proof and/or develop
mitigation plans to reduce risk of poor performance. The timing for this is critical to get the best
benefit. Advanced Product Quality Planning (APQP) provides the concurrent and collaborative
structure to accomplish this effectively. Eventually, process capability and evidence of proper
Process Controls found in a control plan are required.
FMEA IN MACHINERY DEVELOPMENT
The reliability and maintenance of machinery is critical to many manufacturers as down time for
maintenance or repair must be kept to an absolute minimum. FMEA is a tool which assists the
designers and builders of tooling and equipment to determine when to improve reliability of
components and where to use common parts. All R&M activities must consider the cost of
ownership or total Life Cycle Costs (LCC) which must be determined well in advance of building the
equipment. FMEA is an integral part of this LCC determination. Q-1 has trained and facilitated
many machinery and equipment FMEAs to assist in lowering LCC and preventing costly down and
excessive repair time.

BENEFITS OF FMEA:
 Improves the quality, reliability, and safety of products / services / machinery and
processes
  Improves company image and competitiveness
 Increases customer satisfaction
 Reduces product development timing and cost / support integrated product development
 Documents and tracks action taken to reduce risk
 Reduces potential for Warranty concerns
 Integrates with Design for Manufacturing & Assembly techniques
APPLICATIONS FOR FMEA:
 Process - analyze manufacturing and assembly processes.
 Design - analyze products before they are released for production.
 Concept - analyze systems or subsystems in the early design concept stages.
 Equipment - analyze machinery and equipment design before they are purchased.
 Service - analyze service industry processes before they are released to impact the
customer.
FMEA IN MACHINERY DEVELOPMENT
The reliability and maintenance of machinery is critical to many manufacturers as down time
for maintenance or repair must be kept to an absolute minimum. FMEA is a tool which assists the
designers and builders of tooling and equipment to determine when to improve reliability of
components and where to use common parts. All Reliability and Maintenance activities must
consider the cost of ownership or total Life Cycle Costs (LCC) which must be determined well in
advance of building the equipment FMEA to an integral part of this LCC determination.
Applying FMEA is useful:
 When a process, product or service to being designed or redesigned, after quality function
deployment (QFD).
 When an existing process, product or service to being applied in a new way.
 Before developing control plans for a new or modified process.
 When improvement goals are planned for an existing process, product or service.
 When analyzing failures of an existing process, product or service.
 Periodically throughout the life of the process, product or service
GEARS
Gears are a kind of mechanical element which is widely used where changes of speed, Torque,
shaft direction or direction of rotation are required between a primary mover and the driven
machinery. While designing gears due consideration on type of loading, range of torque and
operating speed, expected service life, duty cycle, ambient
temperature, size and weight and total system efficiency. Gear drives are generally considered to
be packaged units manufactured in accordance with the required specification, and to be used for
a wide range of power transmission applications.
TYPES OF GEARS

(a) Heal gears (b) Double helical or Herringbone gear

Common types of gears used in industrial applications include spur, helical or double helical, bevel,
spiral bevel. Hypoid, Worm and internal gears as given in figure.
Satisfactory performance of gears/gear drives mainly depends on
 Proper design and manufacture of drive
 Selection of proper type and size
 Proper installation
 Proper use of service
 Proper maintenance of unit in it entire life
GOOD MAINTENANCE PRACTICE OF GEARS
It is essential and desirable lo base gears with a lengthy and satisfactory life period. In order to
achieve this, it will be better to schedule an effective maintenance programs. Routine inspection
(may be visual observation of oil leaks or any unusual noise). If oil leakage is sensed, the unit
should be shut down. The cause to be traced and corrective action lo be initiated and also the oil
level to be checked. At least once in a week oil level should be checked.
It is necessary to shut down for a period of more than a week and the unit should run at least 10
minutes each week when it is idle. This may help to keep gears and bearings coated with and
prevent rusting due to condensation of moisture. American Gear Manufacturing Association
(AGMA) describes the wear of gears as follows:
It is the usual experience with a set of gears in a gear unit Assuming proper design, manufacture,
application, installation and operation that there will be an initial “running-in" period during which
if the gears are properly lubricated and not over loaded .the combined action of rolling and sliding
of the teeth may smooth OUT the manufactured surface and give the working surface a high polish.
Under continued proper conditions of operation, gear teeth will the show little or no sign of wear.
Despite of this situation, metallic gears teeth surface may deteriorate or tooth breakage takes
place. As shown in fig the causes for gear tooth surface deterioration may be due to wear, plastic
flow of gear, scoring, surface fatigue .Similarly the causes for tooth breakage may fatigue, heavy
wear, overloading and cracking.

Wear is a general term defined as loss of material from the contacting surfaces of gear teeth. The
types of wear may be normal wear, abrasive, scratching (severe form of abrasive) and over load
wear.
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES:
1. Recommended lubricant and filters should be used during running in period.
2. Frequent flushing of gears should be carried out to eliminate foreign objects (metallic particles)
circulating through gear mesh.
3. Proper design of gear profiles, so that uniform loading cakes place while meshing. Usage of
extreme pressure lubricant is recommended for high load applications.
PLASTIC FLOW
It is the surface deterioration resulting from the yielding of surface metal. Ridging is a form of
plastic flow usually occurs on hypoid pinions and bronze worm gears, which appears as diagonal
lines or ridges across the tooth surface. It is associated with overloading.
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE:
 Wherever possible e\en distribution load on tooth surface to be ensured.
 Backlash should be avoided to reduce impact loading.
  Use of extreme pressure lubricants.
SCORING
It is the sudden removal of metal from tooth surface caused by tearing out of tiny contacting
particles that have welded together. Scored surface is characterized by a tom or dragged
appearance with markings in the direction of sliding. This is usually caused by rupture of oil film
due to load concentration at contact areas.
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE:
 Use of extreme pressure lubricants.
 Polishing of surfaces.
 Metallurgical hardening
SURFACE FATIGUE
This type of failure is caused as a result of repeated surface stresses which exceed the endurance
limit it is normally characterized by formation of cavities .Initial pitting, destructive pitting and
spalling are a kind of such failure.
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE:
 For small cavities grinding or polishing tooth bearing surface.
 Metallurgical hardening and usage of Extreme Lubricant may help to prevent destructive
pitting and spalling
TOOTH BREAKAGE
The common reasons for gear tooth breakage may be due to any of the following reasons
 Fatigue
 Heavy wear
 Overload
 Cracking
 Causes of breakage
Tool breakage b the result of gear tooth deterioration. The common types of breakages are;
FATIGUE BREAKAGE:
It occurs due to repeated bending stresses above the endurance limit The causes for this type
arise are due to poor design, overload, misalignment, notches etc.
HEAVY WEAR BREAKAGE:
It is secondary type arise on the consequence of severe pitting, spalling or heavy abrasive wear.
Which may reduce the strength of the tool below the breaking point
OVERLOAD BREAKAGE:
It arises due to sudden shock load, characterized y silky appearance in harder and more brink
material and fibrous and tom appearance in more ductile material. Misalignment is the main cause
for this failure.
QUENCHING CRACKS:
This result from excessive internal stress developed from heat treatment. Usually they are visible
hairline cracks.
REPAIR OF TOOTH:
 Gear tooth rebuilding
If any breakage occurs on gear teeth. It can be regenerated by deposit of weld. The figure shows
the apparatus used for placing the gear while Melding. The broken tooth T, of the gear should be
placed as shown in the figure, and the gear is held in position rigidly by proper clamping. Then the
base surface over which weld to be deposited is roughened and cleaned followed by depositing
weld deposit is performed in the gap between the templates. After that the gear is allowed to cool
and gear finishing operation is carried out. It is to be assured that the gear is not subjected to any
kind of impact load thereafter. Gear inspection is a part of gear maintenance program. Normally
gears are cheeked for
 Pitch error.
 axial and
 radial run out and
 Tooth profile etc.
GUIDEWAYS
The guide ways are a pan of machine tools which are used to offer smooth sliding motion between
the mating surfaces and to withstand heavy load during machining operation. Proper design and
manufacture of sideways helps to maintain/achieve very good geometric dimensioning and
tolerance of the job being produced. To have better and satisfactory performance of slide ways
bearing, it is required 10
 possess adequate load bearing capacity
 Maintain alignment of guided parts.
 offer minimum friction particularly at low speeds
 Possess high stiffness.
Based on the form of contact maintained between contact surfaces, slideways art classified as
 Shape of guide ways
 V shape apex upwards
 apex downwards
 Flat
 Dovetail
 Cylinder
To shape of the guide ways is designed based on:
 Load to be carried by it and direction in which to carry.
 Position of transmission element
 Characteristics of wear
 Ease of chip disposal
Since the sliding surfaces moves and cover only a portion of local length of the guide ways. it is
natural that characteristics may not be same over the length. And also »ear occurs on the sliding
surface and guide ways may be due K and of the following reasons.
 Misalignment of mating surfaces
 Improper and ineffective lubrication Oil
  Presence of foreign particles in lubricants
 Over load acting on the contacting surfaces
 Dusting of guiding surfaces
 Improper maintenance and inspection
So the maintenance of guide ways involves periodical inspection of guiding surfaces and proper
measurement of developing »ear pattern. Based on these observation repairing activity should be
performed, if the level of wear exceeds the permitted limit.
Methods of Repairing
To retain the desired performance of slide ways, it is essential to do repair to bring hack the worn
out surfaces to normal condition. The following are the most common method employed for
repair of guide ways.
If the length of the guiding surface to be repaired if small, the bed may be simply ground, fixing
and leveled in a plane. By suitably fixing the grinding wheels (vertically) on the tool head of the
planer, rough grinding and finish grinding should be performed. For rough grinding the wheel is
mourned at a 3-4 degree and for finish grinding, wheel surface parallel to the guide ways surface
Fig.
Illustrates this case.
sWhen the length of the bed is long, then by use of some special attachment portable grinding
wheels can used and the wheel surface should be aligned with that of the repairing surface

