Asad Taha added 24 new photos. © Admin - 10h - #short notes of chemistry) (Quick revision ) OO 133 1) Like == AA Brench chemist, Laveisier (1743-93) is regarded as father of modern chemisty | MATTER ANO ITS STATES + Itexists in five stntes vz, solid, Hiquid, gas, plasma, Bose-Einstein condensate, out of which the former three are commoniy’ seen, + Anything that occupies space, possesses ‘mass and can be felt by any one oF more of ur sense organs is called matt STATES OF MATTER © SOLID STATE A solid possesses definite shape and definite volume which means that it cannot be compressed on applying pressure. Liguio sTaTE A liquid possesses definite volume but ne definite shape. neither definite volume nor definite shape. + Solid, Hiquie and gases are inter-convertible by changing the canditions of temperature land pressure. + Fluorescent tube contains helium (He) gus ‘and sieon sign bulb contains neon (Ne) gas ) BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE 5, Satyendlra Nath ose and Albert we the information about Bose Binstein condensate + Iisa state of matter ofa lower density gas of boson cooled up to temperature which {s very close to absolute aero of -273.15°C. Infact, iis @ fith state of matter. © OD comment 17 Comments D Share CHEMISTRY A single substance (or matter) which cannot be separated intoother Kinds of matter by any physical process i= called pure substance ELEMENTS + They contain only single type of atoms. + Elements which areliquidat oom temperature are meroury (and bromine (Br + Examples [of elements) are diamond, aris seleuur fy, Gorse ‘ozone (0), oxvgen (0, ete + Elements have the following order of ‘abundance in earth crust, Oxygen » silicon > aluminium (metall > iron > calcium. + Elements have the following order of abundancein human body: Oxygen > earbor > hydrogen > nitrogen, Extraction Process for Various Element “Frasch process Sulphur ‘Acheson process Graphite Hall Herat Alumina ‘Ontwall proce Wiic acid cee ‘rin frm one Stet from molten pig [Bessemer process Pato process | Siver Bromine Mages Abate alcoholInfact, i iso ith state of matter @1 (1) Like @ corenrtaowntgs 2000 © METALS Metals are solids (exception mercury which {s liquid at room temperature) are normally hard, They have lustre, high MP and BP ind also with incroase in temperature due to vibration of positive ions at their Lattice points. 1 NON-METALS ‘Non-metals are the elements with properties opposite to those of the metals. They are found in all states of matter. They do not ppassess lustre (exception is iodine). They fare poor conductors of electricity {exception te) and they are not malleable and is graph ductile METALLOIDS Metalloids are the elements which have common properties of both metals aad non- metals ‘COMPOUNDS Compounds are pure substances that are composed of two oF more different elements in fixed proportion by mass. ‘These contain more than one kind of atom. Their examples are silica (810), water (HO), sugar (C,,H,O,), salt (NaC), ce ‘ORGANIC COMPOUNDS “The compounels obtained from living sources fre called organic compounds. Examples are carbohyrates, proteins, oils, fats, et | INORGANIC COMPOUNDS ‘The compounds obtained from non-living sources stich as rocks and minerals are called inorganic compounds. Examples ae common salt, marble, washing soda, et MIXTURES A material obtained by mixing two oF more substances in any indefinite proportion is called a mixture. Examples are milk, sea water, petrol, paint, glass, cement, wood CD comment CD comment (A Share 1 (A) HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE A mitre i sad 10 be homogencous ifit does have a uniform composition throughout Example: Sall-solution, sugar solution, et, © (8) HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE ‘A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if it does not have uniform composition throughout and has visible boundaries of separation between the various constituents, Example: A mixture of sulphur and sand, 2 mixture of iron fillings and sand, etc ‘SEPARATION OF MIXTURES. fm SUBLIMATION In this process, a solid substance passes direet into iis vapours on application of heat. The vapours when cooled, give back the original substance. © FILTRATION ‘This is a process for quick and complete removal of suspended sold particles from a liquid, by passing the suspension through a filter paper. EVAPORATION Ifa solution of solid substance in a liquid is heated, the liquid gets converted into its ‘vapours and slowly goes off completely. This, process is ealled evaporation, © CRYSTALLISATION ‘This method is mostly used for sepasation ‘and purification of solid substances. In this process, the impure solid or mixture is heated with suitable solvent to its boiling point and the hot solution is filtered. ‘The clear Bitrate is cooled slowly to room temperature. When pure solid erystallises ‘out, this is separated by Station and dried fe DISTILLATION Iisa process of converting a liquid into its ‘vapour by heating and then condensing the ‘vapour again into the same quid by cooling ‘Thus, distillation involves vapourisation and condensation both (D Share cane @@1 1) Like Oc (A) Vacuum Distillation = "Ttisalso known ae distillation under redhiced pressures, (8) Steam Distillation ‘Tes used to separate steam volatile ‘compound trom non-volatile or nom team volatile campos, {c) Fractional Distillation 2 Thisprocessissimilartothedistilation process except that a fractionating Column is used to separate two oF ‘more volatile liquids which have diferent boiling points. CHROMATOGRAPHY The technique of chromatography is based fn the difference in the rates at which the components of a mixture are absorbed in the suitable absorbent CENTRIFUGATION It is based upon the principle that the denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles stay at the top when spun rapidly ‘SEDIMENTATION AND DECANTATION ‘These methods are tsed when one coraponent liquid and the other isan insoluble sli, heavier thar Hguid, mud and water If muddy water is allowed to stand undisturbed for some time in a beaker, the particles of earth (clay and sand sete atthe bottom. This process ie called sedimentation, The clear liquid at the top can be gently transferred into another beaker. This process is known as decantation REVERSE OSMOSIS It is a technique in which solvent mole cules move from the solution of higher concentration to the solution of lower condensation both (D Share (omment cone @ concentration when these are separated by semipermeable membrane and excess preasture is applied to the solution of higher Its used for desalination of sea water, SOLUTIONS OR TRUE SOLUTIONS. ‘These are homogeneous mixtures of to oF more substances, The sie of solute particles fs less than 10" om, COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS. ‘These are heterogeneous mixtures. The size of solute particles is between 10” em ‘and 10" em. ‘These can scatter light because of the presence of large solute particles, ie they show Tyndall effeet and Brownian ering of light by colle particles is called Tyndall effect ‘STRENGTH OF SOLUTION Molarity: It is defined as the number of moles ofthe solute per ite of solution, __Namber of moles of salute Volume of solution per litre Normality: It is defined as the number of ‘gram equivalent of the solute per litre of solution, Normality = Metariy Equivalent weight Molatity: It isdefined ns the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1000 g of the solvent Moles of so Weight of solvent in Kg ‘Types of Colloidal Systems ane xanpio _ Selid So! Some coloured glasses = ay wer at Chee baer Emulsion Milk, Hair Crear a oa Fast, oo NBS Pies ___ Fol agp ooh © comment A Share @ core tarwntgr 2000 | PHYSICAL CHANGE + Ivis the change which only affects the physical properties like colour, hardness, Sensitv. meltine point ete. of matter ‘Mass Number (A) + Tris equal to the suim of number of protons ‘and number of neutrons. + Teis written as a suneracrint to the rieht ofLiquid Liquid Solid @ cere teeretge 2000 1 PHYSICAL CHANGE + Ivis the change which only affects the hysical properties like colour, hardness, ensity, melting point, ete. of ma 1 CHEMICAL CHANGE + These changes affect the composition as well as chemical properties of matter and result in the formation of anew substance, CONCEPT OF CHANGE INSTATE (0) Melting Point: The temperature at ‘which solid and the liquid forms of the substance exist at equilibrium or both forms have same vapour pressure is called melting point. Bolling Point: The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure is called boiling point. (c) Freezing Point: The temperature at which substance is changed from liquid state to solid state is called freezing point. (a) Vapour Pressure: The pressure exerted by the vapours of liquid in equilibrium with liquid at a given temperature is called vapour pressure. Vapour pressure depencls on (ij its nature and {i temperature. Higher the vapour pressut, leaner willbe the magnitude of intermolecular forces present {in molecules. Vapour pressure of a liquid inereases with increase in temperature ATOMIC STRUCTURE Atom wy The smallest particle ofan element is ealled fan atom. The atom of the hydrogen is the smallest anc Characteristics of Atoms ‘Atomic Number (2) * Its equal to the number of proton, * It is equal to the nun in metural atom, ber of electrons 1) Like + Its antiparticle is positron. 