ABS:

1.) Basic functionality

2.) Additional features

3.) Hardware
ABS for:
(Anti-lock Braking System)

• short braking distance

• steerability and stability
• protection of tyres

A heating controller is good for:

•provide nice room temperature

So a heating controller can look at a temperature sensor, but an

ABS?

What does ABS look at – there is no

sensor for short stable braking?
 ABS:
1.) Basic functionality
a) pressure control
 ABS example: Wheel-speeds and ‚reference‘-speed
Dry road E46 series
100
Front left
100 Front right
Rear left
Rear right
100 References

100
v in km/h

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Time in s

‚reference‘-speed is a speed calculated from the wheelspeeds, it is

‚close‘ to the desired wheel speed, it is not the (unknown) vehicle
speed and it is not exactly the speed of the adhesion maximum
 (partly) open loop
Steuerung closed loop
Regelung (partly) open loop
Steuerung
30
Radgeschwindigkeit
wheel speed
Referenzgeschwindigkeit
reference velocity
28
(km/h) (km/h)

26 1.3
7
1 1
Geschwindigkeit

24
1.2
2 2
22 3
6
1.1 5
speed

20 3

Längskraft (µ)
1 4
18 4 5 6 1
2
16
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.9
Zeit (s)
time(s)
7
75 0.8
pressure(bar)

70 0.7
Druck (bar)

65 0.6

Solldruck
set pressure 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
60 Istdruck
actual pressure
Längsschlupf (%)
longitudinal slip (%)
55
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Zeit (s)
time(s)
1. no signs of instability/excessive slip can be detected, brake pressure can be increased
2. maximum µ is used, can‘t be detected clearly, brake pressure is still increased
3. wheel slip becomes so big, that it can be clearly detected (or abnormal wheeldeceleration << -1g),
pressure increase stopped/pressure reduced
4. pressure is decreased sufficiently, tire starts accelerating
5. the wheel slip is too small to be detected as ‚excessive slip‘ , still it is beyond the maximum and
sliding!!!
6. peak is reached (can be detected)
7. tire is in stable region, brake pressure /slip is (little) below the optimum
 wheel speed, brake forces
(+ steering angle, yaw rate, lateral acceleration)

calculation of reference velocity

(= calculation of optimum wheel speed for
deceleration)

excessive No
wheel slip?

Yes
no excessive
No
wheel slip in last
calculation step?

Yes
save the actual brake force
as set point

A calculatewheel
set force during instable
phase B calculatewheel
set force during stable
phase

set force smaller No

driver request?

Yes replace set force by driver request

send set force to CCU / actuators

ABS logic
reaction of vehicle
(for electromechanical brake system)
 calculate pressure leading to the
A balance of the moments caused by
the brake- and the contacttyre to
surface

addition of differential part Pressure calculation during excessive wheel slip

(asymmetric depending on sign of
wheel acceleration)

calculate time average / filtering

No
wheel still turning?
(v<2.5 km/h)?
store last force value calculated while
wheel was turning
Yes

take minimum of stored force value

and actual brake force

wheel acceleration No
negative for one step or
zero for two steps?

Yes
choose minimum force of last 4 choose maximum force of last 2
calculation steps calculation steps

add proportional control part

add konstant part

limit pressure difference at rear axle

 Pressure calculation during stable wheel phase

B Calculated this during No

the last cycle?

start clock

Yes

calculate required gradient to rise the

force till thr point of suspected wheel-
lock within a predetermined time

limit the gradient within predefined

borders

waiting time till No

exspected excessive
weel slip exceeded?

Yes
rise set force with (relatively big) rise set force with the calulated
gradient gradient

limit pressure difference at rear axle

 (Electromechanical) High-µ
ABS
speed (m/s)
clamping force (kN) Front Left
45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
time(s)
-5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
 ABS:
1.) Basic functionality
b) reference velocity calculation
 sensorvalues:
wheel speed, brake pedal
(steering angle, yaw rate, lateral acceleration)

calculate maximum und minimum wheel Rule-based

speed vWheel(max/min), substract
influences of cornering
Reference Velocity Calculation
Basically it is -during
deceleration- the highest wheel
braking? speed.

Yes No

No Yes
No
vWheel(max) > vRef(old) ? vWheel(min) > vRef(old) ?

