https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Lithosphere%E2%80%93asthenosphere_boundary
Figure 1. The Lithospheric Plate

The lithosphere of the Earth is composed of the crust and the upper layer of the mantle as shown in
Figure 1. Below the lithosphere is the soft, weak layer of the mantle called asthenosphere. The mantle is solid,
but the asthenosphere has the capability of flowing due to its temperature of about 300-800 0C which causes
some melting. As this asthenosphere flows, the lithospheric plate located on top of it is being carried.
Alfred Wegener, a German Meteorologist, proposed that
at around 200 million years ago there was only a one large
landmass, a supercontinent, called Pangaea and that this started to
break and drifted in all parts of the world. As shown in Figure 2,
there are seven large continents divided from a single large
landmass. This drifting of the continents or of the lithospheric
plates is because of the soft, weak layer asthenosphere that carries
it when it flows.

http://clipart-library.com/clipart/5960.htm

Figure 2. The Drifted Continents

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 Figure 3 shows that the continents are moving very slowly but constantly. This movement is
called tectonics. The theory involving the movement of the lithospheric plates is called the Theory of Plate
Tectonics. It states that the Earth’s crust is made up of plates that interact in various ways, thus producing
earthquakes, mountains, volcanoes and other geologic features and events. The interaction of the plates can be
toward another plate, or away, or may past slide from each other, as shown by the small arrows in the figure.
One of the geologic features created are the volcanoes. A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust that allows
molten rock, gases, and debris to escape to the surface. Another feature created are the mountain ranges. A
mountain range is a group or chain of mountains that are close together. One of the events created by the
movement of the plates are the earthquakes. Earthquake is the shaking of the ground. The seismologist can get
the origin of the earthquake by getting the distance of the
earthquake’s epicenter to the seismic recording station using
the triangulation method. Epicenter is the part of the Earth’s
surface directly above the focus of an earthquake as shown in
Figure 4.

Figure 4. The Epicenter

https://www.kids-fun-science.com/earthquake-epicenter.html
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An earthquake is the shaking of the ground produced by the rapid release of energy often because of the
sliding along the fault of Earth’s crust. This energy released is radiated in all directions from the focus of the
earthquake in a form of wave called seismic waves. The two types of seismic waves used in locating the
epicenter of an earthquake are the Primary waves (P-waves) and the Secondary waves (S-waves). They arrived
at the recording station at different time because Primary waves travel faster than the Secondary waves. The
difference in the arrival times of the Primary and Secondary waves to the seismic recording station will tell us
the distance of the earthquake’s epicenter from the seismic recording station.
Figure 7 shows the seismogram or the recorded ground motion of the seismic waves. To get the
difference of the arrival times between the Primary and
Secondary waves, simply subtract the time of their arrival.
Then, get the distance of the epicenter (d) from the seismic
recording stations.

First Formula: Finding the difference in the arrival time of P

and S waves.
Secondary waves – Primary waves = Difference on the
arrival time https://www.pmfias.com/seismic-waves-shadow-zone/

Figure 7. Seismic waves

Second Formula: Getting the distance of epicenter from
the station
Td
d= x 100 km
8 seconds
Wherein:
d = distance of epicenter from the station
Td = time difference in the arrival times of P and S waves
 The time 8 seconds is the interval between the times of arrival of the P-wave and S-wave at 100 km
distance. If there are at least 3 seismic recording stations, the epicenter can be determined using the
triangulation method.

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Example:
Table 2. Distance of Epicenter to the Seismic Recording Station
TIME OF ARRIVAL AT STATION DISTANCE TO
S-WAVES
THE
SEISMIC MINUS P-
EPICENTER
STATION WAVES
P-WAVE S-WAVE (Km)
(Td)
(d)
Tepich, Mexico
50 s 122 s 72 s 900 km
(TEIG)
Isla Socorro,
60 s 204 s 144 s 1 800 km
Mexico (SOCO)
Stating Stone,
Pennsylvania 100 s 364 s 264 s 3 300 km
(SSPA)

SOLUTIONS:
TIME DIFFERENCE DISTANCE TO THE EPICENTER
1. ¿Td TEIG =Swaves−Pwaves Td
1 ¿ d ¿ TEIG= x 100 km
= 122 s – 50 s
8s

Td TEIG =72 s 72 s
¿ x 100 km
8s
= 9 x 100 km
d TEIG = 900 km

2. ¿ Td ¿ SOCO=Swaves−Pwaves Td
2 ¿ d ¿ SOCO = x 100 km
= 204 s – 60 s
8s

Td SOCO =144 s 144 s

¿ x 100 km
8s
= 18 x 100 km
d SOCO = 1800 km

3. ¿ Td ¿ SSPA=Swaves−Pwaves Td
3 ¿ d ¿SSPA = x 100 km
= 364 s – 100 s
8s

Td SSPA =264 s 264 s

¿ x 100 km
8s
 = 33 x 100 km
d SSPA = 3300 km

Now that we already have the distance of the epicenter from the three recording stations, we11can
determine the location of the epicenter. Here are the steps.
1. From the point of recording station, draw a straight line equivalent to the distance of the
Epicenter(d). This will be the radius.
2. Using a compass make a circle around the seismic recording station.
3. Repeat it for the other two stations.
4. Look for the point to where the three circles intersect. That point will be the location of the
epicenter.

First step

Second step

Earthquake’s
epicenter

https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/fact-sheet/how_are_earthquakes_located?zoombox=0

Figure 8. Locating the Earthquake’s Epicenter Using the Triangulation Method