2 Ithasmass equated, 1» 10° egor0,00084 + Ithas charge equal to -1.6 * 10°” C (by CD comment OD comment Eman Mil, Hair Crean Balid Poem Paice stone, fra, PAUSE Foam Ft, whipped ream D Share ‘Mass Number (A) + Tris equal fo the sum ef number of protons land number af neutrons, + Ieis writen as a superscript to the right of the aymbol of the atom et, Chere 12 i the mass numberof earbon (C), Molecule ‘A molecule is the smallest particle of « compound that can have @ stable and independent existence Mole Concept ‘One mole is just a number whose value is ‘equal 106.022 ~ 104. Avogndro's number. ‘Thus, one mole in quantity implies thatthe matter contains exactly 6.022 * 10° number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions, ete) + Number of moles of molecules = Weight in gm Molecular mass + Number of moles of atoms Weight in gm ‘Atomic mass + Number of moles of gases Volume at STP var molar volume + Standard molar volume of gas at STP = 22.4 hires Atomic Mass It fs the ratio of mass of one atom of the ‘element to the part of the mass of one atom ‘of Carbon-12 Motecutar tase Ieindicates how many times one molecule of ‘substance is heavier in comparison tothe mass of the atom of Carbon-12, it ELECTRON i. Electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson. il, The name of electron was given by Stoney ii, An eleetton is ebtained from Cathode ays experiment. A Share sine @ w neuron i. A neutron was discovered by James Chadwicki. Electron was discovered by Characteristics of Atoms is “ aye Thomeon. ‘Atomic Number (2) il. The name of electron was given * Tes equal to the number of protons. by Stoney, + Iie equal to the number of electrons il An electron is obtained from Cathode {in metural ator, rays experiment 1) Like CD comment GD Share cae @ + Its antiparticle is positron, NEUTRON + Ithasmassequaltad.1~10°"kgor0.00054u, 4, A neutron was discovered by James + It has charge equal to -1,6" 10°” C (by Chadwick Milian oil drop experiment). ii, Charge on neutron is zero aemaren ii, A neutron is obtained from radioactivity phenomenon. + Teas zero charge and mass equal to 1.674 = 10” kg or 1.00867 u. + It is present inside the nucleus. Its partici is antineutrino, ‘Atomie mumber 2}: The number of proton for electrons in an atom of the element is called atomic number. It is denoted by 2. 1. A proton was discovered by Goldstein. 1k A proton was named by Rutherford iL A proton is obtained from anode rays ‘experiment {tis positively charged. Its present in the nucleus, thas charge +1.6* 10" Cand mass equal to 1.672 « 10” kg or 1.00727u, Proton, Neutron and Electron Data Particle FRelave Charge Relative Protons 1 1 16710 Neutrons 1 ‘meatal 1.6710 Electrons 0.0008 a eae S110" NUCLEUS through them, This is algo called Plum: + It contains protons and neutrons which —Pudeing model of an atom or watermelon are collectively called nucleons model of an atom. + Mass number (A): The sum of number of protons and neutrons in an atom of | CATHODE RAYS the elements is called mass number. It is * These rays were discovered by Jal. Thomson. ‘denoted by A. These rays originate from cathode a + Teotopes: These are atoms of the elements travels in a straight line towards anode. avn the sme atomic number but ope pays « Hydrogen (Iicl] is the lightest isotope * These rays were discovered by Goldstein and lead-208 is the heaviest jxotope _ (0ls0 called positive rays), (with mass 207,974). ‘These rays do nat originate from anode. + The isotopes of hydrogen are Protium (H}, * These are positively charged and have Deuterium (2°) and Tritium (JP), ,C""and velocity less than cathode rays, Care isotopes of carbon, + Hydrogen is theonly atom in which neutrons + fsobars: These are atoms of the elements are not present having the same mass number but different + According to de-Brogile, all particles hy atomic numbers, e.g Cl, “Ar, wave nature. Kand “Ca + Taotones: These are atoms of different {| RUTHERFORO'S ATOMIC MODEL clementshavingthesamentmberofneutrons. * This model was based upon a-particle + Isoelectronie: These arealoms/molecules) scattering experiment and it suggests that ionscontainingthesamenumber ofelectrons. most of the part of an atom is empty. It also + Thomson's model of an atom: According, stggests that the entire mass of an atom is toThomson,an atom is treated as sphere of concentrated in its eetre at Ihe nlicleus, radius 10% cm in which positively charged The nucleus ix surrounded ty electrons that particles are uniformly distributed and move around the nucleus with a very high hegatively charged electrons are embedded Speed in eireular paths called orbits (1) Like OD comment D Share © esses siereess v0 Spectrum: When a white light ig allowed to Zeeman’s effect: When spectral lines piss through a prism, it splits into seven obtnined from atomic spectra are placed in a colours. These seven coloured bands are magnetic field, they are splitted into numberradius 10% cm in which positively charged particles are uniformly distributed and hhegatively charged electrons are embedded 1) Like @ cree cavities 2008 Spectrum: When a white light is allowed to pass through a prism, it splits into seven colours. These seven coloured bands are called spectrum. NIEL BOHRS'S MODEL ‘This model suggests that the electrons are confined into clearly defined, quantized orbits, and could jump between these, but could not freely spiral inward or outward ix intermediate states. lt PLANCK'S QUANTUM THEORY According to this theo’ i Atoms and molecules could emit or absorb energy only in the form of discrete packets of energy called quanta li, Theenergy of quantum (Es proportional twits frequency (4, HEISENBERG'S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ‘This principle states that It is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and exact momentum (velocity) ofan electron ‘QUANTUM NUMBERS These show the position and energy of electrons in an atom, These are four in ‘number 1. Principal quantum mumber, n 2. Asimuthal quantum number, L 3. Magnetic quantum number, m. 4 Spin quantum numbers. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION {is the arrangement of electrons in various shells, subshells and orbitals in an atom PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE It is the quantum mechanical principle ‘which states that no fro identical fermions (pantctes with haltinteger spin) may eccupy the same quantum state simultaneously. OF Only two electrons may exist in the same orbital and these electrons must have opposite spin. 1) Like Uses of Radiotesotopes 1. Fadine-131 ie employed to sty the structure and activity of thyroid ean. 2, Hodine-129 la used in external radiaton © comment CD comment ‘The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus with a very high speed in circular paths called orbits AD Share Zeoman’s effect: When spectral lines obtained from atomic spectra are placed in a magnetic field, they are splitted into number fof fine lines, This is called Zeematrs effect. ‘Stark's effect: When spectral lines obtained from atomie spectra is placed in electric eld they are splitted into number of fine lines this is called Stark's effect. RADIOACTIVITY + It was discovered by Henry Becquerel bt term radioactivity was given by Madam Curie. It is the process of spontaneous disintegration of nuteleus and i measured bby Geiger counter involves emission ofa, Band yrays/ particles ‘and has units Curie, Beequerel, Rutherford 1 ALPHA («) PARTICLE ‘These are positively charged helium nu (atte, ‘An dcemission reduces the atomic mass by and atomic number by 2, 1 BETA (j) PARTICLE + These are negatively charged electrons (e). ‘A fiemission inereases the atomie number by one with no change in tore mas. 8 GAMMA () RAYS ‘These are electromagnetic radiations and have very high penetrating power. ‘heir emission increases does not alfect the position of ice’ in te Periodic Table NUCLEAR REACTOR Risadevice thats used to produce electric ‘and permits a controlled chain nuclear Fission. Meontains fuels eg. .,U"*, moderator (©. ‘graphite and heaty water, 9,0) t slow dow peutrons and control rods made up of bran Steel or cadmium) ta absorb neutrons. Temay also contain liquid sodium as cootant HALF-UIFE PERIOD Ii the time in which a radioactive sub stance remains half ofits original amount GD Share sine © configuration of elements and contains 118 clements, Modern periodic table is classified as Ls sbloeks iil blocks ik prblock iv. Flock,1) Like Uses of Radiolesotopes 1, Hodiae-181 is employed to study the structure and activity of ‘thyroid plan 2, Hodine-128 is used i external radiation ‘therapy forthe treatment of cancer. 3. Cobale60 sed in external radiation therapy forthe treatment of cancer. 4. Sodiam.24 is injected along wth alt lution to trade the low of bod, 5, Phosphorus-32 is ised for leukersia therapy 6, Casbon-14 is used to study the hinetiew of photosynthesis, | RADIOCARBON DATING + Ibis used in determining the age of carbon bearing materials such as wood, animal fossil, et fy URANIUM DATING + Iv is used to determine the age of ea minerals and rock, PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS: Father of Periodic Table ix Mendeleev, 1 PERIODIC TABLE + tis a tabular display of the chemical elements, organised on the basis of their properties. MENDELEEV'S PERIODIC TABLE (1869) It is hased upon the Mendeleev's periodic Jaw, which states, “Properties ofthe elements fre the periodic fonction of their atomic ‘Modern Poriodic Law: Mosler periodic law was given by Moseley. According to Moseley: “The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic function oftheir atomic numbers.” § MODERN PERIODIC TABLE {tis just graphical representation of Aufbau principle. It i based on the electronie 1’) Like ] cess soweuass 2000 iv, Vateney: It is the combining capacity of an element, It remains the same in group. . Metallic Character: Its the tendency ‘of an element to form cation by the loss of electrons. It decreases along a period ftom left to right and increases in ‘a group on moving downwards vi Tenisation Energy: It is the energy CD comment OD comment D Share somes @ configuration of elements and contains 118 clement. Modern periodic table is classifi IL sblocks Wi a-block ii, prbloct iv. blocs S-BLOCK I contains group 1 and 2, ie., hydrogen ‘and alkali metals (Li, Na, Ke Rb, C8, Fe) and alkatine earth metals (Be, Ma, Ca, St, Ba, Ral, General eleetronie configuration af hese clements is ns These clements are lectropositive BLOCK ecomprines the last si groups (13-18). ‘General electronic configuration of this block clement is ns! np This only block which contain metals, non: metals and metalloids, -BLock It comprises 10 groups (3 to 12). These cements are called transition elements eneral electronic contiguratian of d-biock slements is (o-1)4 ns He, Zn, Cu, Seete. are d-block elements but not the transtion elements, BLOCK There are two series inthis block 4 F and SF series. 