Stereotypes of African Americans in the

United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

This reproduction of a 1900 William H. West minstrel show poster, originally published by the
Strobridge Litho Co., shows the transformation from white to "black".

Stereotypes of African Americans in the United States are generalizations about African
Americans or African American culture. These stereotypes have evolved within American
culture dating back to the colonial years of settlement, particularly after slavery became a racial
institution that was heritable. The early blackface minstrel shows of the 19th century portrayed
blacks as joyous, naive, superstitious, and ignorant, characteristics related to the way
slaveholders in earlier years believed them to be.

Such scholars as Patricia A. Turner note "stereotyping objects in popular culture that depict
blacks as servile, primitive, or simpleminded and explains how the subtle influences of such
seemingly harmless images reinforce anti-black attitudes."[1] As with every other identifiable
group, stereotypes continue today. Blacks are often portrayed as lazy and very religious. They
also are portrayed as having a love of fried chicken, watermelon, corn bread, Kool-Aid, waffles
and, more specifically, grape drink.[2][3]

The idea of race in the United States is based on physical characteristics and skin color. It played
an essential part in shaping American society even before the nation existed independently.[4]
The perception of black people has been closely tied to their social strata in the United States.[5]
In early American history, the primary reason that Africans were in the colonies was as enslaved
laborers transported by the slave trade.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Historical archetypes
o 1.1 "Black-face"
o 1.2 "Sambo"
o 1.3 "Mammy"
o 1.4 "Magic Negro"
o 1.5 "Mandingo Negro"
o 1.6 "Sapphire"
• 2 Civil rights representations of people of color
o 2.1 "Deviant, Radical, Righteous"
o 2.2 "Drug Lords, Crack Victims, Evil"
o 2.3 "Welfare queen"
• 3 Modern stereotypes
o 3.1 "Angry Black Woman"
o 3.2 "Independent Black Woman"
• 4 Media
o 4.1 Early stereotypes
o 4.2 Film and television
o 4.3 Sports
o 4.4 Criminal stereotyping
o 4.5 New Media Stereotypes
• 5 See also
• 6 Notes and references
• 7 Further reading

Historical archetypes
"Black-face"

Minstrel shows portrayed and lampooned black people in stereotypical and often disparaging
ways, as ignorant, lazy, buffoonish, superstitious, joyous, and musical. Blackface is a style of
theatrical makeup that originated in the United States, used to effect the countenance of an
iconic, racist American archetype — that of the darky or coon. White blackface performers in the
past used burnt cork and later greasepaint or shoe polish to blacken their skin and exaggerate
their lips, often wearing woolly wigs, gloves, tailcoats, or ragged clothes to complete the
transformation.

"Sambo"

Main article: Sambo (racial term)

This stereotype gained notoriety through the 1898 children's book The Story of Little Black
Sambo by Helen Bannerman. It told the story of a boy named Sambo who outwitted a group of
hungry tigers. "Sambo" refers to black men that were considered very happy, usually laughing,
lazy, irresponsible or carefree. This depiction of black people was displayed in films of the early
20th Century. The original text suggested that Sambo lived in India, but this fact may have
escaped many readers. The book has often been considered to be a slur against Africans.[6]

"Mammy"

Main article: Mammy archetype

Characteristics of "Mammy" include dark skin, a heavyset frame and large bust, and overall
matronly appearance, complete with an apron around her waist and a kerchief on her head. She is
overweight and dressed in gaudy clothing, as well as genial, churchgoing, and spiritual. She is
compliant in the face of white authority, as in the Aunt Jemima and Margaret Mitchell's Gone
with the Wind's Mammy characters, standards of this archetype.