Position of grinding wheel

Position of grinding »heels is to grind different profiles of guiding surface are shown in fig.
 Grinding of different profiles

MACHINING:
When the wear of the guiding surface exceeds 0.3mm. it be preferred to employ machining
operation and then scraped to restore to normal condition.
CHECKING OF GUIDE WAYS
The following are the geometric properties foe which the guideways are to be checked for
 Straightness
 Flatness

Hearing* are mechanical elements. Which help to have frictionless shaft relation. The two has*
categories of bearings arc plain bearing and rolling bearings Plain bearings arc designed to support
shafts which routes oscillate or reciprocate. Even though it looks simple and least expensive of
mechanical components. Sleeve bearings are highly engineered components. They are
commercially available in a wide range. The following figure 4.20 shows the basic requirements of
a bearing material.
Basic Requirements
 Surface action - also referred to as slipperiness and ability to resist seizure
 Embeddability - ability to absorb foreign particles
 Comfortabllity - must be soft enough to creep or flow slightly to compensate minor
geometrical irregularities.
 fatigue Strength - ability to withstand load without cracking
 Temperature strength - property of material to carry load at elevated temperature.
 Thermal conductivity- ability to dissipate the heat generated.
 Corrosion resistance - must be resistive to corrosive effects.
Bearing Materials
Most of the hydrodynamic bearings arc metallic owing to their high thermal conductivity. They
may consist of one. Two or three layers.
 Monometals: Bearing made from a bar of solid bar of Aluminum or Bronze alloy? They are
used then load is not very high.
 Bimetals: It has steel back, to which bonded a liner of Babbitt, Copper, Tin and Aluminium.
They possess good embed ¿ability, conformability or surface action, but relatively low
fatigue strength.
 Trimetals: They were developed for heavy duty applications. They possess the properties of
babbit bearings and strength of harder materials.
Plain Bearings
Factors influence the performance of sleeve bearings. The following are the factors that affect
the bearing performance
 Dirt
 Fatigue
 Hot Shot phenomenon and
 Crush problem
Dirt
It is responsible for most of the bearing failures, than any other mechanism. When dirt
contents arc more, they embed in the bearing lining, deforming the structure beneath and
displacing the surrounding metal upwards.
Cause:
Improper cleaning of engine parts, road dirt, and wear of engine parts causes small fragme4nts
to enter the oil supply. Root cause may be poor maintenance.
Corrective action:
 Grinding and policing of journal surfaces
 Periodical change of oil and filters as recommended.
 Installation of new bearings.
Fatigue
When the load acting on bearings on time period of service exceeds the capability of alloys,
bearing fatigue occurs.
Other possible causes may be;
 Load concentration due to dirt.
 Poor shaft or bore geometry
 Misassemble of bearing.
 Material weakness due to high temperature operation
Corrective action:
 Maintaining a dirt free environment
 Shafts and bore produced to exact dimension and geometry.
 Proper assembly and mounting of bearings.
Hot shot phenomenon
This type is characterized by the removal of large area of lining from steel back.
Causes
 Occurs when bearing temperature exceed the melting point of it lowest melting point
metal
 Insufficient flow of lubricant
 Excessive dirt in oil
  A rough shat
 Severe misalignment
Corrective action:
 Proper cleaning
 Regrinding the shaft to fix the damaged journal
 Checking for blockage of oil postages
 Oil suction screen and oil filter
 Ensure oil pumps and pressure relief valves operating
properly

Crush
Normally, the bearings are manufactured so that they are slightly longer circumferentially than
the mating housing. The bearings will be elastically deformed (crushed) during assembly. If the
amount of crush is insufficient, relative motion occurs between the bearing and its bore, which
causes fretting and makes the bearing back a highly polished or pined.
Causes:
 Filing of parting lines
 Dirt or burrs on the contact surfaces
 Insufficient boll torque.
 Oversized housing bore
Corrective action:
 Hearing should not be altered
 Mating surface should be free from burr
 Using correct size of bore
 Proper torque applied
Cavitation
This is induced by rapid fluctuation in oil film pressure. When the pressure in one area of film
drops below its vapor pressure, vapor filled cavity forms When the pressure increases again the
cavity collapses, causing surrounding oil to impinge on an adjacent bearing metal,
eventually erodes the surface.
Precautionary measures:
 Ensuring no air or water entrapment in oil.
 Use of high viscous oil
 Increased oil pressure
The rolling contact bearings which arc elements of machinery, play a major role and decide the
performance of machinery. Reliable bearing performance it a key factor in reducing maintenance
costs and contributes to machine availability time. When any of the bearings breaks or seizes, may
lead to unscheduled halt and may stop the assembly line. To have satisfactory performance of
bearings during peak operating condition, it is essential to ensure that bearings haven been
properly mounted and aligned. Following this, effective lubrication and maintenance schedules
and monitoring of bearing conditions are also important. Hearings may become unserviceable in
the course of time even if it is installed and operated properly. The bearings may also
become unserviceable due to
 Seizing
 Breakage
 Wear
 False brinneling
 Corrosion
These problems could be avoided by proper selection, proper handling and maintenance. The
life of a rolling contact bearing is defined as the total number of revolutions (of the number of
operation hours at a given constant speed) before flaking occurs.
Types of Roller Bearings
Generally, bearings are classified into two categories such as
(i) Radial Bearings
(a) Ball bearings, and
(b) Roller bearings
(ii) Thrust Bearings
Some bearings arc designed for both axial and radial loads. Normally ball bearings are designed
for light loads and roller bearings are recommended for heavy loads.
Inspection of Bearings
It is necessary to inspect the hearings during operation to prevent unnecessary failure. The
following arc inspected
 Bearing Temperature
 Noise and vibration
 Properties of lubricant
Bearing Temperature:
The temperature of bearings will be normally rise and will be 10 to 40 C higher than the room
temperature and it should stabilize at that value. High bearing temperature is not desirable, since
it may deteriorate lubricant property and reduce the life period. If the temperature is not.
The reason may any/some of the following;
 Extremely insufficient or excessive lubricant
 Poor installation of bearings
 Small bearing clearance and heavy load
 High friction between lip and seal groove
 Improper lubricant selection
 Creep between the fitting surfaces
Vibration:
Continuous monitoring of vibration bearings will help to study the performance of machine. If
any damage occurs, the degree of damage will be revealed by the amplitude of vibration signals. It
is better to maintain the measured to establish evaluation criteria for each machine.
Lubrication
The purpose of lubricants is to cover the rolling contact surfaces and sliding contact surfaces
with a thin film of oil to present direct contact between them. Effective lubricants will have the
following
Effects:
 Reduces friction and abrasion
 Dissipate the heat generated by friction
 Prolongs the life period
  Prevents corrosion
 Protects the surfaces from contamination
Bearing Failures may be classified into;
 Flaking
 Peeling
 Spalling
 Smearing
 Stepped Wear
 Speckles and discoloration
 Indentations
 Chipping
 Cracking
 Rust and Corrosion
 Seizing
 Fretting and Freeing Corrosion
 Electrical Pitting
 Retainer Damage
 Creeping