4F series elements are called lanthanides and SF series elements are called actinides, ‘Genera electronic configuration ofthis block elements is (n-2)F-" (nel) "ns PERIODIC PROPERTIES i. Atomic radit: The distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell containing electrons is called ‘tome radius, ii, Tonte radi: The effective distance from the centre of mucleus of the ion wpto which tt exerts its influence on the electron cloud is ealled janie rad ii, Atomie Size: It generally increases on ‘movingdown the group beemuse number of shells inereases soft metals, (> Share ‘and carry positive charge. Anions formed by the gain of electrons and carry negative charge JONIC BOND OR (ELECTROVALENT BOND) A bond formed by the complete transfer of fons of more electrons from one atom to ‘other atom is called fonie bond,law, which states, "Properties ofthe elements fre the periodie fonction of thelr atomic Modern Periodic Law: Modern periodic law was given by Moseley According to Moseley: “The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic Rinction oftheir atomic mumbers.” § MODERN PERIODIC TABLE {tis just graphical representation of Aufbau principle. It is based on the electronic iv, Valeney: It is the combining capacity fof an element. It remains the same in group. . Metallic Character: It isthe tencleney ‘of an element to form cation by the logs of electrons. It decreases along a period from left to right and increases in ‘group on moving downwards. Tenisation Energy: It is the eneray required to remave an electron from the ‘outermost shell of an isolated gaseous tom. It generally increases along a period from left to right but ionisation, ‘energy of He, Mg, Ca, Sr is larger than the ionisation energy of B, Al, In, Ti, respectively. Ie generally decreases along ‘group on moving downwards. Blectron Affinity (EA): It is defined as the energy liberated when an extra lectron is added toan atom. decreases. fan moving dow a group. ts highest Electronegativity: It is the tendency ofan atom in a molecule to attract the shared electrons towards it, increases ‘regularly along a period from eft tonight ‘and decreases on moving down a group. itis highest for Nuorine. ix, Lattice Energy: The amount of energy released during formation of the mole of fonie compound from its consfituent forts is called Lattice energy. x Hydration Energy: The amount of ‘energy released during dissolution of fone mele of compound into water, is called hytration energy If hydration energy > Lattice energy, then compound is soluble in water and if hydration energy < Lattice energy, then compound is Insoluble in water CHEMICAL BONDING The force that holds together the diferent atoms in a molecule is called chemical bond. fn JONs + These are of two types: cations and anions, Cations are formed by the loss of electrons 1’) Like OD comment |. Atomic radit: The distance from the centte of the nucleus to the outermost shell containing electrons is called atomic radius, ii, Tonie radi The effective distance from the centre of nucleus of the ion wpte which tt exerts its influence on the electron cloud is called ionie radi ii, Atomie Size: It generally increases on ‘moving down the group because number D Share ‘and carry positive charge. formed by the gain of electrons negative charge ‘Anions are id carry JONIC BOND OR (ELECTROVALENT BOND) ‘A bond formed by the complete transfer of fons or more electrons from one atom to ‘other atom is called fonic bond, COVALENT BOND A bond formed between two same oF different ‘atoms by mutual contribution and sharing, fof electrons is called covalent bond. Co-ordinate bond (or Dative bond}: Co. ‘ordinate bond is a special type af eovalent bond in which one atom donates electrons of other atom. The bonding between donor to aeceptor atom is called co-ordinate bond, VALENCY Its the number of electrons taking part in bonding (Le., bond formation) pping of ‘atornie orbital is called sigma bond. Since the extent of overlapping of atomic orbitals in o-bonds large, hence, o-bond is a strong bond. pHBOND (n-BOND) A bond formed by the sidewise (or Intern! overlapping of atomic orbitals is called pl-bond. Since in this ease, extent of overlapping of atomie orbitals is lesser than ‘o-bond. So, r-bond is a weak bond. BOND ENERGY ‘The amount of energy required to break one mole bonds of a particular type between the atoms in the gaseous state ofa substance is, called bond energy ‘The greater the sizeof atoms, the lesser wil bbe bond energy ‘The greater the bond multiplicity, the more will he bond energy. ( Share* These are of two types: cations and anions, Cations are formed by the lose of electrons 1) Like 1 BOND LENGTH The average equilibrium distance between the centres ofthe two bonded atoms sealed length Greater the size of atoms, greater will be Dane Feng Greater the multiplicity of bonds, lesser will bbe bond length. = HYOROGEN BOND When hydrogen atom is present between two most electronegative atoms (N, 0, F) then it is bonded to bya cavalent bond and to other by a weak force of attraction which is called hydrogen bond. Intermolecular bydrogen bond arises when hydrogen bonding occurs between two oF ‘more molecules. In this ease, mp. nl b.p. of the compounds increase due to molecular When hydrogen bonding occurs within a molecule, then it is called intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Due to cyclisation, mp. tnd bp. ofthe compounds decrease in this Due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding between alcohol and water, alcohol is soluble 1) VAN DER WAALS" INTERACTIONS/FORCE {tis the attractive foree among the non-polar ‘molecules in solid or liquid states CHEMICAL REACTION The process in which substances (eactants) react to form new compunds (products) is known as chemical reaction. 11 TYPES OF REACTIONS Decomposition reactions: In these rea tions, compound either of its own oF Upon heating decomposes to give two or more components out of which at least one isi the elemental state, 2KCIO,A. 2KC1_ +30, 1) Like @] ser sevens 2000 Reversible reaction: 4 reaction in which reactants combine to form products and ‘again produets recombine to form reactants alled reversible reaction. Irreversible reaction: A resction which proceeds in only one direction is called {rvoveraible reaction. © comment CD comment he greater the bond multiprety, Me more will be bond energy. (D Share same @ In such reactions, two ‘oF more substances combine to give a single substanee. ‘Substitution reactions: In such reactions, anatom ora group of atoms of a molecule is replaced by another atom or group af atoms. Combination reactions: In combination reactions, compounds are formed asa result ‘of the chemical combination of two or more 20 + 1,0 ca (oH, Onide Hydvonide Displacement reactions: In these reactions, fan atom/ion present in a compound gets replaced by an atom ion of another element. CuSO,+Fe ——» FeSO, +Cu Supa ispropertionation reactions: The chernical reaction in which only one substance ts oxidised as well as reduced simultaneously is called disproportionation reaction. Dissociation rexetions: These are those reversible reactions in which a molecule dissociates into two or more simple molecules, oH, +1 drone Hydrogen tine Double decomposition reactions: These involve exchange of ions between two pounds, Exothermie reactions: These are those reactions in which energy is released, Endothermic reactions: These ate those in ‘which energy is consumed. Redox reaction: A reaction in which both oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously is called redox reaction. Neutralisation reaction: When an acid reacts with a base, sat and water is formed ‘This reaction is called neutralisation rea GD Share ii, Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in 1a molecule is equal to zero 1. Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in fan ion is equal to magnitude of charge with sign. CATALYSIS.1) Like @ ae xn Reversible renetion: (reaction in which reactants combine to farm products and ‘again prodiets recombine to form reaetants fs called reversible reaction, Irreversible reaction: A reaction which proceeds in only one direction is called reversible reaction. ff OXIDATION (OLD CONCEPT) Oxidation isa process which involves either of the following 1. Addition of oxygen, 1k, Removal of hydrogen. {i Addition of electronegative element oF roup. iv, Removal of eletropositive element oF sroup. | REDUCTION (OLD CONCEPT) Reduction #14 process which invoives either of the fallowing: {. Addition of hydrogen. 1K. Removal of oxygen. fi, Addition of electropositive element or group, iw, Removal of electronegative element oF roup. MODERN CONCEPT OF OXIDATION ‘AND REDUCTION According to modern concept, loss of electrons i called oxidation whereas gain of electrons is called reduction. Oxidising agent (OA): 4 substance which undergoes reduction is called oxidising, agent. Reducing agent (RA): \ substance which undergoes oxidation is called reducing ‘agent. Oxidation number: The charge present on ftom in molecule or ion is ealled oxidation ‘number, It may be zero, positive or negative, [RULES FOR DETERMINATION OF (OXIDATION NUMBER |. Oxidation number of an atom in free state is zero, positive or negative. li, Oxidation number of alkalt metals (i, Na, K, Rb, Cs) in molecule is always +2. 