Yes Yes
No

Ja
vWheel(max) < vRef(old) ?
No

Yes

vRef(new) = vRef(new) = vRef(new) = vRef(new) =

min (vRef (old) + max (vRef (old) - max (vRef(old) - min (vRef(old) +
vRef(new) = vRef(old)
maximum increase, maximum decrease(µ), maximum decrease, maximum increase,
vWheel(max) vWheel(max) vWheel(max) vWheel(min)

vRef(new)
Physically based velocity calculation:

•Based on a physical model of a car:

•acceleation is estimated, after integration one know‘s the vehicle

speed.

• Theoretically superiour compared to a rule based calculation, but

many parameters (friction coefficient of the brake pads, vehicle
mass, tire radius, up/downhill-slope) are not known very enough

-> most often only used parallel/additionally to the rule based

vehicle speed estimation, e.g. during time periods of excessive
wheel slip
 Wet Tile ABS (extremely slippery) ->
hard to calculate reference velocity, external forces might be even more
important than braking effect (up- downhill)
Front Left Front Right
10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rear Left Rear Right
10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 ABS:
2.) Additional features
For driveability, but not for the physics, an ABS has some additional features:

1.) Yaw damping:

During braking on different µ left/right, a high yawing torque can occure. To

make the reaction of the car slower, the pressure difference can be built up
slowly (especially on front axle, so high-µ-side looses some braking ability)
and/or the pressure difference can be limited (especially rear axle, if
difference is zero, it is called ‚select low‘)

Remark: due to select low it is very rare that both rear wheels show
excessive slip at the same time. This is very good vor reference velocity
calculation (at least one wheel reflects the vehicle‘s speed.
During cornering on homogenous ground select low makes sure that the
outside rear wheel never starts sliding; this is good for vehicle
stability/against oversteer.
For driveability, but not for the physics, an ABS has some additional features:

2.) Corner braking:

During braking under strong cornering, a ‚good‘ ABS which is only looking
for the physical adhesion peak might allow no brake pressure at all, as
everything might already be ‚used up‘ for cornering.

As the driver always expects some braking when hitting the brake pedal,
the ABS is programmed that way, that under these conditions the peak is
exceeded (especially on front axle). This leads to an increasing cornering
radius.

Remark: Best would be to control the steering as well, so that steering

angle can be restricted to a reasonable value, but this is impossible in
conventional cars.
 Influence of longitudinal slip on longitudinal and lateral forces
(i.e. yaw reaction and over/understeer-behaviour)

1.2 1.2
a = 0°

Force (µ)
1 1
(µ)

0.8
0.8 a = 14°
Force

a = 14°
(µ)

Längskraft (µ)
LateralQuerkraft

Longitudinal
0.6
0.6

0.4
0.4

0.2
0.2
a = 0°
0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Längsschlupf (%) Längsschlupf (%)
Longitudinal Slip (%) Longitudinal Slip (%)
For the physics, an ABS has some additional features:

3.) Corner braking:

During cornering, the wheel speed on the outside is higher than on the
inside wheels. If the car is not equipped with additional sensors besides the
wheel speed sensors, ABS has only the wheel speed sensors available to
detect and to take into account this effect:

If the wheel is estimated to be ‚stable‘ (e.g. when shows little accelerations),

it can be compared to the vehicle speed, an a factor for correction can be
found. It is filtered with a time constant, that allows changes in the same
time range like the car might change it‘s direction.
For the physics, an ABS has some additional features:

4.) Wheel radius tolerances:

For compensating tolerances in wheel radius (due to inflation, tread wear,

vehicle load) the wheel speeds are compared with each other on a long-
term base (slow filtering), so that these tolerances do not affect wheel
speed/vehicle speed calculation.

Bigger tolerances (e.g. spare tire) are detected very fast by means of an
additional algorithm: Compensating these differences is not only for getting
the very last percent of braking performance, not detecting this in time
would mean severe deterioration of braking distance! (The faster rotating
spare wheel would rise reference velocity, so ABS would estimate wheel
slip too high for all other wheels, so it would reduce the brake pressure!).
For the physics, an ABS has some additional features:

4.) Suppressing suspension resonances:

As the whole axle system is mounted in elastic rubber bushings, the

suspension system tends to show resonances (typically around 10 Hz).

