ECM2105 Control

Prathyush P Menon*,
Christopher Edwards
Date: 20-Jan-2014, Room H101
Laplace Transforms
Laplace Transforms

The Laplace transform of a signal f (t) is defined as

Z ∞
−st
L(f (t)) = f (t)e dt
0

N.B. L(f (t)) is a function of s and not time t.

Usually the following notation is adopted:
F (s) := L(f (t))
and the Laplace transform is a sort of ‘map’ between f ↔ F .
For example if f (t) = 1 then
1 −st ∞
Z ∞  
−st 1
F (s) = L(f (t)) = e dt = − e =
0 s 0 s
]
Laplace Transforms (ctd)

Example 1: Consider f (t) = t which is a ramp signal

The Laplace transform
Z ∞
−st
L(f (t)) = te dt
0
Using integration by parts
Z ∞ Z ∞
−st 1 h
−st
i∞ 1 −st
te dt = − te + e dt
0 s 0 s 0
1 h
−st
i∞ 1 h −sti∞ 1
= − te − 2 e = 2
s 0 s 0 s
Example 2: Consider the signal f (t) = e−αt ]

The Laplace transform

Z ∞ Z ∞
−st −αt −(s+α)t
L(f (t)) = e e dt = e dt
0 0
Explicit integration is easy and
1 h
−(s+α)t
i∞ 1
L(f (t)) = − e =
(s + α) 0 (s + α)
]
Laplace Transforms (ctd)

Example 3: Consider finding the Laplace transform of sin(t).

Z ∞
−st
F (s) = L(f (t)) = sin(t)e dt
0
Using integration by parts
Z ∞  ∞ Z ∞
−st 1 −st 1 −st
e sin(t)dt = − sin(t)e + cos(t)e dt
0 s 0} s 0
| {z
0
R∞
To find 0 cos(t)e−stdt again use integration by parts
∞
1 ∞
 Z ∞
1 1
Z
−st −st −st
cos(t)e dt = − 2 cos(t)e − 2 sin(t)e dt
s 0 s 0 s 0
Z ∞
1 1 −st
= 2− 2 sin(t)e dt
s s |0 {z }
L(f (t))

Therefore
1 1 2
L(f (t)) = − L(f (t)) ⇔ s L(f (t)) = 1 − L(f (t))
s2 s2
and therefore
1
L(f (t)) = ]
(s2 + 1)
Impulse Response

1
Consider a pulse acting for a period of time  of magnitude 

1

 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 
f (t) = 1/ε
0 otherwise
Note the area under the graph is unity.
Z  Z ∞
−st −st
L(f (t)) = f (t)e dt + f (t)e dt
Z0  
1 −st 1 h −sti
= e dt = − e
0  s 0
1 −s
= (1 − e ) ε
Now s
1 −s 1 1 2 1 3
(1 − e ) = (1 − 1 + s − (s) + (s) )
s s 2! 3!
1 1 2
= 1 − (s) + (s)
2! 3!
and so as  → 0, L(f (t)) → 1. ]
Consequently the Laplace transform of a pulse is unity.
Laplace Transform Properties

Tables of Laplace transforms have been generated and so

there is no need to perform calculations like these.
Laplace transforms have some vital properties:
Let α, β be constants and F (s) = L(f (t)) and G(s) = L(g(t)).
The following properties are useful:

1. Linearity
L(αf (t) + βg(t)) = αF (s) + βG(s)

2. Differentiation
df
L( (t)) = sF (s) − f (0)
dt
3. Final value theorem
lim f (t) = lim sF (s)
t→∞ s→0

if both limits exist.

These properties are useful for studying control systems.

More Laplace Transforms

Recursively from Property 2 it follows

d2 f 2
L( 2 (t)) = s F (s) − sf (0) − f˙(0)
dt
In the special case when f (0) = f˙(0) = 0 then
d2 f 2
L( 2 (t)) = s F (s)
dt

In general
dn f n
L( n (t)) = s F (s)
dt
if f (0) = f˙(0) = f¨(0) = f (n−1)(0) = 0.
These properties are very useful for converting differential
equations to forms which are easier to manipulate.
The approach to control system analysis and design taken in
this course depends totally on Laplace transforms.
Another Laplace Transform Property

Suppose the Laplace transform of f (t) is F (s).