1) Like ‘Uses of Act 1. As oo: (a) Citric acid-Lemons or oranges. (b) Lactic acid-Sour male fc} Butyrie ace-feancid butter. (6) Tartar aie Grapes. lo) Acetic acid-Vinega. OD comment © comment > Share ii, Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms it a molecule is equal to 2ero 1, Sum of oxidation numbers of atoms in fan ion is equal to magnitude of charge ‘vith sign. CATALYSIS: I was discovered by Rerzetius * Itiva term used for the reactions/processes which occur in the presence of certain substances that increase the rate of the Feaction without being consumed. Such substances are called entalysts, Uses of Catalyst ‘S.No. Process: catalyst, 1. Mamufuetareaf Ghee Nickel from vegetable ci 2 Conversion ofmikinto—actane 3. Deconls process for Cuprie manufacture of chlorine Chiorile 3 Conversion ofsucrove —_nweriase Inia phicove nnd fructose _enayme 5 Contact process Pe Powder {or manufactare of sculpture ait a into peptide came {nto ethyl alcohol exyme Formation of vinegar from Mesoderm salto enzyme ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 8 AciD ‘An acid is a substance which i. Ts sour to taste ii, Turns blue litmus paper into red. il, Contains replaceable hydrogen. #W. Gives hydrogen fon (H") in aqueous soliton, v. Can donate a proton vis Can accept an electron, (D Share semace @ Use of Borie Acid It is used as an antiseptic Uses of Phosphoric Acid i. Its calcium salt makes our bones. ii It forms phosphatic fertilisers. Use of Ascorbie Acid: Source of vitamin C. Use of Citric Acid: Flavouring agent and food preservative"RULES FOR DETERMINATION OF OXIDATION NUMBER Oxidation umber of an atom in tree slate is zero, postive oF negative ii. Oxidation number of alkalt metals (Li Na, K, Rb, Cs) in molecule is always: OD Like aes of Ac 1 As oot (a) Citric acid-Lemons or oranges. 1b) Lacie aeit-Sour mile fe} Buyrie ack-feancid butter. (6) Tartare acid-Graper, fe) Acetic ecid-Vineane (9) Maleieacit-Apples. (a) Carbone acid Soda water, carbonated drinks, (hy Stearic cid-Fate 18) Oralie aeid-Tomato end weed sore 2. Hyrochiocie aid (HCH) ie used digestion Niteie nid (HINO, is used in the [purieation of go and aver. Oral eld is Used to remove rust Boric ac is constituent of eyes wash, Formic aed is present int zed ants Unie acl a proent ia arbn'of mammals Basicity ofan acid: The number ofremovable hydrogen ions from an acid is called basicity of that nei Uses of HCI 1. Used as bathroom cleaner. i. Asa pickling agent before galvanization, fil, In the tanning of leather fy, In the dying and textile industry \. Inthe manufacture of gelatin from bones. Uses of HNO, i. Inthe manufacture ofexplosives ike TNT {frinitrotoluene), TNB (Tvintrobenzene), Pierie acid (Frinitrophenal), ete i, Found in rain water (frat shower, fii, In the manufacture of rayon. jy. In manufacturing fertilizers Uses of Sulphuric acid (H,S0,) i. In lead storage battery fi, In the manufacturing of HCL li. In the manufacturing of Alun. iw. In the manufacturing of fert ‘drugs, eotergents and explosives. 2020 OD comment iL. Turns blue litmus paper into red. ii, Contains replaceable hydrogen. iv. Gives hydragen fon (H") in aqueous solution, v. Can donate a proton vis Can accept a elect (A Share sine @ Use of Boric Acid It is used! as an antiseptic Uses of Phosphoric Acid 1. Its calcium salt makes our bones. ii teforma phosph Use of Ascorbie Acid: Source of vitamin C. Use of Citrie Acid: Flavouring agent and food preservative Use of Acotic Aci food preservative tic fertilisers, Flavouring agent and Uses of Tartarie acid 1. Souring agent for pices, ii. A component of baking powder (sodium bicarbonate + tartaric aed, i BASES A Base isa substance which: i, Is bitter in taste ii, Turns red litmus paper into blue. ii, Gives hydroxy! ions (OH) in aqueotss solution, iv. Can accept proton. ¥. Can donate electrons, + Oxides and hydroxides of metals are bases. ter soluble bases are called a + All alkalies are bases but all b ‘alkalies becatise all bases not solublein water Acidity of a base: The numberof removable hydroxyl (OH) fons from a base is called ‘aeidity of a base. ‘The pH seale: pH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen fons on mole per litre INDICATORS ‘These are the substances which give different colours m acid and base solution, pH VALUE isamensureofacidity rbosieityefasohution, Itis defined as the negative logarithm of the Concentration in (mol/l) of hydrogen ions which it contains + This seven for neutral solution, greater than seven for basie goltion and less than seven for acidic solution. pH Values of Common Substances eee EE eee eee PH ValueUses of Sulphuric acid (H.50,) 1. In lead storage battery. fi, In the manufacturing of HCL fil In the manufacturing of Alum Ww. Ip the mamufncturing of fertilisers, drugs, detergents and explosives 1) Like ] vss serra 800 CE comment orbasictyefasolution ed as the negative logarithm of the concentration in (mol/1} of hydrogen ions which it contains. + Its seven for neutral solution, greater thos seven for basic solution and less than seven for acidic solution D Share H Values of Common Substances values ‘Adie Seluton PH Value kine Solution 1 et 7. Bod (Hansen) 23 and Lemans Albori as) 3 ‘Carboni acid (cot dak) ‘Sea water 35 ‘Tartare uid (Grapes) 10.8 Mile of Magnesia 33. Berke ac eyewaxi) 1601 66 Lactic acid 13 O.LN NaOH Salution 8 SALTS © PLASTER OF PARIS ‘These are the product of neutralisation reaction between an acid and a base ‘salt can be etic, basic oF neutral, Strong acid + Weak base —» Acidic salt Weak ack + Strong base /alkali—» Basic salt Strong acid + Strong base/alkall > ‘Normal/neutral salt. Mohr's salt (FeSO,(NH) and Alum (K,S0,". Al fre double salts + Hydrolysis is 2 reaction in which salt reacts with water to form # solution, + Efflorescence is the property of salts to their water of erystalisation, + Deliquesconce is the property of salts to absorb moisture at ordinary temperature t6 form a solution + Hygroscopy is the property of salts to absorb atinospherie moisture at ordinary temperature without dissolving inf WASHING SODA Us chemical name 18 sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na,CO,.10H,0) and is used in glass, soap and paper industries and for removing permanent hardness of water BAKING SODA {is sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHICO,) {is a mild non-corrosive base Wher mixed with a mild edible acid such as tartare acid tis called baking powder and is ‘ised to make bread or eake soft and spongy. Itisused as mild antiseptic for skin infections, in sodi-acids and as fire extinguishers. BLEACHING POWDER + Its chemically Ca (OCHCL or Cadel is used for disinfectingdrinking water and fn the manulaeture of ehloroform. so4 (80)), 6H,0) 2410) OD Like Gay-Lussac's Low At constant volume, the pressure of kiven OD comment It is chemically calcium sulph: hemiyerate, ie. (CaSO), . HO tis formed from gypsum, thats, 80, 280. It is used to plaster fractured bones, for making teys, materials for decoration and for making surfaces smooth ‘COPPER SULPHATE Copper sulphate when anhydrous, is, white and when associated with water of crystallisation (.e. CuSO,. 5H0}, is blue 0 tis called blue vitriol, It is used to test the presence of water. sume It is chemically calcium oxide and also called quicktime Teisuused in the manuinerure of ass, ceme fete. and for drying ammonia and alcohol. POTASSIUM NITRATE Ie is used as fertilizer in gun powder in matchsticks, ete Ant or bee sting contains methanoic Or formic acid. § BEHAVIOUR OF GASES Boyle's Law ‘At constant temperature, the volume of a definite mass of a gas is inversely aon pat hares’ Law + At constant pressure volume of a fixed ras of a gas ie directly proportional to its absolute temperature, ie. VT. + Applications of Chasles' Law: Bursting fof hydrogen balloon, making of ehapatts to pressure, fe (AD Share tance @ through them in their molten state oF in their aqueous solution and undergo+ Its chemically Ca (OCHCL or CaOCL + Its used for disinfectingdrinking water and {n the manufacture of ehloroform. 1) Like Gay-Lussac's Law ‘At constant volume, the pressure of given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature in Kelvin, ie. Pa 2 ‘THE COMBINED GAS LAW OR IDEAL GAS EQUATION + Itis a gas law which combines Charles law, Boyle's law andl Gay-Luissae’s law Avogadio's Gas Law ‘At constant temperature and pressure the Volume of « gas is direetly proportional to the number of molecules. ‘deal Gas Equation PV = nT is called ideal gas equation, where P= Pressure Volume f= Number of moles T= Temperature in Kelvin, Diffusion of gases: The processofintermixing. of gases irrespective of the density relationship and without the effect of external agency is called diffusion of gases. 8 GRAHAM'S LAW OF DIFFUSION * According to this law, "the rate of diffusion of 4 gas is inversely proportional to the square root ofits density.” f IDEAL AND REAL GASES + Teeal gases follow gas laws in of temperature and prestire + Critical temperature is the temperature fahove which a gas cannot be liquefied, + Dalton's law of partial pressure: It states that, iftwo or more gases which do not react chemically are enclosed in a vessel, the total pressure, of all gates of the gaseous mixture ie equal to the sum of the partial pressures ofall gases which ozert presstire ‘when enelosed separately in the same vesse! At constant temperature ELECTROLYSIS 1. Electrolytes: These are the substances which allow the electricity to pass BATTERY + 18 an arrangemen connected in series. + These are of two types: {Primary batteries (non-rechargeabl eg, dey cell, mereury eel, ete CD comment OD comment its absolute temperature, ie. VT. + Applications of Charles Lew. Gurting oftycrogen balloon, making of enpatt D Share sine @ through them in their molten state or in their aqueous sofution and undergo ‘chemical decomposition, 2. Strong Electrolytes: The clectrolytes ‘which are almost completely clissociated fons in solution ure called jectrolytes, e.g., HCl, HNO,, rolytes which de not fonise completely in ollition sre called weak electrolytes ‘eg. Aceticnetd, carbonie aid, Ammonium hydroxide, sodium earbonate. 