For this:

•The ABS is designed that it will not put in any 10-Hz-excitation into the
system

•The ABS filters out 10-Hz-Signals from the wheel speed (to avoid
resonances due to the closed loop via ABS)
 A= 0,5 kgm²
A, B
C QB = 0,5 kgm²
mc = 35 kg
mD = ∞ kg

kB= 4104 Nm/rad

kC= 15104 N/m
Ersatzsystem
System C C:
kA = 750 N / %
Masse
Mass D
D (Vehicle
(Karosserie)
Body)
Ersatzsystem
System A A:
Inertia A A
Trägheit DB= 90 Nm / (rads-1 )
(Tire Belt) Feder-
Spring-
(Reifengürtel)
x Dämpfer
Damper C
DC= 1200 N / (ms -1 )
C
lineares Masse C
Mass C (Tire +
(Linear) Tire r = 0,307 m
Reifenkennfeld (Rad+Rad-
Suspension)
Characteristics
aufhängung)

System B
Ersatzsystem B:
Inertia A A
Trägheit
kBrake  t for t  0,tStop
MBrake t  = 
(Tire Belt)
(Reifengürtel)
Trägheit
Inertia B B kBrake  tStop for t  tStop , 
 (Felge)
(Rim)
Feder-
Spring-
Dämpfer x   A  r
MGround = k A  100%
Damper
BB
xvehicle
 100

80
(bar)
pressure(bar)

Bremsdruckverlauf
60
brakeBremsdruck

40

20

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Zeit (s)
Time (s)
A= 0,5 kgm²
QB = 0,5 kgm²  k Brems  t für t  0, t Stop
M Brems t  = 
k Brems  t Stop für t  t Stop , 
mc = 35 kg
mD = ∞ kg
x   A  r
M Grund = kA   100%
kB= 4104 Nm/rad x Fzg
kC= 15104 N/m
kA = 750 N / %

DB= 90 Nm / (rads-1 )
DC= 1200 N / (ms -1 )

r = 0,307 m

ΘA  A = M Brems (t)   B (t) -  A (t) k B   B (t) -  A (t) DB

ΘB A = MGrund (t)  B (t) - A (t) kB  B (t) - A (t) DB

mC  x
 = (x Fzg  x)  k C  (x Fzg  x)  DC  MGrund  r
 28

27.5
Geschwindigkeit
speed of tire belt des Reifengürtels
corresponding
Simulierte values from
Meßwerte wheel
des speed sensor
Radrehzahlsensors
speed (m/s) (m/s)

27
Geschwindigkeit

26.5

26

25.5

25
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Zeit (s)
Time (s)
 0.2

0.1
(m/s)

0
Meßwertverfälschung

-0.1
(m/s)

-0.2
error

-0.3

error due to torsion

Verfälschung durchrim-belt
Tordierung Felge-Reifengürtel
-0.4
error due to suspension
Verfälschung elasticity Achsaufhängung
durch elastische
Gesamtverfälschung
all-over-error
-0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Zeit
Time(s) (s)
Sometimes one might want to have a wheelspeed far below the reference
velocity in order to decrease the available lateral forces, but this no
‘standard’ ABS-functionality and is needed e.g. for vehicle stability control

PD-controller + continuous operating point estimation

100
wheel speed
vehicle speed
80 actual pressure
pressure [bar], speed [km/h]

set pressure

60

40

20

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
time [s]
 ABS:
3.) Hardware
 Sensor
Wheel
Speed
Sensors
Coil Teethring
(~50 teeth)
speed is calculated
from time delay
between (rising or
falling) edges of
signal

depending on speed
every / every second/
every fourth edge is
used for calculation

using every edge is

difficult due to
possible asymetrical
behaviour signal
Photos from wikipedia, drawings from ‚Fachkunde Fahrzeugtechnik‘EUROPA Lehrmittel high/low!
ABS ‚closed circuit‘
(hydraulic fluid is pumped back in master
Check Valve RR
brake cylinder) FR
pump e-motor
master brake reservoir brake
FR RR
cylinder booster I I

brake
brake pedal
circuit brake
I O
1 O reservoir booster

brake brake
circuit 2 pedal

O O
I
travel sensor
damper
master brake
cylinder
I O
Inlet Valve (I)
pump

accumulator
Outlet Valve (O)
O
RL
Inlet Valve (I) FL

Outlet Valve (O) Check Valve ABS ‚open circuit‘

(hydraulic fluid is pumped back in the
FL RL
reservoir)

drawings from ‚Fachkunde Fahrzeugtechnik‘EUROPA Lehrmittel 2004

 ABS unit in car
electronics (with coils for activating the valves) are in the ‚plastic box‘
the hydraulic part (valves,pump) is in the ‚metal box‘

Photos from wikipedia

 Different behavior of actuators and hydraulic valves
(that’s what is in series production cars):

80

hydraulic valve: 70
- nonlinear
- 3-point-behavior: 60
(pressure hold
pressure increase, 50

pressure [bar]
EMB
pressure decrease)
40
- pressure dependent dynamics
- exponential behaviour hydraulic
dotted: total pressure reduction
30