The term is a variant of mother, used most prominently by black people in the South during and
soon after slavery. White people used the term, as well to refer to black female slaves, servants,
and caregivers, who often cared for white children of the slaveholder household. White people
often used it in a sentimental way, but many black people considered it patronizing or
insulting.[7] Today, the term mammy when applied to a black woman is considered pejorative.[8]

"Magic Negro"

The magical negro (sometimes called the mystical negro, magic negro, or our magical African-
American friend) is a stock character who appears in fiction of a variety of media who, by use of
special insight or powers, helps the white protagonist. The word "negro", now considered archaic
and offensive, is used intentionally to emphasize the belief that the archetype is a racist
throwback, an update of the Sambo stereotype.[9] The term was popularized by Spike Lee, who
dismissed the archetype of the "super-duper magical negro"[10] in 2001 while discussing films
with students at Washington State University[11] and at Yale University.[12]

"Mandingo Negro"

This stereotypical concept was invented by white slave owners who promoted the notion that
male African slaves were animalistic and bestial in nature asserting, for example, that in
"Negroes all the passions, emotions, and ambitions, are almost wholly subservient to the sexual
instinct. . . ." and "this construction of the oversexed black male parlayed perfectly into notions
of black bestiality and primitivism."[13]

"Sapphire"

Sapphire is a historical character who is an undesirable depiction in which black women berate
black males in their lives with cruel words and exaggerated body language. Media often show
the wisecracking, emasculating woman with her hands on her hips and her head thrown back as
she lets everyone know she is in charge (Yarborough & Bennett, 2000). The character is a
control-agent for the African-American male character, whose dishonesty provides her with an
opportunity to emasculate him with her smart, insulting mouth. Think Esther Anderson in
Sanford and Son [14]

Civil rights representations of people of color

"Deviant, Radical, Righteous"

The civil rights era presented some different portrayals for African Americans who were often
associated with racialized issues such as bussing and segregation—topics that might fuel racial
prejudice by Whites. Grimm (2007) explored how the New York Times framed Malcolm X and
Martin Luther King, Jr., from 1960 through 1965. Both men are icons of contemporary African-
American culture and had a great influence on black Americans. However, Grimm concluded
that the main premise of the articles covering Malcolm X centered on his diminishment as a
leader, public mistrust and skepticism of the leader and Black Muslims, a deep fear of racial
violence and the stigmatization of the political icon. Media outlets often labeled Malcolm X a
deviant while they embraced King as a righteous leader. The author asserts that such
characterizations reinforced hegemonic power structures while also supporting ideological
notions of accepted racial norms in the United States.

"Drug Lords, Crack Victims, Evil"

Many of these negative stereotypes spill over into news media portrayals of minorities. Scholars
agree that news stereotypes of people of color are pervasive (e.g. Dates & Barlow, 1993;
Martindale, 1990; Collins, 2004; Poindexter, Smith, & Heider, 2003; Rowley, 2003; West,
2001). For instance, Entman (2000) found that African Americans were more likely to appear as
perpetrators in drug and violent crime stories on network news. In the 1980s and 90s, stereotypes
of black men shifted and the primary images were of drug lords, crack victims, the underclass,
the homeless and subway muggers (Drummond, 1990). Similarly, Douglas (1995), who looked
at O.J. Simpson, Louis Farrakhan, and the Million Man March, found that media placed African-
American men on a spectrum of good versus evil.

"Welfare queen"

This stereotype has longevity. Studies show that the welfare queen idea has roots in both race
and gender. Franklin Gilliam, the author of a public perception experiment on welfare, concludes
that:

While poor women of all races get blamed for their impoverished condition, African-American
women are seen to commit the most egregious violations of American values. This story line taps
into stereotypes about both women (uncontrolled sexuality) and African-Americans (laziness).

Studies show that the public dramatically overestimates the number of African-Americans in
poverty, with the cause of this attributed to media trends and its portrayal of poverty.[15]
Modern stereotypes
Common stereotypes of black women in the 21st Century are gold digger, angry black women
and independent black woman. The “angry black woman” is often depicted as always upset and
irate. On the other hand, the “independent black woman” is a narcissistic, overachieving,
financially successful woman who emasculates black males in her life. [16]

"Angry Black Woman"

Perhaps the most popular stereotype is that of the “angry black woman“ who media depict as
upset and irate, consequently she is often deemed a “bitch” (Collins, 2004, p. 123; Childs, 2005,
Springer, 2007). Her character is a spinoff of Sapphire, a historical character who is an
undesirable depiction in which black women berate black males in their lives with cruel words
and exaggerated body language.