4. Bleetrolysis: The process of chemical ‘decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage of electric current through its molten state oF its solution is called ectrolysis. FARADAY'S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS § FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS. + Ie states that, the quantity of elements separated by passing an electric current through a molten or dissolved salt is proportional to the quantity of electric charge passed through the circu § SECOND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS It states that, the mass of the resulting separated elements is directly proportional to the atomic masses ofthe elements when an appropriate integral divisor is applied Electrodes: In order to pas the current through an electrolyte in molten state of in aqueous solution, two rods of plates fare needed to connect with the terminal of-a battery. These reds or plates are called electrodes, ‘Anode: The clecirode which is attached to positive terminal of battery ‘Cathode: The electrode which is attached to negative terminal of batteries. @ ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL + Teisadovice that produces an electric eurrent from energy released by a spontancous redox reaction, This kind of cell includes the ‘galvanic cell or voltaic eel, (> Share Graphite (Plumbago or Black Lead) i. It-is oft, greasy, dark grayish colored cexystaline soli il, In is good conductor of heat and electricity ii, This chemically more reactive thanELECTROLYSIS 1. Electrolytes: These are the substances which allow the electricity to pass wu BATTERY + is an arrangemen connected in series. ‘These are of two types: i. Primary batteries (non-rechargeable), eg, dey cell, mercury cel, ete li, Seconulary batteries (rechargeable) e.g. lead storage battery, nickel cadmium battery. Morcury Cell Wis suitable forthe low current devices like hearing aids and camera, ete I consists of zinc-mercury amalgam as anode and a paste of HgO and Carbon ‘as cathode. The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO, Lead Storage Battery tis a secondary battery, Iacts ae electrochemical cell during discharging (e.g., during use) and as electrolyte cell during charging. tis used in automobiles and invertors. A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as ‘an electrolyte CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS ALLoTROPY ‘The substances which have same chemical properties, but dierent physieal properties ie called allotropes and thie property is led allotropy Example: Allotropes of Carbon arediamond, graphite and charcoal, Diamond [tis the purest form of carbon. li, tis hardest natural known substance, 4iL Tus transparent ancl its specifi gravity is 3.52 iv, It is @ bad conductor of eleetricity and heat Iehas very high refractive index of 2.415, It is chemically inert and on heating, above 15000°C, it gets transformed into sgraphite Tthas high MP and density Biack diamond called Carb contains traces of graphite, of one or more cells 1’) Like Triply-bonded carbon: lydrocarbons containing at lease one carbon-carbon triple bond between two carton atoms are called © comment ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL Teisa device that produces an electric eurrent from energy released by a spontaneous redox reaction, This kind of cell includes the ‘galvanic cell or voltaiceel > Share Graphite (Plumbago or Black Lead) i. Its soft, greasy, dark grayieh colored cexystaline soli ii, IN is good conductor of heat and electricity li, IU is chemically more reactive than siiamend. i. Its layer structure is headed by weak van der Waals forces fe FULLERENES 12 (C50 ooks ikea soccer bal (or bucky-bal), GRAPHENE Graphene is an allotrope of carbon. CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) Wis formed by incomplete combustion. Its fa colourless, odourless gas. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ‘These are the compounds of mainly carbon and hydrogen of compounds of arbor ‘and hydrogen with other elements like phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur halogens, ete. Urea is the Girst synthesised organic compound (by Wahler) ‘Acetic acid was the first organic compound eynthesised in the laboratory from its clements HYDROCARBONS: OD comment Compounds made of carbon and hydrogen ‘atoms only, are called hydrocarbons. The natural souree of hydrocarbons is petrolcurn, I. Saturated hydrocarbons: The hyiro- carbons in which carbon atoms arc singly bonded are called saturated hytdrocarbons. Saturated hydlroearbors ‘are also called alkanes or paraffins General formula of alleane-C, H, Unsaturated hydrocarbons: The hiv carbons in which carbon atoms ave either doubly or triply bonded are called unsaturated hydrocarbons. Doubly bonded (carbon atoms) hydrocarbons ‘are called alkenes. The general formula of alsene iC, (A Share sane @ Rubber: It is a polymer which is capable of returning to its original length, shape or size after being stretched or deformed. Thegraphite Te has high MP andl density Black diamond called Carbenade contains traces of graphite 1) Like Triply-bonded carbon: Hydrocarbons cantaining at lease one earban-earhon triple bond between two carbon atoms are called alkynes. The general formula of alkynes is CH 1 AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS These are homocyctic compounds which contain at least one benwene ring in which carbon atoms are linked to one another by laternate single and double bonds. Tsomerism: Twoor more compounds having same molecular formula but different physical and chemical properties are called isomers and this phenomenon is called Polymerisation: The simple molecules Which combine to form a macro molecule called polymer. The process by which the simple molecules (monomers) are converted Into polymer is called polymerisation Natural occurring polymers are protein, anueleie acid, cellulose, starch, ete PLASTICS These are cross-liked polymers. + lac is a natural plastic (polymer) the polymers which ean be easily softened repeatedly when heated and hardened! when cooled, with little change in their properties. Bxamples: Polyethylene and tellon. li, Thermosetting plaaties: These are the polymers which when condensed have fa permanent change on heating. On heating they Undergo extensive cross Hinising in moulds and become hard and infusible; therefore, they cannot bbe reused. Examples: Bakelite, lyptal Bakelite (Phenol-formaldehyde resins) It js a condensation polymer and i obtained from phenal and formaldehyde presence of either an acid or a base catalyst, Is used in ‘making combs, fountain pens, photographs, records, electrical goods, etc (1) Like ] er secrssss 00 + Ethylene (C.H,is used to prepare mustard igs (war gas) and for ripening f fits + Glycol (C,H, is used as an antifreeze ‘mixture in car radiator and to prevent the freezing of fuel in spaceeratts: CD comment CD comment unsaturated hydrocarbons. Doubly bonded (carbon atoms) hydrocarbons are called alkenes, The general formula of alkene is C,H, > Share sane @ Rubber: It is a polymer which is capable of returning to its original length, shape oF size after being stretched or deformed. The rubber abtaine! frm natural sources called natural rubber, and polvmer prepared in Inboratory, which is simi to natural rubber: is known as synthesised rubber. Ui, Thlokol: Thiokol is made by polymeri sation of ethylene chloride and sodium polysulphide Thiokol is chemically resistant polymer. It is used in the manufacture of houses and tank linings, engine gaskets and rocket fuel Valeanization is a process of treating the natural rubber with sulphur or some compound of sulphur (SF,) under heat Vleanized rubbers used for manuleturing rubber bands, gloves, ear tyres, ete NATURAL RUBBER It ig an elastomer. cisiaoprene + Teis heated with sulphur compounds at 373 K in the presence of Zn0 to improve their properties. This process is called ‘wuleanisation of rubber. + Ivuleanised with 5% sulphur, itis used for making tyres and ifwith 30% sulphur, itis used in making battery cases, © EXPLOSIVES, + Some examples of explosives are trnitrotot Lene (TNT), nitroglveerin or triitroglveeria, eyclotrimeihylenctrinitramine (RDX, also called cyetonite, FIBRES ‘These have strong intermolecular forees like hydrogen bonding, Rayon: Synthetic fibre obtained from celitioge is known as Rayon. Ik is. 4 polymer of USES OF SOME IMPORTANT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: + Methane (CH) is used to manufacture printer ink, methyl alcohol and to obtain Hight andl energy (> Share ¥. Have low ignition temperature. ‘The quantity of fuel is expressed inthe form of calorific value 8 CALORIFIC VALUE(be reused Examples: Bailie, lyptal Bakelite (Phenol-formaldehyde resins} It is @ condensation polymer and is obtained from phenol and formaldehyde in presence of either an acid or a hase catalyst, Is used in ‘making combs, fountain pens, photographs, roconts, electrical goods, ete OD Like Q comes taewatgs 2000 Ethylene (CH, i used to prepare mustard js (ar gas) and for ripening of Fults Glyco! (C,8,0)) is used as un antifreeze mixture in ear radiator and to prevent the freezing of fucl in spaceeratt. ‘Acetylene (C.H.) is used to generate light, Weld metals as oxy-acetylene flame and to prepare synthetic rubber (neoprene! ‘Methyl Alcohol (CH,OH} is used as a fue! with petro, used to synthesise varnish and polish, used to denature ethanol + Chloroform (CHCL, is used asan anesthetic and to preserve’ substances obtained from plants and animals. I converts inte poisonous phosgene [COCL}, when exposed to sunlight. So, itis kept in dark hotles Giyeerin (C.H,0,) is used as a preserw for fruits and juices, i leather industry in congutation of rubber Acetic acid (CH.COOR) is used in vinegar, ‘medicines, and as a solvent + Oxalie acid (C,H,0,) is used in printing of clothes, in photography and in the ‘synthesis of coal tar Glucose (C,H,,0,) is used for the synthesis ofalcoho! and as. preservative for fait juice. Benzene (C.H,) is used as a solvent for oll fat and in dyeleaning. Sodium benzoate is a fo presctrative Toluene (C,H,CH) is used to synthesis explosive TNT, for drycleaning and for the synthesis of medicines like chloramine. Phenol (C,H,OH) is used to synthesis explosive, 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (pierie nei) and bakelie Ethyl Aleohol C#.OH) is used for drinking, in medieine to prepare tineture and as Insecticide, and as a fuel with petrol FUELS {A substance that can supply energy either ‘lone or by reacting with another substance {is known as fuel, Heat produced by fuel is ‘measured in Calories. An ideal fuel should |. Have high calorific value. ii, He cheap and easily available, ilk, Be easily stored and transport. iv, Be regulated and controlled, 1) Like Coat CD comment CD comment USES OF SOME IMPORTANT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: + Methane (CH,) is used to manufacture printer ink, méthyl alcohol and to obtain, Tight and energy (> Share ¥. Have low ignition temperature. ‘The quantity of fue s expressed inthe form of calorific value CALORIFIC VALUE + Iki defined as the heat obtained when 1 g ‘of «fuel is burned in excess of oxygen and is expressed in keal/s. + Hydrogen is the fuel of ature + Alcohol, when mixed with petrol, i called power alcohol. I is an alternative source of energy. + For the combustion of substance, Jgnition temperature should be low its FLAME + Iris the hot part offire ane! has three parts: 1. Innermost region + Itis black beeause of the presence of unburned carbon particles + Ithas the lowest temperature. 2. Midale region + {tis yellow luminous dus to partial ‘combustion of fel 3. Outormost Region * {tis blue (aon-tuminous) de to com- plete combustion of fuel + Its the hottest part of Name. Wb SAFETY MATCH + Safety matchstick contains a mixture of antimony rissiphide and potassium eblorste ft sone end, Ile box side contains a mixture fof powdered glass and red phosphorus Gaseous fuels are considered to be the best fuels Producer gas: It is mixture of CO and Itis the cheapest gaseous fuel; however, its calorific value is not very high because it has ‘a large proportion of nitrogen. ‘Coal gas: Its a mixture of H,, CH,, CO and ignsea lke N,,C,,H,,O,, ete. ‘Oil gau: I is'0 mixtire of H,, CH,, C,H, CO ‘and other gases like CO, Gobar gee It contains Cif,, CO and H, Natural gas: It is a mixture of gascous hydrocarbons, vz methane 85%, ethane, propane, butane, ete. D Share same @ lf ANTIKNOCK COMPOUNDS{is known as fuel, Heat produced by fuel is ‘measured in Calories. An ideal el should: 1. Have high calorific value. ii, Be cheap and easily available. tik Be easily stored and transport ie, Be regulated and controlled 1) Like COAL + Iris believed te have been formed by the stow carbonisation of vegetable matter buried Underneath the earth centuries ago, in limited supply fair under high temperature ‘and pressure prevailing there + Bituminous is the most common variety of col + On the basis of carton % and calorific value there are four types of coal, Natro ‘ot earbon Pat 50-60 Lite 60-70% Bituminous 75-80% Anthracite 90.05 = CHARCOAL + It can be wood chareoal, animal charcoal, ‘and activated chareosl depend Source from which it i obtained, upon the | LAMP BLACK OR CARBON BLACK + Its the most pure amorphous form of carbon feontain about 98-99% carbon) + itis used for making printer ink, black paint, varnishes and carbon papers. 8 PETROLEUM + Itisadark coloured oily liquid with offensive odour. Its also called roek oil, mineral ol, tude oil ot black gold 1) LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM Gas (LPG) + tis a mixture of n-butane, iso-butane and some propane. + A strong foul smelling substance called ethyl mercaptan is added to LPG to detect the gas leakage, | COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG) + Heonststs mainly of methane (95 relatively unreactive hydrocarbon and makes ite nearly complete combustion possible. © OCTANE NUMBER + Its ameasure of quality of petrol (gasoline) + The higher the octane number, the better is the fel 1) Like ] se sevens 2000 11 SOME COMMON ORES ‘Aluminium: Bauxite (Al,0,,2H,0), Kryolite (Na, AIP), Corruneum (4,0,) © comment CD comment ast Its riture a land other gases like CO, Gobar gas: It contains Ci, CO and H, Natural gas: It is a mixture of gastous hydrocarbons, viz, methane 85%, ethane propane, butane, ete. (D Share samece @ lf ANTIKNOCK COMPOUNDS + These are used to reduce the knocking property, eg. tetraethy lead (TEL) © CETANE NUMBER + Itis a measure of quality of diese METALLURGY ‘The process of extracting metal in pure form from its ore ie known a metalhirgy. ‘Metals: These are the elements which are hard, lustrous, ductile, malleable, sonorous land conductor of heat and electricity in their solid as well as molten state. These evolve hydrogen gas when reaet with water ‘and acids, Mercury (metal) is liquid at room temperature, Ti is called strategic m ‘Minerals: The compound of « metal founel jn nature Is called a mineral (Ores: Those minerals from which metal can be economically and easily extracted are called ores. All ores are minerals but all mineral Gangue for matrix}: The oe is generally associated with earthy impurities like sand, rocks and limesione known as gangue of Flux: A substance added ta ote to remove Impurities is called fax. There are wo types of fux-() acidic ux, (i) basic fax. Slag: Combination of gangue with flux in ‘ores forms a fusible material which is called slag. Concentration: The process of removal of gangue from the ore is known as ‘concentration of ore. ‘Caleination: It isthe process of heating the concentrated ore in absence or in limited Supply of ar, below its melting pont ‘Roasting: Roasting isa process in which ore is heated usually in the presence of air, at temperatures below its melting point ‘Smelting: The reduction of oxide ore with carbon at high temperature is knowa as smelting (D Share Tnvar on & Nick, Used in‘COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG) + Ieonsists mainly ofmethare (95%5| which ia relatively unreactive hydrocarbon and makes its nearly complete combustion possible, © OCTANE NUMBER + Its ameasure of quality of petrol (gasoline), + The higher the octane number, the better is the fuel 1) Like @ wer rernies 200 11 SOME COMMON ORES Aluminium: Bauxite (AL,0,,21,0}, Keyolite (Na AIF), Corrandum (Al,0)) Tron: Magnetite (Fe,0,) Hlaematite (Fe,0,) Siderte (FeCO,) Copper: Copper pyrite (CuFeS,), Copper slanee (Cu,S) Zine: Zine bende (20), Calamine Y2nC0,) Lead: Galena (PS), Angesite (POCL) ‘Mereury: Cinnabar (pS), aloment(Hg,Cl), ‘Magnesium: Magnesite (NgCO ), Dolomite (MgcO,, CaCO), Epsom salt (MgSO, .7H,O), Kieserite (MgSO, . 1,0), Potassium: Karnal (KCI MgC,.6,0), Salt Petre (KNO,) CORROSION Itis the process of axidative deterioration of ‘a metal surface bythe action ofenvironment to form unwanted corrosion. Corrosion of iron is called rusting is prevented by the following methods: * By electroplating ‘By surface coating = By alloying * By palvanisation of fron ALLOYS These are mixtures of two m and a non-metal S—Alloys Constituents Ne 1. Basa oppor et) & Zine fon Brosse Copper (0%) & Tn 3H) 3. German Copper (60%), Zine (20% Siver"" _ & Ne 20%) Dunkin Aluminium, Copper Hogreaium and anges © Alice Alun, co, Cal Siren (6. Magnaliun —Asmnsam (953) Magnesium (53) Tin, Antimony, Copper & Lead. Used in ball bearings te rece Giction 7 ‘Babi Metal 1) Like OD comment CD comment ‘concentrated ore in absence or in limited supply af ar, below its melting point Roasting: Roasting isa process in which ore is heated usually in the presence of air, at temperatures below its melting point ‘Smelting: The reduction of oxide ore with carbon at high temperature is knowa as smelting. > Share Te) Wes Ne Usain ___preciaion instrument 10. Gun Metal Copper, Tin & Zinc 11 Monel Niekel (79, Copper e Metal roa 12, Fewer Tis (80-90%), Copper & ead 18, Solder Tn, Land & Antimony f AQUAREGIA + leis a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric ‘acid (HCl) and concentrated nitric acid {INO,) in the ratio of Sel. It is used to dissolve noble metals ike gold and platinum ‘Amalgam: An alloy in which one of the component metals is mercury is called amalgam, COMPOUNDS OF METALS AND NON-METALS AND THEIR USES 1. Ferrous sulphate (FeSO). 41,0: In dye industry, and Mohr’ sal. 2. Todine () (As antiseptic, (i) Ia making tincture affine Bromine (Br, (i) In dye industry (i) As fa laboratory reagent. 4. Chlorine (Cl): In the formation of (i) Mustard gas (i) Bleaching. Sulphuric aetd SO.) (i) As a reagent (G) In purification ‘of petroleum (ii) In lead! storage battery: 6. Sulphur (Sj: Antiseptics, wuleanization of rubber, gun powder, medicine 7. Phosphorus (P) : |) Red Phosphorus reffigerant, in moteh industry, etc. (3) White Phosphorus-Rat killing Medicine. 8. Carbon dioside (CO,): Soda water, Fre extinguisher. 9. Graphite: As electrodes. 10. Alum |K,SO,Al, (SO, Purification of water) Les 1. Mercurie Chloride (I1gCl,): Calomel, Insecticides (Corrosive sublimat). 12, Mercurie oxide (gO): Ointment poison (D Share sane ©Magnesium (53) Tabb Metal Tin, Antimony, Copper Lead. Used in ball, ‘earings te retuce Gielen 1) Like 13, Zine Sulphide (28): White pigment. 1h. Zine Sulphate (White vitriol) (2n1S0,:71,0): Lithopone, Bye ointment, 15, Zine Chloride (ZnCl. Textile industry. 16. 17 2H,/ (CaSO, 1210}|: Statue, Surgery. 18, Caleium sulphate (CaSO... 21,0): Cement industry. : 19, Caleiusm earbonate (CaCO): Lime and toothpaste, 20, Cuprie oxide (CuO): Blue and green lass, purification of petroleum Cuprous Oxide (Cu,0): Red Glass, pesticides Copper (Cul: Electrical wire Sodium nitrate (NaNO): Fertilizer. Sodium Sulphate (Glauber’s salt) (Wa, 80,104, 0}: Medicine, cheap glass. 