EMB actuator: 20
- linear within limitations
- continuous 10

- (nearly) pressure independent

0
dynamics
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
- high setting accuracy time [s]
- approx. 2.nd-order-behaviour
(like spring-damper-system)

-> sometimes pressures are measured, but often they can be calculated from
behaviour of the hydraulics
-> used for calculating road µ
Exercises
 Exercises
If a car manufacturer would like to have an ABS for it‘s cars, where the
wheels never block above a vehicle speed of 5 m/s, even on a high-low-
transition, how fast would the ABS have to react latest?
Is this realistically achievable, if the ABS is calculated every 5 ms?

(Make plausible assumptions about the vehicle mass, load transfer,

occuring torques, inertia of the wheel)
Assumption: vehicle mass 1200 kg, wheel base 3 m, hight of CG (Center of Gravity) 0.5 m, inertia of wheel about
1 kg m², wheel radius =0,3 m):

Normal force under strong deceleration (-1g) on one front wheel:

Fz = 9,81 m /s² *1200 kg* 2/3load transfer *1/ 2only one side = ca. 4000 N -> Torque = Fz *wheel radius=1200 Nm (Brake
torque equals approximately torque from ground on tire)

Low µ: Approximately no torque from ground, so brake torque decelerates wheel:

d/dt Wheelspeed (rads) * Inertia = Torque

d/dt Wheelspeed (rads) = Torque / Inertia = 1200 (kg m² / s²)/(kg m²) = 1200 1/s²
d/dt Wheelspeed (m/s) = d/dt Wheelspeed (rads) * radius = 1200 * 0,3 m/s² = 360 m/s²= ca. 36 g
delta speed = acceleration * time -> time * delta speed / acceleration = 5 m/s /360 m/s²= ca. 0,014 s

Not realistic: time has to be sufficient for capturing data, filtering, ABS calculation, actuating the valves....
 Exercises

A car without ABS is blocking the wheels under µ-split-conditions (low µ on

one side, high-µ on other side). For a good average driver the time until he
reacts is (at least) 0,5 seconds. How far has the car yawed until then?

(Make plausible assumptions about the vehicle mass, vehicle inertia, track
width and friction coefficients)

Assumption: vehicle mass 1200 kg, track width 1.8 m, inertia of vehicle 1800 kg m², µ left =1.1, µ right = 0.1):

Basic idea: longitudinal sliding friction , unequal on left and right hand side, causes a constant torque which is
acting on the inertia of the vehicle. This leads to a yaw velocity which is increasing linear with time, yaw angle
increases with the square of time.
(The ‚constant‘ torque is a simplification, : When the car rotates the lever arm of the wheels changes ,.
Additionally, when the car starts rotating, wheel slip (sliding) would not be parallel to the motion direction of
Center of Gravity, because a (small) lateral component would build up, which would counteract the rotation.)

Torque around z-axis of car:

Torque = Force * Leverarm = (1200kg/2)*9.81 N/kg * 0.1 * (1.8 m/2)- (1200kg/2)*9.81 N/kg * 1.1 * (1.8 m/2)
= -600 *9.81 *0.9 Nm = ca. 5300 Nm

Yaw Acceleration = 5300 Nm / 1800 kg m² = ca. 3 rad/s²

Yaw Velocity = 3 * 0.5 *rad/s = ca. 1.5 rad/s

Yaw Angle = ½ Yaw Velocity *0.5 s= 0,375 rad = 0,375 /p *180 deg = ca. 21 deg
 Exercises
If the car of the before question had an ABS without yaw damping, would
the behaviour of the car change during the first hundrets of a second?

What would happen with sideslip /lateral force? Would the car go straight
forward during steady state?
At very first moment: ABS uses available logitudinal forces (adhesion), which are similar to the longitudinal forces without ABS
(sliding friction). There is no yaw, means no sideslip, means no lateral force, so yaw acceleration is like without ABS at the very first
moment.