UNIT-IV REPAIR METHODS FOR BASIC MACHINE ELEMENT

PART-A (2 Marks)
01. What are called Age- Dependent Failures?
02. What are Unpredictable Failures? .t
03. What are Running-In-Failures?
04. Define Fault tree diagrams.
05. What are the benefits of Fault Tree Diagram?
06. Differentiate between Fault tree diagrams and Reliability Block Diagrams.
07. Write down the capabilities of Fault Tree Diagram.
08. Define Event Tree Analysis (ETA).
09. What is the aim of Event .Tree Analysis (ETA)?
10. Define Root Cause Analysis (RCA.)
PART-B (16 Marks)
1. Briefly explain the repair methods of machine beds.
2. Explain the repair method of worn-out bearing.
3. Explain the repair methods of slide ways and spindle.
4. Briefly explain the procedure for the repair cycle of gears and lead screw.
5. What is failure analysis? Explain their development.
6. Explain the logical fault location methods.
 UNIT - V REPAIR METHODS FOR MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

MATERIALS HANDLING:
To manufacture any product, it is necessary either that materials move from one step of the
manufacturing process to another or that operators move to the materials. The most common
practice, of course, is to move the move the materials. This movement of materials from one
processing area to another and from department to department necessitates the use of much
personnel and equipment and the handling of treatment tonnages of materials.
Consideration for the handling of work-in-processes materials, as well as raw material and finished
goods, has always been a part of the production systems design process. Basic cost accounting
evaluation of the cost of manufacturing products reveals that when materials handling costs are
separated from other costs, they can be seen to be significant.
Recently, the materials handling function has been undergoing significant changes in concept and
implementation. Management has been changing its view of materials handling as the routine
transfer of materials from place to place and is beginning to think of it as part of a total materials
flow system. This change in thinking has come about largely as a result of new automatic handling
and storage equipment and systems that are integrated closely with automatic processing and
sophisticated management information and control systems.
DEFINITION OF MATERIALS HANDLING:
In a broad sense, materials handling includes all movement of materials, in a manufacturing
situation. It has been defined by the Materials Handling Division. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, as follows: “Materials handling is the art and science involving the moving, packing, and
storing of substances in any form.” This is an all inclusive definition and can include fluids and
semi-fluids, as well as discrete items. For the sake of simplicity, we shall limit our discussion in this
chapter to the movement of discrete items, such as gears, tires, castings, and boxes. Similarly, we
shall consider only the movement of materials within the plant or storage areas. Movement of
materials between plants- particularly when common carriers are used – is generally considered a
problem in traffic and is frequently handled by a separate traffic department.
OBJECTIVES OF MATERIALS HANDLING:
The simplest solution to the materials handling problem- “No movement, no cost” is hardly
practicable for a complete manufacturing process. It is basically sound approach when one is
attempting to improve a complete production cycle and when the number of handling can be
reduced. It is also a good solution in the making of heavy industrial equipment. In the latter
situation it is often more feasible to bring the tools and workers to the product than to transport
the product to the machine or work area.
In addition to the objective of reducing the overall costs of materials handling by reducing the
number of handling involved, the following may be considered as objectives of the engineer in his
or her approach to this problem. Lower the unit materials handling costs. It is obvious that if the
overall materials handling costs are reduced the unit costs will be reduced. This approach requires
the costs of handling be allocated to or identified with the units of product, or its component parts
that moved.
Reduce the manufacturing cycle time: The total time required to make a product from the receipt
of raw materials to the finished goods can be reduced through effective materials handling.
Contribute toward a better control of the flow of goods: A principle way in which good materials
handling practice can affect savings is by making the control of goods easier- particularly in
continuous manufacturing, where all operations are “tied together” by the materials handling
plan. Provide for improved working conditions and greater safety in the movement of materials
many of the provisions of the occupational Safety and Health Act require adherence to safe
handling practices. These must be followed. In addition, it is evident that the safe handling of
materials will be reflected in a better industrial accident record.
Provide for fewer rejects: Care in the handling of the product will contribute to a better quality
level of the goods produced. Products damaged by inefficient handling are all too often a major
cost to manufacturer.
Achieve decreased storage requirement: Better movement and storage of materials should
increase the utilization of storage space.
Gain Higher productivity at lower manufacturing cost: Any materials handling system, if it is
worth its investments, is design to improve productivity. This improvement should be achieved by
moving materials in the fastest, most efficient and economical way possible.
PRINCIPLES OF MATERIAL HANDLING:
A good materials handling engineer will generally have several years of experience that can be
brought to bear on the solution of materials handling problems or the design of materials handling
systems. For many years, discussions of principles of materials handling have been published by
many experts in the field. The following list has been adapted from two of these
SOURCES:
1. Eliminate wasteful methods by;
a. Reducing to a minimum the number of handlings of materials.
b. Eliminating unnecessary mixing and subsequent sorting.
c. Using mechanical aids to eliminate the use of hand labor in movement of materials.
d. Avoiding the unnecessary transfer of materials from floor to workplace or from
container to container.
e. Increasing the speed of handling.
f. Utilizing containers and unit loads.
g. Utilizing gravity as a moving force wherever practicable.
h. Introducing automatically into the materials handling plan.
2. In laying out the plant:
a. Plan a system for materials flow and combine handling with processing wherever
possible.
b. Provide for continuous or appropriate intermittent flow of materials.
c. Provide for the optimal flow of materials between operations and with a minimum of
retrograde movement.
d. Plant the layout of the work-station area for a minimum of handling of the product.
e. Maximize the quantity and size of weight handled.
f. Coordinate the overall materials handling throughout the entire plant.
g. Provide for safe handling and safe equipment and integrate with the management
information and control system.
h. Plan for adequate receiving, storage and shipping facilities.
i. Make optimum use of building cubage.
j. Design adequate aisle and access areas.
3. In the selection and application of materials handling equipment:
 a. Plan activities and analyze equipment needs before considering the purchase of new
equipment.
b. Ensure that the existing equipment is being used effectively.
c. Use the simplest equipment that is adaptable to the problem: avoid the use of
complicated mechanisms and controls.
d. Adopt standard equipment if possible; ensure that the purchase of special equipment is
economically justified.
e. Select equipment that is flexible in its application. f. Select equipment that will minimize
the ratio of mobile equipment Deadweights to pay loads.
g. Determine comparative costs of equipment before purchasing.
h. Recognize the need for different equipment for different jobs.
i. Recognize the need to provide suitable building conditions for the equipment.
j. Provide for alternative methods for use in emergencies.
k. Give consideration to the maintenance of the equipment.
l. Replace obsolete methods and equipment with more efficient ones.
Analysis of Materials Handling Problems
The same procedure will work equally well in solving materials handling problems. It requires
establishing an objective, collecting as much factual data as possible, analyzing the data, applying
known principles, and formulating a solution. In collecting the data careful attention should be
give to the effect of handling on the product, the present method, and cost factors. Hughes
Aircraft described an example of the use of simulation to study a materials handling problem. They
describe an effort to combine six storerooms into a single, automated facility. The simulation
analysis enables the materials handling and process engineers to identify key interrelationships
and dependencies that had to be considered in the new design.
GENERAL TYPES OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT
Tompkins and White divide materials handling equipment into five classifications. They give the
following list but note that numerous variations can exist within each category:
1. Conveyors
2. Monorails, hoists, and cranes
3. Industrial trucks
4. Containers and supports
5. Auxiliary and other equipment
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT:
The selection of materials handling equipment requires the attaining of proper balance between
the production problem, the capabilities of the equipment available, and the human element
involved. The ultimate aim is to arrive at the lowest cost per unit of material handled.
Equipment factors to be taken into consideration may well include the following:
Adaptability: the load carrying and movement characteristics of the equipment should fit the
materials handling problem.
Flexibility: Where possible the equipment should have flexibility to handle more than one
material, referring either to class or size.
Load capacity: Equipment selected should have great enough load-carrying characteristics to do
the job effectively, yet should not be too large and result in excessive operating costs.
Power: Enough power should be available to do the job.
Speed: Rapidity of movement of material, within the limits of the production process or plant
safety, should be considered
Space requirements: The space required to install or operate materials handling equipment is an
important factor in its selection.
Supervision required: As applied to equipment selection, this refers to the degree of automaticity
designed into the equipment.
Ease of maintenance: Equipment selected should be easily maintained at reasonable cost.
Environment: Equipment selected must conform to any environment regulations.
Cost: The consideration of the cost of the equipment is an obvious factor in its selection.
MAINTENANCE OF MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS
The proper maintenance of material handling equipment is extremely essential for preventing the
occurrence of bottlenecks or points of congestions. Production line flow can be maintained only if
the material handling equipment is in proper working order. Out of many maintenance techniques
available, preventive maintenance is the one of the best maintenance techniques suggested in
case of material handling equipments.
Preventive maintenance helps to keep the material handling equipments always in running
conditions thereby minimizing the interruption during operation. A periodic inspection and minor
alignments may be adequate to prevent the equipment breakdown. Preventive maintenance
consists of frequent inspection and examination of the components of material handling
equipments. Preventive maintenance also includes lubrication, adjustment and repair. There are
three stages of preventive maintenance and they are
 Inspection
 Repair and
 Overhaul
MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES FOR HOISTS AND CRANES
Portable cranes
The major issues covered in maintenance of portable cranes and cranes are:
 It is necessary to keep loads within design limits on portable cranes that arc mounted on
wheels or wheeled platforms
 Frequent inspection of brakes, load hoisting and lowering mechanism
 Inspection of boom, base and platform for any sign of stress e.g. Cracks, bends, break.
Overhead cranes
The major issues covered in maintenance of overhead cranes are:
 Keep the attachments in overhead cranes loaded within the rating capacity
 Maintain safety factors for replacement parts according to manufacturer's specifications
 Keep rail level grounded, properly aligned, properly spaced, and securely attached to the
supporting structure, free of beading and bends
 Examine over speed sensing/stopping mechanisms, brakes and clutch, sheaves, pins, gears,
cables, hooks, rails, etc.. for wear and maladjustment
 Check welded connections (e.g. main chords and other structural items) for cracks, bends,
abrasion and corrosion.
Stages of Preventive Maintenance for Crane
Inspection:
All parts, open or covered are inspected for wear and tear. Worn out or unworkable components
like wire ropes, wheels, bearings, bolts, etc are removed. Brakes arc adjusted and necessary
lubrication applied.
Repair:
The repairable parts of the system after inspection are corrected for small repairs and minor
defects are rectified. Systems like open gear transmission, couplings, riveted and bolted joints,
trolley, brakes, guards, etc may be repaired according to the needs.
Overhaul:
Overhauling involves dismantling the complete mechanism and replacing all damaged
components. Crane structure, buffers, rails, open gear transmission, pulley blocks, etc may be
replaced and various sub mechanism may be aligned and adjusted to ensure smooth operation.
Maintenance Strategies for Conveyors
The major issues covered in maintenance of conveyors are:
 Conveyer systems need to be inspected on a regular basis. The important areas include rollers,
bearings, chains and belts. All of these moving parts are subject to wear and tear.
 Check conveyers to detect any belt slippage, dragging or defective rollers.
 Be sure that all necessary guards are in place to protect workers from mechanical injury.
Moving machine parts should be lubricated regularly according to manufacturer’s instructions.
 Frequently overlooked are conveyor roller», belts, chains during regular maintenance
procedures. So proper attention is required for the same
 Moving equipment parts are subject «o breaks caused by metal fatigue, loose bearings and
obstructions.
 Check conveyors regularly to detect any belt slippage, dragging or defective rollers. Control
static electricity through bonding and grounding to minimize static charges.
Stages of Preventivo Maintenance for Conveyors
Inspection:
Belts or rollers are inspected for tensions, wear and tear. Gear box is properly lubricated, various
fasteners are tightened and safety guard’s arc checked.
Repair:
Rollers and belts arc checked, adjusted or repaired. Couplings, packing, safety guards, steel
structures, gear transmission, bearings, fastener joints, threaded components, etc. arc adjusted or
repaired as per their conditions and requirements.
Overhaul:
The conveyor system is completely dismantled, components, worn out and beyond repair item like
belts, bearings, packing, oil scalars, rollers, drums, fasteners, and couplings arc replace. Structures
and safety guards may be repaired as per their conditions.
A TYPICAL SCHEDULED CONVEYOR MAINTENANCE PLAN
 Check/lubricate »11 bearing», universal joints, and pulleys.
 Check chain tension, wear and lubricate.
 Check sprocket alignment, wear, and screw set.
 Check flat bell tension, wear and lacing.
 Check V-belt tension, wear and sheave alignment.
 Check electrical connections at conveyor.
 Check gearbox and fill with lubricant to proper level.
 Check general condition of system.
 Operate entire system after service.
 List any items requiring replacement or repair.
Forklifts:
The major issues covered in maintenance of forklifts are:
 Forklifts require a daily inspection for proper operation. Daily checks should include wheels,
brakes, forks, chains, hydraulics, steering arm and fuel
 Forklifts with engines should be checked for coolant and engine oil levels
 Forks arc subject to jolts, abrasion, overloading etc. which may reduce the thickness of blades,
bend or twist them and cause fatigue cracks in areas of high stress concentration. Inspect
trucks carefully for signs of excessive wear and tear
 Remove accumulations of grease and dirt
 Scheduled maintenance based on engine-hour or motor-hour experience may reduce
malfunctions
 Give special attention to brakes, limit switches, trolley wheels, load hooks, cables and chains.
These needs to be examined for evidence of wear, malfunction, damage and proper operation
 Inspect sheaves, nuts, bolts, clamps, braces, hooks and similar parts monthly or more
frequently, depending upon usage.
A TYPICAL SCHEDULEO LIFT MAINTENANCE PLAN
 Check all safety devices on unit, such as up/down limits, door switches, pressure relief valves,
etc.
 Clean all debris from the pit or from the vicinity of floor mounted units in order to avoid
interference with the lift mechanism or rollers.
 Check for presence and proper setting of all snap rings and clips on axles, cylinders and rollers.
 Check rollers, pins and bushings for any signs of wear such as flat spots, missing fasteners, or
dislodged bearing material.
 Inspect all welds under and around the lift for fatigue or failure. Particularly, inspect the
structural welds.
 Check the hydraulic fittings for cracks or leaks and clean up any seepage on or beneath the
cylinders.
 Check hoses and electrical lines for abrasions or other abuse and check for snug connectors.
 Semi-annually, change hydraulic fluid in cylinders.
 Check general condition of the lift. Operate the lift after service. Check for any abnormal noise
or vibrations.
 List any items requiring replacement or repair.
MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES OF MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS
Hand Trucks and Carls:
Hand (racks and carts should be checked regularly for worn wheels, broken welds, or other
mechanical damage. equipment that is damaged should not be used until it is repaired. Material
handling equipment attachment devices like carton clamps and barrel handling devices are often
overlooked but should be treated as essential components. Industrial truck. Its need special
attention to the fork blade and wheel assembly.
Wheels:
Most of the material handling equipment has wheels. Wheels allow workers to move material
loaded on the piece of equipment Wheels should be inspected for wear and tear. Uneven wheels
may cause a worker to exert additional effort and movement (e.g., pulling, pushing, twisting) while
using the equipment. In addition to the wheels, the surface on which equipment is operated needs
to be inspected. Rough areas, cracks, pot holes, or broken concrete are need to be identified and
repaired. Floor surfaces, when improperly maintained, create problems for all types of material
handling equipment in addition to slip, trip and fall hazards. These conditions can cause an
accident, resulting in damage to the material or to the worker operating the equipment. These
hazards may be controlled by using correct surfacing/cleaning methods and materials. Schedule
repairs for cracks and other damage, repair holes should be carried out immediately.
Check jacks:
Inspect jacks for broken teeth or faulty holding fixtures and remove from service if there are any
signs of hydraulic fluid leakage. Malfunctions or ocher defects. Test jacks under load conditions
after repairs have been made.
IMPORTANT POINTS IN MAINTENANCE OF MHE
 Training is the key lo safe material handling and the operation of equipment being used to
complete the job. Training will help to reduce unnecessary damage to equipment and prevent
personal injury to employees.
 Selecting the right equipment for the job is also important task. For example selection of
proper forklifts for work inside a closed warehouse. The obvious choice would be an electric
fork lift to avoid carbon monoxide exposure from the exhaust. Another example is selecting a
hand (rock for rough ground or floor conditions. In this case with rough ground or floor
conditions, a hand truck with larger pneumatic wheels would be the right choice.
 There is no single, complete maintenance program which will fit all your needs. Follow
manufacturer's recommendations, but tailor procedures to suit your specific equipment,
operation and personnel needs.
SYSTEMS APPROACH TO MAINTENANCE
The proper operation of an industry requires appropriate strategic in maintenance management.
This is ensured by the effective integration of various phases involved in management. A good
maintenance management can be considered as basing six phases as shown in Figure They are;
 Work Identification
 Planning
 Scheduling
 Execution
 Recording and
 Analysis
Fig. Six Phases of Good Maintenance Management For proper identification and communication of
all these six phases, systems approach to maintenance was developed. The important steps in this
system approach are;
 Codification and cataloguing
 Preparation of history sheet
 Preparation of instruction & operating manual
 Preparation of maintenance manual
 Maintenance operation liaison
 Maintenance work order and permit system
 Job execution, monitoring, feedback and control
All these aspects are integrated into a system known as computerized maintenance management
system (CMMS).
COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (CMMS)
There is a need to integrate the decision support tools in maintenance planning and execution for
the efficient discharge of the maintenance function. There is an increasing trend in application of
information based decision support systems in different departments of modem industry. Thus
computers have become an indispensable requirement in maintenance management. Computer is
an efficient and reliable tool for maintenance personal to plan and implement their programmes.
The success of CMMS depends on the quality of integration of computer system in maintenance
management.
Computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) is used to track all maintenance costs
and equipment repairs. This tracking is accomplished by the monitoring of work orders. By
monitoring work order and utilizing proper scheduling of the work orders, the repair costs
can be monitored. This task will provide necessary information to track and plan maintenance
budgets.
Effective cost control through CMMS is also achieved by the monitoring of purchase and inventory
costs. This will track spare part costs and aims to avoid excessive inventories. This module also
helps in vendor selection and monitor the shipping time. The predominant
function in CMMS is the scheduling of the preventive maintenance function. Proper scheduling can
reduce ‘over maintenance1 and increase uptime and extend the life of the facilities and
equipment. A computerized maintenance management system includes the following aspects:
 Development of a database
 Analysis of available past records
 Development of maintenance schedules
 Availability of maintenance materials
 Feedback control system
 Project management.
COMPUTERIZATION OF MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
Computerization of a maintenance work order system enhances and improves maintenance
efficiency if the correct computer system for the installation is used. The computer maintenance
system is more effective if there is a manual work order system already in force.
The objectives of computerized maintenance system are as follows:
 Maintenance of existing equipment
 Inspection and service of the equipment
 Installation or revamping of the equipment
 Maintenance storekeeping
 Craft administration
These major objectives incorporate the following subtasks:
 Reduction of downtime costs
 Maximizing the operating life of the equipment
 Execution of preventive maintenance work
 Minimizing the spare paru inventory
 Maximizing the productivity of the workforce.
Advantages of Computerized Maintenance Management System
The features in the computerized maintenance management system provide the following
advantages to the user:
 Improve maintenance efficiency
 Reduce maintenance costs
 Reduce the equipment downtime by proper scheduling
 Reduce the overtime and ensures optimal utilization of manpower
 Increase the life of equipment
 Provide historical database to assist in maintenance planning and budgeting
 Provide maintenance reports in specific formats depending on the requirements
 Quicker access to plant maintenance statistics
 Conformity with health and safety standards
 Compliance with industry and statutory regulatory standards.
There are additional costs incurred when CMMS is installed for the maintenance organization.
However, the total maintenance costs will decrease over a period of time. The overall reduction
of maintenance costs after the introduction of a computerized maintenance management
system is shown in Figure