25, Sodium blearbonate (Baking soda) (NaHCO,}: Fire extinguisher, bakery, Teagent. 26, Sodium Carbonate (Washing soda): (i Glass industry, (i) Paper industry, (i) Removal of permanent hardness of water, (iv) Washing 27. Hoavy Water HO}: Nuclear reactor 28. Liguid Hydrogen: Rocket fuel Elements/Compounds and Their Uses Tigh-peed photographie tubes, Elecite valves and TW. tubes Treandescent bub, [iret ight because of ‘unwanted gases during the rnnuleture of metals Reypion Beryl ay (Transparent) window. Modersor in nuclear actions are the core. eon lights. Ceyogenies Mire of ides of ‘manganse, cobalt, copper find ster Antpalition Refrigerant, ferilisers Used in TV to produee red nlour 1) Like © cement tcrates 2000 + Gold and silver are the most malleable metals, + Mercury and iron produces more resistance {in comparison to the other during the flow of electricity OD comment OD comment Purification of water) Les her industry IL. Mereurle Chloride (HgC1): Calomel, Insecticides (Corrosive sublimate). 12, Mereurle oxide (gO): Ointment poison GD Share sane © Biemath ‘ined with ron vo make rlleable Belin Street lamp ‘eto coat the dine Tellurium Tit glass (one-way visiility suse in ata) TTechnetium Superconductor a-262 degree Cals fontzacepuives| ‘Used in breath analjser for detecting alcohol Sate iit Dichromate IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT SOME METALS. Zine Phosphide is used Tor ling rats, ‘Wood furnitures are coated with zine chioride to prevent termites. Galvanised iron is coated with zine Rusting of iron is a chemical change which Increases the weight of iron In flash-bulb, magnesium wire is kept in atmosphere of nitrogen gas. ‘Titanitim is called strategic metal because iv lighter than iron. + Gun powder contains 75% potassium nitrate, 10% sulphur and 15% charcoal Nichrome wire is used in electrical heaters (i Cr, Fl Zedlie is used to remove hardness of water In eytochrome, ion (Fe) is present. jenium metal is used! in photoelectric cel Gallium metal is liquid at room temperature Pllacium metal is used in aeroplane, Raditin is extracted from pitchblende. + World famous Eiffel Tower has steel and ‘cement base ‘Cadmium rod is used in nuclear reactor to slow down the speed of neutron. (Co-60 is tsed in cancer treatment ‘Onion and garlic odour due to potassium, Silver and copper are the best conductors of electricity G Share + These form oxides with ormmgen which are generally acidic fe HELIUMneon Neon hgh cryogenies Hopealite Mixure of oxdes of manganese, cobalt, copper fan ilver-Antpeution Ammonia Refrigerant, fertilisers colour (1) Like ] ser seventies 2000 Sok and iver are the most malleable metals + Mercury anion procaces more resistance in comparicon to the other during the flow of slectiiy. + Chihkumtstheghtestand the most redactant tloment + In Treworks, crimson recolour is due to presence of trent (Sr ren colour in ete C0 the presence of Bastum in htewetae + Osmium fe the heaviest metal and the platinum i the hardest, iver cflerde ie uted in photochromic atass «Slvr iodide is used in artificial rin iver fdine ie used an marker during cheten + Sliver spoon is not used in egg food Jesper bre Berka eve + To harden the got, copper ia mixed. Pare fd p24 cart + ftom Pyites (fe) i know a foots pid + Mercury inept fn ion pot cause fdas ‘ot form amalgam with fron + Ina tubelght, there tthe vapour of meeury + Tetrath Lea is used as an antenocking compound + Fune wine fs made up of fea and tn NON-METAL, + In Modern Periodic non-metal, + Electronegntve elements are non-metal, + Non-metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity except graphite, Bi and Ge are semi-conductor + Protium is the only one isotope in Petiodie Table having zero neutrons, + Deuterium exide fg known as heavy water and used in nuclear reactor as moderator. Liquid hydrogen is used as rocket fuel Hydrogen is known as range element because it may kept in group I and group VIIA. + These may be solid, liquid oF gas (bromine fs the only liquid non-metal + These are soft, non-lustrous, brittle, non: sonorous and non-conductor of heat and cleetriety. Table, there are 24 1’) Like + By using HF, chloroflueroearbon com: pound and polytetrafluoroethylene can be © comment ‘Caudmium rod is used in muelear reactor to slow down the speed of neutron. ‘Co-60 is used in cancer treatment. (Onion and garlic odour due to potassium, Silver and copper are the best conductors of electricity (> Share ‘These form oxides with oxygen which are generally acidic, HELIUM + Its noble gas. It is Used for filling balloons and other lighter aircraft Helium (He), when mixed with O,, is used hy deep-nea divers for breathing and for respiratory patients. NEON ARGON + Iris used to generate inert atmosphere for © comment ‘welding and to fil incandescent light bulbs. XENON Wis called atranger gas. WATER (H,0) Hare water-Less froth with soap. Soft water-More froth with soap. OXYGEN ‘Guane (0) is the allotrope of Oxygen NITROGEN 78% by volume in atmosphere, liquid nitrogen is used for refrigeration. Ammonia is an important compound of N, which is prepared by Haber's process ANIRRONIA {As refrigerant, in the mamufacture of HNO, Inferiizerikeurea, ammonium sulphate, ete Inthe manufacture of Na,CO, and NaHCO, In preparation of ammonium sal. In preparation of explosive In preparation of artificial sik Nitrogen fxation in leguminous plants. PHOSPHOROUS ‘An important constituent of animals and plants It is present in bones and DNA. HALOGENS Fluorine is used in the preparation of UF, and SF, for energy production and as dielectric constant, respectively, (A Share sane @ Acandle blows off when covered because does not get oxygen which helps in burning.1) Like + By using HF, chlorofluerocarbon com: pound and polytetrafluoroethylene can be ‘synthesised, + Chlorofluorocarbon is known as Freon and is used as refrigerant and aerosol + Non-stick utensils are made up of teflon, + Chlorine is used to prepare PVC, inseetiiles herbicides, ete + Bromine is used in ethylene bromide synthesis which is mined with leaded petrol lf INERT GASES + They belong to 18th group of Periodic Table for example, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn + Except Ra, all inert gases are present in atmosphere. + Argon is used in Are. welding and electric boule. + Helium js light and non-inflammable s0, ‘used in balleon, weather indieator, ete + Neon is used in discharge tube glow ight. COMMON FACTS: 2) SOME IMPORTANT EXPLOSIVES + Dynamite: It was discovered by Alfred Nobel in 1863. Its prepared by absorption of raw dust with nitro-alveerin. In modern dynamite, Sodium Nitrate ts uscd in place of Nitro-lyeerin + Tei Nitro Phenol (TNP}: Its also known as picvie acid, + R.D.X. is highly explosive known as lasticiver in which aluminium powder i= ‘mixed to increase the temperature and the speed of fire {© SOME IMPORTANT FACTS + Age of fossils and archeological excavation is determined by radioactive carbon (C, + Diantond has maximum refractive index and due to total internal reflection, it has lustre. + Cream is a type of mill in which amount of fat is increased while amount of water is decreased + NO is known as laughing aus * Reel phosphorus is tsed in match industry. + Urea contains 46% nitrogen. OD Like @ cere taewntgs 2000 Carhon Dioxide (CO,) + tis used by plants for photosynth + it turns the time water milky. + Its used to extinguish fire and for artificial respiration when mixed ‘with oxygen {carbogen) + tis dangerous to have charcoal fire burning ina closed room beesue it produces carbon monoxide gas, whieh is suffocating. + ENO proviuces effervescence if dissolved in water due to evolution of CO, pas. CD comment CD comment (D Share cane @ + Acandle blows eff when covered because it does not get oxygen which helps in burning. + Phosphorus eatehes fire leptin air bit is unreactive with water, soit is kept in water. + Urea was the first organic compound synthesised in laboratory. Ferrie chloride is used ta stop bleeding, Sea weeds contain iodine During cooking maximum vitamin is lost. Forthe preparation of silver mirror, ghicose is used. + Silver nitrate (AgNO) is used fo prepar the ink used during noting Silver iodide (al) is used for artificial rain, Hydrogen peroxide (I1,0,) is used as an oxidising agent, bleaching agent, as an insecticide, and for washing ol oi panting. + For artificial respiration mixture of oxygen ‘and helium gas cylinder used. Sodium is kept in kerosene oi “The heaviest clement is osmium (Qs) ‘The lightest element, least dense andl most reluctant element is lithium (Li). AIR, WATER AND THEIR POLLUTION e AR + Irishomogencous mixture of different gases. + It has the following composition — 78% nitrogen; 21% oxygen, 0.03-0.05% carbon dioxide (CO), argon ete Oxygen (0,) Twins discovered by K. Seheete Ieismon-combustiblebut helps i combustion, Ozone (0,) Ie an allotrope of oxygen. It is used as insectickl, in purification of ‘water to preserve food, to synthesis arificial sill-and camphor and as a bleaching agent Nitrogen () + Hewae discovered by Rutherford. Iti neutral ‘and lighter than ai. Its filled in sealed packets and bulbs to create inert atmosphere. + Living beings dic in an environment of nitrogen D Share 8 PARTICULATES + These are minute solid particles and liquid droplets dispersed in alr, e.g, dust, smoke, fumes, ete ‘SMOG + Iris a consequence of particulate pollution and is of two types, 41. Classical Smog + Its also called Lanidon type smog,of fat i increased while amount of water is decreased + NO is known as laughing gs + Red phosphorus is used in match industry. + Urea contains 46% nitrogen. 