Journalists used the angry black woman archetype in their narratives of Michelle Obama during
the 2007-2008 presidential primaries. Coverage of Mrs. Obama ran the gamut from favorable to
strong to angry to intimidating and unpatriotic. Stereotypes are important to study because, in the
end, certain qualities people attached to justify her oppression (Collins, 2000). First Lady
Michelle Obama told Gayle King on “CBS This Morning” that she has been caricatured as an
“angry black woman” - and that she hopes America will one day learn more about her. “That’s
been an image that people have tried to paint of me since, you know, the day Barack announced,
that I’m some angry black woman,” Mrs. Obama said.

The First Lady dismissed a book by New York Times reporter Jodi Kantor titled, “The Obamas.”
Kantor portrayed Obama as a hard-nosed operator who sometimes clashed with staffers. Obama
insisted that portrayal is not accurate.

“Independent Black Woman"

The "independent black woman” is often depicted as a narcissistic, overachieving, financially

successful woman who emasculates black males in her life. Dr. Mia Moody, an assistant
professor of journalism at Baylor, described the "independent black woman" in two articles
titled, "A rhetorical analysis of the meaning of the 'independent woman'"[19] and the "The
meaning of "Independent Woman" in music" [20]

In her studies, Moody concluded that the lyrics and videos of male and female artists portrayed
"independent women" differently. Rapper Roxanne Shanté’s 1989 rendition of “Independent
Woman,” explored relationships and asked women not to dote on partners who do not
reciprocate. Similarly, the definition of an “Independent Woman” in the Urban Dictionary is “A
woman who pays her own bills, buys her own things, and does not allow a man to affect her
stability or self-confidence. She supports herself entirely on her own and is proud to be able to do
so.” Destiny Child’s song, “Independent,” encourages women to be strong and independent for
the sake of their dignity and not for the sake of impressing men. The group frowns upon the idea
of depending on anyone: “If you’re gonna brag, make sure it’s your money you flaunt/depend on
no one else to give you what you want” (Destiny's Child, 2000). The singers claim their
independence through their financial stability.

However, Moody concluded female rappers often depicted sex as a tool for obtaining
independence through controlling men and buying material goods. While male rappers viewed
the independent woman as one who is educated, pays her own bills, and creates a good home
life, never did they mention settling down and often noted that a woman should not weigh them
down. Moody analyzed songs, corresponding music videos, and viewer comments of six rap
songs by Yo Gotti, Webbie, Drake, Candi Redd, Trina, and Nicki Minaj. She found four main
messages: wealth equals independence, beauty and independence are connected, average men
deserve perfect women, and sexual prowess equals independence.

Media
Early stereotypes

Early minstrel shows lampooned the assumed stupidity of black people. Detail from cover of The
Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels, 1843

Early minstrel shows of the mid-19th century lampooned the supposed stupidity of black people.
In 1844 Secretary of State John C. Calhoun, arguing for the extension of slavery, wrote,

Here (scientific confirmation) is proof of the necessity of slavery. The African is incapable of
self-care and sinks into lunacy under the burden of freedom. It is a mercy to give him the
guardianship and protection from mental death.[21]

Even after slavery ended, the intellectual capacity of black people was still frequently
questioned. Movies such as Birth of a Nation (1915) questioned whether or not black people
were fit to run for governmental offices or vote.

In 1916, Lewis Terman wrote in The measurement of intelligence:

(Black and other ethnic minority children) are uneducable beyond the nearest rudiments of
training. …There is no possibility at present of convincing society that they should not be
allowed to reproduce, although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem
because of their unusual prolific breeding.[22]

Stephen J. Gould's book The Mismeasure of Man (1981) demonstrated how early 20th century
biases among scientists and researchers affected their purportedly objective scientific studies,
data gathering, and conclusions which they drew about the absolute and relative intelligence of
different groups, and of men vs. women.