Figure (herall reduction of maintenance costs after the Introduction of a computerized

maintenance management system (CMMS)
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Most computerized maintenance management systems accomplish these objectives through
the use of four system modules. They are:
 Work order planning and scheduling
 Maintenance store controls
 Preventive maintenance
 Maintenance reports
 Work order Planning and Scheduling
Computerized work orders are documents that detail maintenance works. The computerized
work orders should contain information such as:
 Work order
 Details of equipment for which work is requested
 Description of work and
 Type of work such as emergency, routine, preventive maintenance, etc.
 Figure Work order flow diagram
The basis for an effective work order system is the wont order number. All material and labor
costs are charged to this number. Work orders must be input into CMMS from a maintenance
request form, which is filled in by the individuals requesting the maintenance work.
Once the work order is in the system, the user may look at the work order; update it as it is
being worked on. and remove it from the backlog one« it has been completed. The work order
system flow it shown in Figure during the normal course of work.
In case of emergencies, action begins with verbal instructions and the paperwork follows later.
The plant uses the work order form as the document to record information associated with
executing the work request. The first task in CMMS is to enter and fill the work order request
information. This process has four main objectives:
 To provide a means of entering and updating work orders
 To provide the ability to inquire into various parts of a work order
 To provide a method of charging costs to a work order and
 To provide a method of saving the data on a completed work order.
Work Order Entry
The general work order entry requires the following information to
be filled by the user:
 Equipment number that requires maintenance
 Priority and description of the work
 Estimated cost of work
 Information for dependent or associated work tasks for a complex maintenance job.
Work Order Backlog
The backlog is the storage area for all active work orders. As they are entered, the work orders
are taken by CMMS and placed in the backlog files. These data of work orders will remain in the
system until they are cither cancelled or completed. Using the backlog, it is possible to look
through all active work orders.
Work Order Systems
The work order system is the information system for the maintenance organization. It is
important for an organization to maintain proper records to perform any meaningful analysis
on its policies and procedures. It is especially on the equipment under their maintenance.
Work order systems arc useful to plan and schedule maintenance activities. The work order
system is the process which the maintenance department uses to manage all their works. The
work order system assists the plant in keeping track of prioritizing, planning, scheduling,
analyzing and controlling maintenance work. A major purpose of using work orders for plant
equipment is to track its history. The computerized maintenance management system allows
computer tracking and analysis of work orders as well as plant equipment data. The work order
system manual is distributed to the persons responsible for the maintenance tasks.
General Structure of Maintenance Work Order
Maintenance Work Order:
A maintenance work order generally gives the following information:
 Work order number and code
 Department's address and code
 Date of issue
 Details of approval
 Date of receipt of work order
 Priority
 Location
 Equipment details
 Nature of work
 Materials requirements
 Completion date and report
 Special requirements the work orders.
Work Permit System