1’) Like @D ete ee Carbon Dioxide (CO,) + is used by plants for photosynthesis, + It turns the lime water milky. * Its used to extinguish fire and for artificial respiration when mixed with oxygen {carbogen) + Irisdangerous a have charcoal fire burning ina closed room beesuse i produces arbor ‘monoxide gas, which is suffocating. + ENO prosiuces effervescence if dissolved in water due to evolution of CO, pas. WATER + It contains two elements: hydrogen and oxygen (1.0), + Ithas boiling point 100°C and freezing point O°. Its density is maximum at 4°C. Soft Water + Soft water easly others with soap, Hard Water + It does not lather with soap. Heavy Water + lis deuterium oxide, D,0. (Molecular mass is 20), POLLUTANTS + These are the substance that contaminate the environment and of two types. 1. Primary Pollutants: Thete persist in the environment in the form they are formed, for example, sulphur diowide (80), nitrogen dioxide (NO), ete 2, Secondary Pollutants: These are the products ofreaction of primary pollutants, eg, PAN, ozone (0), aldehyde, ete 8) GREENHOUSE EFFECT + Iv is the heating of earth and ite objects because of the trapping af TR radiations by carbon dioxide (CO,}, methane (CH) NO, ozone (0), chlorofluorocarbons ‘and water vapotrs. 8 GLOBAL WARMING + Its the result of increased concentration of sreenhouse gases, {ACID RAIN (BY ROBERT AUGUST) + It is due to oxides of nitrogen and sulphur 1) Like + Chlorine is used! for the purification of ater, for synthesis of bleaching powder, ete © comment ‘and lighter than aur. + Its filed in sealed packets and bulbs to create inert atmosphere + Living beings dic in an environment of nitrogen, A Share 8 PARTICULATES + These are minute solid particles and liquid droplets dispersed in air, e.g, dust, smoke, fhmes, ete ‘SMOG + Iris a consequence of particulate pollution and is of two types. 4, Classical Smog tis also called London type smo, It is formed in cool humid climate when ‘carbon soot particles combine with gaseous ‘oxides of sulphur, 2. Photochemical Smog tis also ealled La Angeles smog * ik occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate by the action of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide. 1 TROPOSPHERIC POLLUTION + Presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the ar. © STRATOSPHERIC POLLUTION Stratospheric pollution means depletion ‘of ozone layer jozone hole) by certain compounds like chlorofluoracarbons. (CFCS), oxides. WATER POLLUTION Itisdueto the presence of foreign substances ke sewage, algae, soluble salts, ete. in water. © SOIL POLLUTION + Tis caused by pesticides like insecticides (eg., DDT, BHC, ete.) herbicides (e.g. sodium chiorate ‘and sodium arsenate] angicdes (e, onganomercury compounds) + Barium sulphate is used in X-rays of abdomen as barium meal + Silver and copper are best conductors of electricity. Gold and silver are the most malleable metal + Zine oxide (210) is known as lower of zine for Chinese white and is used as white paint Mercury is stored in iron pot Radium is extracted from piteh blends, wre prepare! from eth GD Share sane @ oF hard glass contains 2, Potash gla potassium, [ts used for making cheraical Apparatus: beakers, flasks, funnel, et1 GLOBAL WARMING tis the reault of increased concentration of sreenhouse gases, 1 ACID RAIN (BY ROBERT AUGUST) + Its due to oxides of nitrogen and sulphur 1) Like + Chlorine is used! for the purification of water, for synthesis of bleaching powder, ete MAN-MADE SUBSTANCE 1, Fertilisers: The aubstances added to the sail to make up the deficiency of essential lements are known as fertilisers, these either natural or synthetic (chemical. ‘Among the chemical fertilisers, the twe important categories are: Phosphate fertilisers: The most abundant phosphate is rock phosphate [3Ca, (PO,)|, which is mostly constimed by the fertiliser industry in the man. lufacture of ‘superphosphate of lim ‘uiple superphosphate’ and ‘eltrophs™a combined phosphatic and nitrogenous fertiliser. Nitrogenous Fertilizers: Plants need nitrogen for rapid growth and increase in their protein content. For this reason, nitrogenous fertilizers are of some more importance. The chief nitrogenous fertilizers are ammonium sulphate, caleiim cyanamide, sodium nitrate, ‘ammonium nitrate, ures, and ammaniim phosphate. 2, Dyes: Coloured substances used for colouring textiles, oodstuis, silk, wool, tte, are called dyes, 3. Cement: It is a complex material containing the silicates of ealeiumn arid ‘aluminium. A paste of sand, cement arid water is called mortar Avmixture of stone chips (gravel), ‘cement and water is known as concrete Concrete with stecl bars and wires is called reinforced concrete It is Used for constructing roads, bridges and pillars GLass + Itisan amorphous or transparent solid, also called supercooled liquid. + Ieontains mainly silica ($i0,) 1. Soda or soft glass is sodium calcium silicate used for making bottles, window panes, ete 1) Like @ mewtirrice 2000 + Antibody: Kinds of substances formed in the blood, tending to inhibit or destroy OD comment OD comment (2A) is known as lower of zine for Chinese white and is used as white paint + Mercury is stored in iron pot + Radium is extracted from pitch blends + Astifieial perfumes are prepared {rom ethyl faeetat. > Share cane @ 2, Potash glass or hard glass contains potassium, It is used for making chemical ‘apparatus: beakers, flasks, funnel, ete 3. Crown glass contains potassium onide, barium exide, borie oxide, and silica. I is used for optical apparatus. 4, Flint glass contains lead oxide and is used in optical instruments like lenses, prisms ‘Crooie's glass contains cesium oxide. this Use for speetacies as itabsoris UV rays, 6, Jona glass contains B,O, and alu iis used for making laboratory bottles, for Keeping acids anv alkalies, 7. Mitky glass is prepared by adding tin oxide, caleium phosphate or eryoite to the melt glass. 8. Glass laminates is made by fixing polymer sheets between layers of glass. is used to make window and screens fof cars, trains and aireratt, Specially ‘manufactured glass laminates are used ‘as bulletproof material + It has the following composition: calcium oxide (CaO) = 50-60%, silica (SiO,) = 20- 25%, alumina (ALO * 5-10%; magnesiom ‘oxide (MgO) ~ 2-39 + Tis manufactured from limestone and clay. Paints: Chemical contains a pigment as a vehicle and a thinner, White pigment: Zinc oxide, white lead ‘and titanium dioxide, ‘The pigment mixed With a vehicle, which i an oll like linseed for soyabean oil s polymer. \ thinner is Solvent such as turpentine oll or Keresens. Luminous paints: Glow when exposed 10 Hig SOAPS + These are sodium and potassium salts of higher fary acids. y DETERGENTS + These are sodium or potassium salts oflong, hain alg! or ary! sulphonates or sulphates. ‘These are also called sompless soap, + Antibiotie: Medicinal compounds produced bby moulds and bacteria, capable destroying for preventing the growth of bacteria in ‘animal systema > Share 4. Rodenticides, aluminium phosphide, Chloroform: A svectish, colourless liquid It‘phosphate. 2, Dyes: Coloured substances used for colouring textiles, foodstuls, silk, woo, tte, are called dyes, 3. Cement: It is a complex material containing the aleiurn ari ‘aluminium. A paste of sand, cement ard water is calted mortar Avmixture of stone chips (gravel), ‘cement andl water ie known as concrete Concrete with stecl bars and wires is called reinforced concrete It is Used for constructing roads, bridges and pillars, GLass + isan amorphous or transparent solid, also called supercooled liquid. + Ieontains mainly silica ($i0,) 1. Soda or soft glass is sodium calcium silicate used for making bottles, window panes, ete 1) Like ] iss sicrness vc + Antibody: Kinds of substances formed in the blood, tending to inhibit or destroy harmful bacteria, ete Antidote: Medicine used agninst a poison. ‘Antigen: Substance capable of stimulating, formation of antibodies + Antipyreties are used to reduce body tem perature during high fever, eg, paracetamol aspirin, phenacetin, analgin, and novalein. + Tranquilizers are used to treat stress, mild, and severe mental disease. + Antiseptic: Prevent the growth of micro ‘organisms or kill them but are net harmafal tollving tissues, eg, dettol and savlon. + Aualgostes: Painkilers are called analgesics, ‘eg. aspirin, parucetarnol and morphine. + Antimalarials are used to teeat malaria, =, ero + Sulphadrugs: Alternatives of antibiotics, sulphaniiamide, sulphadiazine ssulphagunamidine + Antacid: Substances which remove the fexcess acid and raise the pH! to appropriate level in scotch are eilled antacids. ‘Antacids are used as a remedy for acidity Pesticides are used todestroy the organisms that harm the crop. ‘These are ofthe following types. IL Insecticides, ¢-g., DDT, aluminium Phosphate, gammexane. 2. Pungleide, eg., Hordeaus mixture 3. Herbicides, eg. benzepam, berizadox. OD comment Painta: Chemical conta vehicle and a thinner. White pigment: Zinc oxide, white lead ‘and titanium dioxide, ‘The pigment mixed With a vehicle, which jan oil like linseed ‘or soyabean oll a polymer. \ thinner is 2 Solvent stich as turpentine oll or Keresens. Luminous paints: Glow when exposed 10 Hig SOAPS + These are sodium and potassinm higher fary acids DETERGENTS ‘These are sodium oF potassium salts oflong, chain aly! or aryl sulphonates or sulphates ‘These are also called sompless soap. Antibiotic: Medicinal compourils produced bby moulds and bacteria, capable of destroying ‘oF preventing the growth of bacteria in ‘animal systems ns a pigment ns a salts of (D Share 4, Rodenticides, aluminium phosphide. Chloroform: A swectish, colores liquid I fs used as a solvent and anaesthetic Saseharin: A white crystalline solid whieh is 550 times sweeter than sugar, but does nat have any food value. Mt is used by diabetic patients DT: Dichlorodiphenyltricholore ethane isa. ‘white powder used as an insecticide Propellants Liquid propellants Liquid hydrogen, liquid smamonia, hewn, Irydrogen perosde ‘Solid propellants Hybrid propellants N,0, + Acre uber Dyes Nitro dyes ‘Less important asthe Colours re no fast ‘azo dyes ‘Ago (33) group is “Tiohenglaiethane Malachite eee : ave Direct dyes ‘Mautius yellow, Nopiathot Vat yee tio