From this information the L eatf (t) can be calculated since

  Z ∞
at −st at
L e f (t) = e e f (t)dt
Z0 ∞
(a−s)t
= e f (t)dt
0
= F (s − a)

So for example
at 1
L(e sin(t)) =
(s − a)2 + 1
from knowledge of the Laplace transform of sin(t).
]
This will turn out to be a useful property for solving linear
differential equations.
Tables of Laplace Transforms

This is a table of Laplace transforms of common functions

f (t) F (s) = L(f (t))

1
1 s
1
t s2

tn n!
sn+1

eat 1
s−a

teat 1
(s−a)2
a
sin(at) s2 +a2
s
cos(at) s2 +a2
a
sinh(at) s2 −a2
s
cosh(at) s2 −a2
Transfer Functions

Consider the mass-spring system

This can be written in the form

d2 x dx 2 2
(t) + 2ζw n (t) + wn x(t) = wn f (t)
dt2 dt
where ζ and wm are constants.
In fact any 2nd order (linear) differential equations can be put
into this form.
The scalar wn is known as the natural frequency and ζ is known
as the damping ratio. (The reasons for this terminology will
become apparent.)
Transfer Functions (ctd)

Taking Laplace transforms of

d2 x dx 2 2
(t) + 2ζw n (t) + wn x(t) = wn f (t)
dt2 dt
and assuming zero initial conditions gives
2 2 2
s X(s) + 2ζwnsX(s) + wnX(s) = wnF (s)

where X(s) = L(x(t)) and F (s) = L(f (t)).

Therefore
2 2 2
(s + 2ζwns + wn)X(s) = wnF (s)
and
2
X(s) wn
=
F (s) (s2 + 2ζwns + wn
2)
| {z }
G(s)

The ratio of polynomials G(s) is the co-called transfer function

of the system.
Mechanical System Example

Recall the mechanical system was modelled as a coupled set

of linear 2nd order equations
ẍ1 + a0x1 + a1ẋ1 = b1ẋ2 + b0x2 + e0f (1)
ẍ2 + c0x2 + c1ẋ2 = d1ẋ1 + d0x1 (2)
for appropriate a0, a1, b0 . . . etc which are related to the phys-
ical properties.
Taking Laplace transforms
2
(s + a1s + a0) X1(s) = (b1s + b0) X2(s) + e0F (s) (3)
| {z } | {z }
a(s) b(s)
2
(s + c1s + c0) X2(s) = (d1s + d0) X1(s) (4)
| {z } | {z }
c(s) d(s)

This can be rearranged into the form

    
a(s) −b(s) X1(s) e0
= F (s)
−d(s) c(s) X2(s) 0
Mechanical System Example (ctd)

Therefore     
X1(s) 1 c(s) b(s) e0
= F (s)
X2(s) ∆(s) d(s) a(s) 0
where ∆(s) = a(s)c(s) − d(s)b(s) (i.e. the determinant).
Therefore the transfer function between F (s) and X2(s) is
e0d(s)
X2(s) = F (s)
(a(s)c(s) − d(s)b(s))

The use of Laplace transforms is a relatively efficient way of

determining the model for control purposes.
Inverse Laplace Transforms

Not only is it important to convert differential equations to

Laplace representations, it is useful to reverse the process
and reconstruct differential equations and signals from transfer
functions.
R∞
If F (s) = 0 e−stf (t)ds then
−1
L (F (s)) = f (t)
and so for example  
−1 1 −5t
L =e
(s + 5)
]
Suppose
(s + 1)
Y (s) = U (s)
s2 + 4s + 4)
this is equivalent to the differential equation
ÿ(t) + 4ẏ(t) + 4y(t) = u(t) + u̇(t)
]
Solving Differential Equations

Laplace transforms can be used to solve differential equations.

Consider
ÿ(t) + 2ẏ(t) + 5y(t) = sin(t)
with initial conditions y(0) = 1 and ẏ(0) = 2.
Taking Laplace transforms
2 1
s Y (s) − s − 2 + 2(sY (s) − 1) + 5Y (s) =
s2 + 1
and therefore
2 1
(s + 2s + 5)Y (s) = s + 4 +
s2 + 1
and
s3 + 4s2 + s + 5
Y (s) =
(s2 + 2s + 5)(s2 + 1)
Now this needs to be expanded as partial fractions in the form
as + b cs + d
Y (s) = + 2
(s2 + 2s + 5) (s + 1)
Solving Differential Equations (ctd)

Comparing coefficients gives the following equations

a+c = 1 (5)
b + d + 2c = 4 (6)
a + 2d + 5c = 1 (7)
b + 5d = 1 (8)
Substituting a from (5) into (7) and subtracting (8) from (6)
gives
2d + 4c = 0
4d − 2c = 1
After some algebra d = 51 , c = − 10
1
, a= 1
10 and b = 4.
Therefore
11 1 1
10 s +4 5 − 10 s
Y (s) = +
s2 + 2s + 5 s2 + 1
Before taking inverse Laplace transforms further manipulation
is necessary . . .
Solving Differential Equations (ctd)

Note that s2 + 2s + 5 = (s + 1)2 + 4 and therefore

11 1 1
10 s +4 5 − 10 s
Y (s) = +
s2 + 2s + 5 s2 + 1
11 29 1
10 (s + 1) 10 5 1 s
= + + −
(s + 1)2 + 22 (s + 1)2 + 22 s2 + 1 10 s2 + 1

Recall
a s
L(sin(at)) = and L(cos(at)) =
s2 + a2 s 2 + a2
and therefore from the shift property
11 −t 29 −t 1 1
y(t) = e cos(2t) + e sin(2t) − sin(t) − cos(t)
10 10 5 10
]