Figure Block diagram of work order control

Work permits arc components of work order. Maintenance department issues work permits to
different executing agencies (mostly outside agencies) permitting them to start their work. A
work permit mentions the work permit number, work order number, sections from which work
originated and information as mentioned in work order. Figure shows the block diagram of
work order control.
The work order back log indicates on how best the work order scheduling has been done and
resources utilized. The objective of maintenance organization is also to keep the work order
within limits. Figure shows the work order tree for a big work which indicates the areas and
resources to be planned, scheduled for execution of work order.
Planning and Scheduling Work Orders
The work order planning function has four objectives:
 To provide an efficient method of requesting and assigning work performed by
maintenance personnel
 To provide an efficient method of transmitting written instructions on the work to be
carried out
 To provide a method of estimating and then recording actual maintenance costs and
 To provide a method of gathering the information necessary to prepare reports for
management.
CMMS provide fields for entering the following information during work order planning:
 Labor requirements
 Material requirements
 Tool requirements
 Work order instructions.
Craft
Work onkrs will require different crafts, depending on the type of work to be performed. The
following information may be required by CMMS environment:
 Craft
 Number of craftsmen
 Planned hours
11k correct number of craftsmen may be scheduled so that work order is carried out in the
most efficient manner.
Materials
The material module should provide the following information:
 Stock number of required parts
 Quantity required
 Cost per item
 Description of item.
CMMS require the following information about the tool:
 Tool ID
 Description of tool
 Quantity required
 Cost of tool (if necessary).
SCHEDULING
Work order scheduling contains the list of work orders to be performed. Scheduling module of
CMMS contains the following ¡information:
 Weekly schedules
 Work order completion
 Work order cost charges
 labor records
MAINTENANCE STORE CONTROLS
The two primary objectives of the store control modules are to
 Monitor material status
 Monitor material resources
CMMS maintenance store module contains the following information to satisfy its objectives:
 Store stock material issue status
 List of unplanned materials
 Planned materials
 Stock return
 Store sock catalog
 Stock item work order reference
 Store catalog- stock number
 Store cycle counts
 Purchase order inquiry
 Purchase order update
 Purchase order material receipts
 Stock returned to the vendor.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE MODULE
This function is used to change or update preventive maintenance scheduling information. This
module also requires information regarding the requirements needed to complete the task.
This method provides the craftsmen with enough details to satisfactorily complete the
task. The preventive maintenance module of CMMS contains the following information:
 User defined specific tasks
 Grouping of tasks by crafts
 Equipment preventive maintenance entry/update
 Preventive maintenance meter reading update
 Predictive Maintenance
MAINTENANCE REPORTS
Maintenance reporting function will provide management with the information necessary to
operate the maintenance organization at peak efficiency. This report contains the following
information:
 Work order priority analysis
 Planner efficiency
 Supervisor work order performance
 Skill work order performance
 Work order costs report
 Completed work order performance: This field contains the information about total labor
costs, cumulative costs and labor hours by craft.
 Work order backlog summary
 Equipment repair history
 Equipment maintenance costs report
 Safety work order backlog
 Stock item usage report
 Work order waiting list
 Preventive maintenance overdue report
JOB CAROS ANO JOB CARD PROCEDURES
Job cards contain necessary details for performing individual job in maintenance. Job card may
be in the form of a card, sheet or printout. Job card contains the following information:
 Equipment code and shop code
 Job code
 Nature of job & job details
 Initiation time
 Job start and completion time
 Man hours spent
 Constraints deviations.
Benefits of Job Card System
The following are the benefits and advantages of job card system:
 Information about maintenance history
 Knowledge of frequency of maintenance for equipments
 Details of equipments which require maximum resources
 Helps in job auditing
 Evaluation of cost of maintenance
 Information about equipment downtime
 Estimation of loss of production
 Idea about man power utilization.
EQUIPMENT RECORDS
Equipment records are information containing the details of installation, service, repair,
maintenance activities, conditions, defects, schedules and plans for future implementation.
Equipment records are to be used to maintain control on maintenance cost, reliability and
availability.
Types of Equipment Records
There are many types of equipment records available in industry catering to various needs.
They are as follows:
 Planned work and percentage of planned work achieved
 Ratio of planned to planned work
 Production delays downtime
 Ratio of preventive work to corrective work
 Failure patterns
 Repetitive breakdown
 Manuals including operating manual, instruction manual, maintenance manual, job manual
and drawings
 History cards and records
 Spare cards
 Maintenance requirement records
 Performance details
 Cost repots
 Condition monitoring reports
Advantages of Equipment Records
The following arc the advantages of equipment records:
 Clear picture about the details of maintenance programmes is obtained
 Information about completed, pending and regular jobs carried out to the equipment are
available
 Records disseminated to various units of the industry
 Helps in standardization of procedures
 Evaluation of performance of maintenance tasks
 Provide details of frequency of maintenance requirements for each equipment
 Comparison of time taken for completing the maintenance job with the past records
 Provide strategies for better maintenance management.
MAINTENANCE WORK EXECUTION, MONITORING AND CONTROL
A well designed organization should have proper strategies to execute, monitor and control
over the various maintenance tasks.
Monitoring
The role of monitoring in maintenance has the following advantages:
 Gather information about deviation and delay in execution of maintenance may provide
idea about the need to add more resources to complete the maintenance task in scheduled
time
frame
 Communication of the changes in job content to the various follow up agencies
 Provide information about constraints in technical issues and necessary steps can be taken
to improve the existing techniques
 Provide a lead to implement technical advancement and methodologies in future to
complete the task in more efficient manner.
Methods of Monitoring:
The monitoring of maintenance tasks are done by any one of the following methods based on
its suitability to specific industrial environment:
 Brief meeting with maintenance personnel to monitor the day to day maintenance activities
 Repair coordinator: Repair coordinator b responsible to coordinate with various agencies
and to inform the maintenance organization about deviations and corrective
actions taken
 Line of Balance (LOB) method
 Circulation of monitoring report and progress to create aw areness to various functional
units of the industry.
Feedback
Feedback is inter-departmental or intra communication related to the maintenance tasks. The
feedback may contain following information:
 Unscheduled/pending job
 Work status
 Suspended work
 Work completion
 Manpower requirements and actual utilization
 Cost of maintenance
 Technical difficulties.
Control
The following arc the three important role of control of maintenance activities:
 Continuous or periodical monitoring
 Inspection of status
 Comparison of status with the predetermined standard and initiating corrective
measures.
Maintenance organization carries out the repair and maintenance activities by the
integration of job execution, monitoring, feedback, and control activities. A typical maintenance
control system is shown in Figure. In this system, there is a constant interaction between shop
supervisors and maintenance task executors. After the constraints of material or resources met.
Unfinished maintenance tasks will be executed. The maintenance control function embraces all
the activities of maintenance. This is the mechanism to drive the activities to the maintenance
objectives of the organization through suitable delegation of responsibilities at different levels
of the organization.
 UNIT-V
REPARE METHODS FOR MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS
PART-A (2 Marks)
1. State few examples of material handling equipments.
2. State the benefits of proper maintenance of material handling equipments.
3. State the major stages in preventive maintenance of material handling equipments.
4. State the various phases present in a good maintenance management system.
5. Define the term Computerized Maintenance Management System (CMMS).
6. State the objectives of CMMS.
7. State the advantages of CMMS.
8. Define work order systems.
9. Mention the use of work order backlog.
10. What is work permit?
11. What is job card?
12. State titer benefits of job card system.
13. State the role of equipment records in maintenance.
 PART-B (16 Marks)
1. Explain repair methods of conveyors.
2. Explain the repair methods for crane and hydraulic lift.
3. Briefly explain the equipment record.
4. Explain job order system.
5. Explain various hydraulic and pneumatic equipment used in material handling purpose.How
to maintain it.
6. Explain the maintenance procedure for various small equipment for material handling
purpose like chain block, chain, rope, trolley and R.G.B.
 ME 6401 - Maintenance Engineering
Unit I
1. Define maintenance?
Maintenance is the routine and recurring process of keeping a particular machine or asset in its
normal operating conditions So that it can deliver the expected performance or service without
any loss or damage.
2. Define reliability?
Reliability is defined as the probability that a component /system, when operating under given
condition, will perform its intended functions adequately for a specified period of time. It refers
to the like hood that equipment will not fail during its operation.
3. State the benefits of reliability analysis in industries?
The main advantages of imposing reliability requirements are increased productivity and
reductions in forced outage equipment due to planned maintenance activity.
4. Define failure rate?
Failure rate is the ratio of the number of failures during particular unit interval to the average
population during that interval. This failure rate is also known as hazard rate and instantaneous
failure rate.
5. What is Mean Failure Rate?
The mean failure rate h is obtained by finding the mean of the failures rates for specified period
of time.
h = (Z1 + Z2 + Z3+....+ZT)
________________
T
Where, Zt represents failure rates over the specified period of time T.
6. Define Mean Time to Failure.
Let t1 is the time to failure for the first specimen, t2 is the time to failure for the second
specimen and t n is the time to failure for the Nth specimen. Hence the mean time to failure for
N specimens are MTTR = (t1+t2+......+t N) /N
7. What is Mean Time between Failures (MTBF)?
Mean Time between Failures (MTBF) is the mean or average time between successive failures
of a product. Mean time between failures refers tom the average time of breakdown until the
device is beyond repair.
8. Define Mean Time to Repair (MTTR)?
Mean Time to Repair is the arithmetic mean of the time required to perform maintenance
action. MTTR is defined as the Ratio of total maintenance time and number of maintenance
action.
MTTR = Total maintenance time/ Number of maintenance action.
9. Define Maintenance Action Rate?
Maintenance action rate is the number of maintenance action that can be carried out on
equipment per hour.
10. Define Failure Density?
Failure Density is the ratio of the number of failures during a given unit interval of time to the
total number of items at the very beginning of the test.
11. State the types of reliability?
Reliability can be generally of two types:
(i) Inherent Reliability: It is associated with the quality of the material and design of machine
parts.
(ii) Achievable Reliability: It depends upon other factors such as maintenance and operation of
the equipment.
12. Draw the equipment life cycle and name the various phases in it?
 Phase I - Failure pattern inherent in a new product because of manufacturing or design
defects.
 Phase II - Life period of an equipment
 Phase III - Failures due to wear out conditions because to aging of the equipment.
13. Define maintainability?
Maintainability is defined as the probability that a unit or system will be restored to specified
working conditions within a given period when maintenance action is taken in accordance with
the prescribed procedures and resources.
14. Define availability?
Availability is the ratio of the time at which equipment is available for the designated
operation/service to the total time of operation and maintenance of the equipment. It is also
defined as the ratio of equipments uptime to the equipment uptime and downtime over a
specified period of time.
15. State the advantages of life cycle cost analysis.
 Integration of engineering, economics and financial aspects lead to the way of robust
metric for the selection and purchase equipment required for the industry.
 Reduced operating and maintenance cost of equipments due to cost analysis over span
of time.
 It leads to the selection of proper and economically viable equipment.
16. Draw the curve to determine the economic life of equipment?
The economic life of equipment depends on the maintenance and repair costs, availability and
operational efficiency. A plot of cumulative efficiency and maintenance and repair cost per
cumulative hours Vs operating hours of the equipment to find the economic life of the
equipment
17. State the components of maintenance cost?
The maintenance cost is comprised of two factors:
 Fixed cost: This includes the cost of support facilities including the maintenance staff.
 Variable cost: This includes the consumption of spare parts, replacement of components
and cost other facilities requirements of maintenance.
18. State the role of maintenance budget
The maintenance budget is used to set aside certain amount of money to meet the
expenditures incurred in achieving the objectives of maintenance.
19. State the types of maintenance budget?
 Appropriation Budget: Budget used to allocate money for each activity independently.
 Fixed Budget: Fixed used to allocate money for a specified period of time.
 Variable Budget: Dynamic allocation of expenditure based on maintenance
requirements and activities.
20. List the main factors of maintenance cost?
The maintenance cost is comprised of two factors:
 Fixed cost: This includes the cost of support facilities including the maintenance staff.
 Variable cost: This includes the consumption of spare parts, replacement of components
and cost other facilities requirements of maintenance.