Some critics have considered Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn as racist because of
its depiction of the slave Jim, among other black characters. Some schools have excluded the
book from their curriculum or libraries.[23] The word "nigger" appears numerous times and is
used to describe Jim and other black characters. While the term was contemporary for the period
when Twain wrote the book, some modern readers have found it offensive. Other critics have
noted that Twain's portrayal of the relationship between Finn and Jim overturned stereotypes of
the time and recognized Jim's humanity and strength.

Film and television

See also: Acting white

Political activist and one-time presidential candidate Rev. Jesse Jackson said in 1985 that the
news media portrayed black people as "less intelligent than we are."[24] Film director Spike Lee
explains that these images have negative impacts. "In my neighborhood, we looked up to
athletes, guys who got the ladies, and intelligent people," said Lee. "[Now] If you're intelligent,
you're called a white guy or girl."[25]

In film, black people are also shown in a stereotypical manner that promotes notions of moral
inferiority. In terms of female movie characters shown by race:[26]

• Using vulgar profanity: black people 89 percent, white people 17 percent

• Being physically violent: black people 56 percent, white people 11 percent
• Being restrained:[clarification needed] black people 55 percent, white people 6 percent

Sports

In Darwin's Athletes, John Hoberman writes that the prominence of African-American athletes
encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in black communities.[27] Several other
authors have said that sports coverage that highlights "natural black athleticism" has the effect of
suggesting white superiority in other areas, such as intelligence.[28] Some contemporary sports
commentators have questioned whether black people are intelligent enough to hold "strategic"
positions or coach games such as football.[29] In another example, a study of the portrayal of race,
ethnicity and nationality in televised sporting events by journalist Derrick Jackson in 1989
showed that black people were more likely than white people to be described in demeaning
intellectual terms.[30]

Criminal stereotyping
Main article: Criminal black man stereotype

According to Lawrence Grossman, former president of CBS News and PBS, TV newscasts
"disproportionately show African-Americans under arrest, living in slums, on welfare, and in
need of help from the community."[31] [32]

New Media Stereotypes

In 2012, Mia Moody documented Facebook fans' use of social media to target President Barack
Obama and his family using stereotypes. Her study found several themes and missions of groups
targeting the Obamas. Some groups focus on attacking the president's politics, and consist of
Facebook members who have an interest in politics and use social media to share their ideas.
Other, more malicious types focus on the president's race, religion, sexual orientation,
personality and diet.

Moody, assistant professor of journalism, public relations and new media in Baylor's College of
Arts and Sciences, analyzed more than 20 Facebook groups/pages using the keywords, "hate,"
"Barack Obama," and "Michelle Obama". Hate groups - which once recruited members through
word of mouth and distribution of pamphlets - spread the message that one race is inferior, target
a historically oppressed group, and use degrading, hateful terms. [33]

She concluded although historical stereotypes focusing on diet and blackface have all but
disappeared from mainstream television shows and movies, they have resurfaced in new media
representations. Most portrayals fall into three categories: blackface, animalistic and evil/angry.
Similarly, while media have made progress in their handling of gender-related topics, Facebook
offers a new platform for sexist messages to thrive. Facebook users play up shallow, patriarchal
representations of Michelle, focusing on her emotions, appearance, and personality. Conversely,
they play up historical stereotypes of Obama that depict him as a flashy and animalistic. Media’s
reliance on stereotypes of women and African Americans not only hinders civil rights strides, but
also helps determine how people treat marginalized groups. [34]
Because newspapers and TV shows generally don't spread racist images anymore, people have
gone online. Users rely heavily on old stereotypes of blacks as animalist, evil or shiftless -
including depictions of the President as a chimp or sporting a bandana and a mouth full of gold
teeth.