As yaw velocity increases, sideslip angle sincrease and lateral forces build up that counteract the yaw velocity, until steady state is
reached . If one assumes for simplification, that the car doesn‘t change its direction due to the yaw, then the relation between yaw
velocity and sideslip angle is given by the following equation:

sideslip angle = atan { lateral velocity / longitudinal velocity}

= atan { (yaw velocity * distance axle-Center of Gravity / longitudinal velocity}
= (approximately) (yaw velocity * distance axle-Center of Gravity / longitudinal velocity)

Assumption: ABS leaves a certain part of traction for lateral forces, which are proportional to the sideslip, the slope shall be given
by ‚sideslip stiffness‘ (perhaps about 1/3 of the original sideslip stiffness of the tire without braking), Then for each axle (front or rear)
the resulting counter torque due to yaw velocity looks like this::

Countertorque_one axle = sideslip angle * sideslip stiffness ‚* distance axle-Center of Gravity

= yaw velocity * sideslip stiffness *distance² axle-Center of Gravity / longitudinal velocity
= yaw velocity * Constant _one axle(v)

So with ABS a countertorque is build up, which is proportional to yaw velocity (by a factor depending on longitudinal speed).
For both axles together, the equation looks the same but with a different Constant (v) summing up the effect of both axles:

Countertorque = yaw velocity * Constant (v)

This means for the yaw behaviour of the car:

Overall torque = Torque from different forces left and right + Countertorque = Inertia of car * yaw acceleration

Yaw acceleration = {Torque from different forces left and right + Countertorque } / Inertia of car
= {Torque from different forces left and right + yaw velocity * Constant (v)} / Inertia of car

Final steady state yaw velocity is increasing with speed, because: For the final torque value a certain, speed-independent sideslip
angle is necessary. As this angle is given by the relation lateral velocity to longitudinal velocity, the lateral velocity has to be
proportional to the longitudinal velocity. and hence the final yaw velocity is increasing with longitudinal speed!!
Countertorque_one axle = sideslip angle * sideslip stiffness ‚* distance axle-Center of Gravity
= yaw velocity * sideslip stiffness *distance² axle-Center of Gravity / longitudinal velocity
= yaw velocity * Constant _one axle(v)

So with ABS a countertorque is build up, which is proportional to yaw velocity (by a factor depending on longitudinal speed).
For both axles together, the equation looks the same but with a different Constant (v) summing up the effect of both axles:

Countertorque = yaw velocity * Constant (v)

This means for the yaw behaviour of the car:

Overall torque = Torque from different forces left and right + Countertorque = Inertia of car * yaw acceleration

Yaw acceleration = {Torque from different forces left and right + Countertorque } / Inertia of car
= {Torque from different forces left and right + yaw velocity * Constant (v)} / Inertia of car

We try to express yaw velocity by the following equation, later we will have to identify the parameters K and T1 with those given for
the equation above:

yaw velocity = K * (1- e –T1 *t) , creating the time derivative leads to:
Yaw acceleration = T1*K* e –T1 *t = -T1*K * (1- e –T1 *t) +T1*K = -T1 * yaw velocity + T1*K =
= {Torque from different forces left and right + yaw velocity * Constant (v)} / Inertia of car (from equation above)

If this equation holds true for any t, then we can identify the parameters like this:

T1*K = Torque from different forces left and right / Inertia of car and
-T1 * yaw velocity= yaw velocity * Constant (v) / Inertia of car so T1 = - Constant (v) / Inertia of car

The solution now looks like this:

yaw velocity = -Torque from different forces left and right /Constant(v) * (1- e Constant(v) /Inertia of car * t)=
= -Torque from different forces left and right /{Countertorque/yaw velocity} * (1- e Countertorque/yaw velocity)/ Inertia of car * t)

Remark: Slope of sideslip stiffness depends on tire characteristics (given) and longitudinal slip (controlled by ABS, how much traction
it ‚leaves‘ for lateral forces)), so due to brake performance, the final yaw velocity shouldn‘t be reduced too much. Most of all only
the speed how fast pressure differences left/right (and with this yaw acceleration) is build up are reduced -> Active steering or driver‘s
reaction is required
The solution now looks like this:

yaw velocity = -Torque from different forces left and right /{Countertorque/yaw velocity} * (1- e Countertorque/yaw velocity)/ Inertia of car * t)

For very big t, the solution is :

yaw velocity = - Torque from different forces left and right /{Countertorque/yaw velocity}

This is the final steady state value of the yaw velocity. (Be aware that Countertorque/yaw velocity means the derivative
Countertorque per Yaw velocity, which was replaced by a division as we assumed that the tire behaviour is linear)

Remark: Slope of sideslip stiffness depends on tire characteristics (given) and longitudinal slip (controlled by ABS, how much traction
it ‚leaves‘ for lateral forces)), so due to brake performance, the final yaw velocity shouldn‘t be reduced too much. Most of all only
the speed how fast pressure differences left/right (and with this yaw acceleration) is build up are reduced -> Active steering or driver‘s
reaction is required