Unit – II
1. Define the term Preventive Maintenance?
It is a maintenance program which is committed to the elimination or prevention of corrective
and breakdown maintenance. It is designed for day to day maintenance like cleaning,
inspection, lubricating, retightening etc. to retain the healthy condition of equipments.
2. Define predictive maintenance?
Predictive maintenance is a management technique that uses regular evaluation of the actual
operating conditions of plant equipment, production systems and plant management function
to optimize total plant operation.
3. What is meant by Breakdown maintenance approach?
It is a type of maintenance approach in which equipment is allowed to function / operate till no
failure occurs that no maintenance work is carried out ion advance to prevent failure.
4. Classify various planned maintenance approach.
1. Preventive maintenance
2. Corrective maintenance
3. Predictive maintenance
4. Condition based maintenance
5. Define corrective maintenance approach.
Corrective maintenance is the program focused on regular planed tasks that will maintain all
critical machinery and system in optimum operation conditions
6. What is meant by preventive maintenance approach?
A comprehensive preventive maintenance program involves periodical evaluation of critical
equipment, machinery to detect problem and schedule maintenance task to avoid degradation
in operating conditions. It is designed for day to day maintenance like cleaning inspection,
lubricating, retightening etc. to retain the healthy condition of equipments.
7. List the objectives of corrective maintenance?
1. Elimination break downs
2. Elimination deviations from optimum operating condition.
3. Elimination unnecessary repairs
8. What is meant by predictive Maintenance?
Predictive maintenance is a management technique that uses regular evaluation of the actual
operating conditions of plant equipment production systems and plant management functions
to optimize total plant operation.
9. List out some condition based monitoring techniques and briefly discuss on them.
1. Vibration monitoring
2. Thermograph
3. Tribology
4. Electrical motor analysis
10. What is meant by reliability centered maintenance (RCM)?
Reliability centered maintenance is one of the well established systematic and a step by step
instructional tool for selecting applicable and appropriate maintenance operation types. It
helps in how to analyze all failure modes in a system and define how to prevent or find those
failures early.
11. What is total productive maintenance and discuss its similarities with TQM?
Total productive maintenance is a maintenance program which involves a newly defined
concept of maintaining plants and equipments. The goal of TQM program is to significantly
increase the production, at the same time increasing employee morale and job satisfaction.
12. What is meant by reliability centered maintenance?
Reliability centered maintenance is one of the well established systematic and a step by step
instructional tool for selecting applicable and appropriate maintenance operational types.
13. What does safety, health and environment pillar of TPM aims at?
This pillar aims at achieving Zero accident, Zero health damage and Zero fires.
14. What is limitation of breakdown maintenance?
 Most repairs are poorly planned due to time constraint caused by production and plant
management. This will cost three to four times than the same repair when it is well
planned.
 This approach focus only on repair or the symptoms of failure and not on the root cause
of failure. This results only in increase in the frequency of repair and correspondingly
the maintenance costs.
15. List the benefits of implementing preventive maintenance.
 It maintains the equipment in good condition to prevent them from bigger problems.
 Prolongs the effective life of the equipments.
 Detects the problem at earlier stages.
 Minimizes/eliminates the rework/scrap and helps in reducing the process variability
 Significantly reduces unplanned downtime.
16. Name the five S principles used for implementations of TPM.
1. SEIRI – Sort out
2. SEITON –Organize
3. SEISO – Shine workplace
4. SEIKETSU – Standardization
5. SHITSUKE – Self discipline
17. List the various pillars of TPM?
1. 5, S Principle
2. Jishu hozen(JH)
3. Kaizen
4. Planned maintenance
5. Quality maintenance.
6. Training
7. Office TPM
8. Safety, health and environment
18. What are the objectives of TPM?
The main objectives of TPM are
1. To achieve zero defects
2. Achieve zero accidents and zero break downs in all functional areas of an organization
3. To create different team of people to have active participation.
4. To aim at minimization of defects and
5. To inculcate autonomous policy.
19. Name the various stakeholders of maintenance scheduling.
1. Operators
2. Planners
3. Schedulers
4. Maintenance supervisors
5. Craftsman
6. Store’s in charge
7. Operation superintendent
20. Define Maintenance Scheduling.
Maintenance scheduling is a joint maintenance operations activity in which maintenance agrees
to make the recourses available at a specific time when the unit can also be made available by
operations.
Unit – III
1. What is equipment health monitoring?
Conditions monitoring is one of the maintenance methods which are used to assess the health
and condition of equipments machines, systems or process by absorbing checking, measuring
and monitoring several parameters. This technique is also called as equipment health
monitoring.
2. List down the factors for increasing the demand condition monitoring
1. Increased quality expectations reflected in produces liability legislation
2. Increased automation to improve profitability and maintain competitiveness
3. Increased safety and reliability expectations
 4. Increased cost of maintenance due to labour and material cost.
3. List down the key features of condition monitoring.
1. Links between cause and effect
2. Systems with sufficient response
3. Mechanisms for objective data assessment
4. Benefits outweighing cost
5. Data storage and review facilities.
4. Write down the basic steps in condition monitoring.
1. Identifying critical systems
2. Selecting suitable techniques for condition monitoring
3. Setting baselines
4. Data collection
5. Data assessment
6. Fault diagnosis and repair
7. System review
5. What are three types of condition monitoring?
a. Subjective condition monitoring
b. Minimized breakdown costs
c. Improved morality of the operating personnel and safety.
6. State the advantages and disadvantages and disadvantages of condition monitoring.
Advantages
1. Improved availability of equipment
2. Minimized breakdown cost
3. Improved reliability
Disadvantages
1. Gives only marginal benefits
2. Increased running cost
3. Sometimes difficult to organize
7. Mention the various costs involved in costing of condition monitoring mainly
  Installation cost
 Operating cost
8. State the methods of measuring vibration
 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase
9. Name the types of pyrometers.
1. Total radiation pyrometers
2. Infra red pyrometers
3. Optical radiation pyrometers
10. Mention the application of bimetallic strip.
 Bimetallic strips are frequently used in simple ON – OFF switches.
 The bimetal strips are also used in control switches.
11. List down the features of RTD.
 High degree of accuracy
 Resistance thermometer is interchangeable in a process without compensation or
recalibration.
12. State the application and limitation of thermisters.
Applications:
 It is used for varying temperatures
 it is used in time delay circuits
 Thermistors are used for temperature compensation.
13. What are two main types of infrared themography?
 Passive thermography
 Active thermography
14. What are the principles very important for the study of eddy current test .
 Permeability
 Conductivity
 Material thickness
  Edge effect and end effect
 Lift off
 Fill factor
15. Describe the limitation of eddy current test.
The main limitation is the low penetration of parts being examined, using limited to thin walls
or near surface flaws. It is difficult to use on ferromagnetic materials. False indications are
possible because of mixed variables, edge effects and lift-off effects. Extensive technical
knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedures, specific probes and to
interpret the inspection data.
16. Mention the effect of X-rays to human body?
 Injuries to superficial tissue
 General effects on the body, particularly the blood forming organs; eg. Producers of
anema and leukerma
 Induction of magnet tumors.
 Genetic effects.
17. What are the limitations of ultrasonic test?
 Unfavorable geometries and coarse anisotropic grain structures are difficult to inspect.
 Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedure.
 Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin or not homogenous are
difficult to examine, specific probes and to interpret the inspection data.
18. Name some of the methods of leakage monitoring.
 Interstitial monitoring
 level monitoring
 Vapor monitoring
 Liquid Monitoring
19. Define see back effect?
The basic principle of thermocouple is ‘when two dissimilar metals are joined together and emf
will exist between the two points A and B, which is primarily a function of the junction
temperature. The above said to be principle of see back effect.
20. State the various methods of corrosion monitoring?
 Weight loss method
 Electrical resistance method
 linear polarization method
 corrosion potential measurement
 Ultrasonic testing
 Sentinel hole method.
Unit –IV
1. Define the term failure.
The term failure may be defined as
 Any loss that interrupts the continuity of production
 A loss of assets availability
 The unavailability of equipment
 A deviation from the status quo
 Not meeting target expectations
 Any secondary defect.
2. What are the various possible causes for a failure?
 Unexpected and unintentional damage
 Workmanship
 improper design
 Manufacturing defects
 Incorrect usage of equipment
3. Define failure analysis?
Failure analysis is the process by which information/data about failure occurring in equipments/
systems are collected and analyzed to find the root cause of failures, and the causes are
addressed to prevent recurrence of failures.
4. Name the three types of failure models?
 Predictable failure model
 Unpredictable failure model
  Running-In-Failure model
5. What are called age-dependent failures?
Time dependent failures are called age dependent failures
6. What are predictable failures?
In spite of all the working conditions maintained at same level, the cause of failure will be
random in nature and cannot be assigned to any particular mechanism of failure. This type of
failures is called Unpredictable Failures.
7. What are running In Failures?
Suppose if some components/ equipments are installed with unnoticed defects, may fail in a
short duration after installation than during its useful life. This type of failures is running in
Failures.
8. Define Fault tree diagrams
Fault tree diagrams are logic block diagrams that display the state of a system in terms of the
states of its components.
9. Write down the capabilities of Fault Tree Diagram.
 Fault tree analysis and failure modes and effects analysis,
 Design for reliability
 Design for safety
10. Define Event tree Analysis
An event tree is a visual representation of all the events which can occur in a system. As the
number of events increases, the pictures fans out like the branches of a tree
11. What is the aim of event tree analysis?
The aim of event tree is to determine the probability of an event based on the outcomes of
each event in the chronological sequence of events leading up to it. By analyzing all possible
outcomes, we can determine the percentage of outcomes which lead to the desired result.
12. Define Root cause analysis?
RCA is a step by step method that leads to the discovery of faults first or root cause.
Every equipment failure happens for a number of reasons. There is a definite progression of
actions and consequences that lead to a failure. An RCA investigation from the end failure is
back to the root cause.
13. Define FMEA?
FMEA is methodology for analyzing potential reliability problems early in the development cycle
where it is easier to take actions to overcome the issues, thereby enhancing reliability through
design.
14. Define Risk Priority Number (RPN)
Risk priority numbers is the product of the numerical severity, occurrence and detection
ratings. RPN = (S) X (O)X(D)
15. Name the factors based on the satisfactory performance of gears/drives.
 Proper design and manufacture of drive
 Selection of proper type and size
 Proper installation
 Proper use of service
 Proper maintenance of unit in it entire life.
16. Name the factors that contribute to tooth breakage.
The common reasons for gear tooth breakage may be due to any of the following reasons
 Fatigue
 Heavy wear
 Overload
 Cracking
17. List some of the inspection performed on gears
 Pitch error
 Axial and
 Radial run out
 Tooth profile etc.
18. Name some of the geometric properties that are checked for guide ways.
 Straightness
 Flatness
 Parallel both on horizontal and vertical surfaces.
19. What are the factors influence the performance of sleeve bearings.
The following are the factors that affect the bearing performance:
 Dirt
 Fatigue
 Hot Shot phenomenon and
 Crush problem
20. Define Crush
Normally, the bearings are manufactured so that they are slightly longer circumferentially than
the mating housing. The bearing will be elastically deformed during assembly. If the amount of
crush is insufficient, relative motion occurs between the bearing and its bore, which causes
fretting and makes the bearing back a highly polished or pitted.
Unit –V
1. State few examples of material handling equipments.
Material handling equipments include carts, hand trucks, forklifts, conveyors, shelf pickers and
other specialized industrial trucks powered by electric motors or internal combustion engines.
2. State the benefits of proper maintenance of material handling equipments.
The benefits of a maintenance program for material handling equipments are to maintain the
high efficiency, keep them in running condition, and reduce the cost of repairs, safer operation
and enhanced productivity.
3. State the major stages in preventive maintenance of material handling equipments.
There are three stages of preventive maintenance are:
 Inspection
 Repair and
 over haul
4. State the various phases present in a good maintenance management system.
 Work identification
 Planning
 Scheduling
 Execution
  Recording and
 Analysis
5. Define the term computerized maintenance management system (CMMS)
Computerized maintenance management system is the application of computers in planning,
scheduling, monitoring and control of maintenance activities.
6. State the objectives of CMMS.
 Maintenance of existing equipments
 Inspection and service of the equipment
 Installation or revamping of the equipment
 Maintenance storekeeping
 Craft administration
7. State the advantages of CMMS.
 Improve maintenance efficiency
 Reduce maintenance costs
 Reduce the equipment downtime by proper scheduling preventative maintenance.
 Provide maintenance reports in specific formats depending on the requirements.
 Quicker access to plant maintenance statistics
8. Define work order system.
Work order system is the information system used by the industry to keep track of its
maintenance works.
9. Mention the use of work order backlog.
Work order back log is used to find out all active maintenance works order in an industry.
10. What is work permit?
Work permits are components of work order. Maintenance department issues work permits to
different executing agencies permitting them to start their work.
11. What is job card?
Job cards contain necessary details for performing individual job in maintenance organizations.
Job card may be in the form of a card, sheet or printout.
12. State the benefits of job card system.
  Information about maintenance history
 Knowledge of frequency of frequency of maintenance for equipments
 Details of equipments which require maximum resources
 Helps in job auditing
 Evaluation of cost of maintenance.
13. State the role equipment records in maintenance.
Equipment records are information containing the details of installation, service, repair,
maintenance activities, schedules and plans for future implementation.
Equipment records are to be used to maintain control on maintenance cost, reliability and
availability.
14. State the benefits of keeping equipments records.
 Clear picture about the details of maintenance programmes is obtained.
 Information about completed, pending and regular jobs carried out to the equipment
are available
 Records disseminated to various units of the industry.
 Helps in standardization of procedures.
 Evaluation of performance of maintenance tasks.
15. List some of the inspection performed on gears
 Pitch error
 Axial and
 Radial run out
 Tooth profile etc
16. Define Root cause analysis?
RCA is a step by step method that leads to the discovery of faults first or root cause. Every
equipment failure happens for a number of reasons. There is a definite progression of actions
and consequences that lead to a failure. An RCA investigation from the end failure is back to the
root cause.
17. List the main factors of maintenance cost?
The maintenance cost is comprised of two factors:
  Fixed cost: This includes the cost of support facilities including the maintenance staff.
 Variable cost: This includes the consumption of spare parts, replacement of components
and cost other facilities requirements of maintenance.
18. Name the three types of failure models?
 Predictable failure model
 Unpredictable failure model
 Running-In-Failure model
19. Define Event tree Analysis
An event tree is a visual representation of all the events which can occur in a system. As the
number of events increases, the pictures fans out like the branches of a tree
20. What are two main types of infrared themography?
 Passive thermography
 Active thermography