= 60 29 compen rego conte seed shee Bor pin tSee 111 = sober boda ate ASD yp. 679 or 2.40 > ea resin congrenion: aig sens 2 eet of rt ee steph ee he > Sin es tmiton R14 ntensoncn ba jo ocombned sare eon aes in Table tones re ASD sabe ar es he rene of so pei comnctom) = dow enaon ena TEE Pons can et tne Fearne an {Et dans ane bs ued tc eet et {Sew maine ai) (GecTRFDae oceatanonty ots 1 tc reenact en Pls (Chp. 1) sy Bn hg 1 ™ ig dtu ote eal aust th ie fie the compen seth tc nr ‘ome of ren het he fr yas tgetly otro soe or Mamet fer a he sso ae ane tit deed lowing Bg soni rk etin met nn femme sco hag er Pred o ert fedSae 710) ~ Nitsa un erie ago 14 es wig ett Ba 1628 sng cosuar Sa 9.3 yee conta = Sa eS = concen fr weed ape 4) ane hace ty tcc i to ht wd sph Eye St ad St Ege ge, htt op a = ret ey tr es = ASD: umn nay eset ewig Fy ~ ‘eduntance mae in ey i ae ap ~ LRFD- oun aera see gin rig = Ma, 9463 TERED mex ray rl gtr ag a 882rs SD: mses waco ng fr aie ama ent Fi: = OF. wen 5 siti fen inspite nd ee Ce HMM mae ond pan, expel al whaceseet 946.1 mM ~ eu cama ane Croco io aed ame abet event ome Mand M Aner benting moment v6 oe Mange (EC. Ni) aM atone pomeeta my aun re we rein! moment engi the presence of shear Mr = pay tase moment fen none Ream cle Moy Rel men stents aie a yas pec So 116 & 9.8) Maga, = die moment np, ZF-ntkrert ote an aes eon sand stp nal moet Seno an) C808) “hed ye hn mone ate 86 cg sn hs Me? Ete met on ee Me Pein taal moet ra nig fx (has 87 Spent ht eben ment en 1) Sears ly Se ea me eh A on a ee 9 * ‘oi tyra £6 nb otter Cap. Gel hing cpio ks sn 1, = barat btn aro om ig een) rh = TP EAKLLP tar nie ago absent tes Bn Bg 2” Tyme at aay nad open ee FA mia hot wa an aeting Pett aa Se. 19 eed enw iets gs hs tment ecm 44) ea be et 8 ene Pech er et ome eS 1h mo so hl Ray abt an SBS Er Ui ieSTEEL STRUCTURES Design and Behavior Fourth Edition Emphasizing Load and Resistance Factor Design Charles G. Salmon University of Wisconsin-Madison John E. Johnson University of Wisconsin-Madison # HarperCollinsCollegePublishersSpore Es Miu Sth en Canyon Be: ug he Cobra Re a7 opr © 1985 by Hap Cs Paci Hapealie® an pitt api Liar af Cones Calon inion Dat tales orp eens an.Contents PREFACE xd CONVERSION FACTORS xv CHAPTER 1 Introduction 4 1 Structural Design 1 12 Principles of Design 13, Hite Background of Sse Structures 3 Ve Longe 1S) Types or Structural Stel Members 13 He Stes Structires 18 17 Specifications and Bulking Codes 23 ER Philosophies of Design 24 19. actors of Safety—ASD and LRED Compared) 30 t t 1 Why Should LRFD te Used? 34 1 Analy ofthe Steure 36 Sected References 36 CHAPTER 2 Steels and Properties 41 21 Structural Steels 41 2 Fastener Slee 47 23 Weld Electrode and Filer Mater 48 24 Seres-Siruin Behavior (Tension Test} at ‘Almoshenie Temperaures 49 Material Toughness 51 ‘Yield Strength for Multan States of Stress $3 High Temporaure Behavior 5SCold Wivk and Strain adenine — 57 Brite Fracture St Lamellar Tearing 62 Fatigue Strength @ {Corrosion Resistance ad Weathering Ste Selected References 67 66 CHAPTER 3 Tension Members. 71 Introduction 74 Nominal Stength 72 Novara 73 Efect of Staggered Hoes on Net Arca TH Effective Net area 78 Tearing Flue at Bol Holes 81 7 Slime ac Design Citron 84 Load Tansfer at Connections 84 ‘9 Load and Resstance Factor Design —Tersion Members 86 S10 Tension Rods 93 S11 Allowable tess Desizo—Tension Members 96 Seleted References 98 Problems 99 CHAPTER 4 Structural Fasteners 104 SL Types of fastens 108 42 Historica! Background of High-Strength Bolts 107 43 Canes of Rivet Obolscence 108 AY Detain or Highs Strength Bas 108 43 Installation Procedures 111 46 Nominal Seength of Fuividual Fasteners 114 47 Lol and Restance Factor Design Fasteners 119 48 Bxamples—Tenson Member Bearing-Type Connections ERED 124 49° Slip-Caitieal Joints 130 410 Allowable Sires Design —Faslencrs 134 S11 Examples Tension Memes Using Allowable Stress Design 4A2 coon Shear U8 413 Fasteners Acting in Avil Tension 157 413 Combined Sheurand Tension 161 4515 Shear and Tesnon fom Excenrie Lash Sekevted References 178 Problems 180 i)conTeNTs wv CHAPTER 5 Welding 188, $1 Iniraductin and Hisirial Development 188 52 Basie Procenes 190) 53 Weldapity of Suetaral Steel 198 35 Typesof ins’ 196 53 Typesof Weldh 198 56 Welding Symbols 20 5.7 Factors Afecting the Quality of Welded Connections 204 58 PosiblsDefecs in Welds 207 39. Inspection and Control 209 5.10 Economic of Welded Buileup Members and Connections. 211 Sl Sizeand Length Limitations for Fillet Wells 212 S12 Effective Areas of Welds 215 5.13 Nomina Strength of Welds” 217 SLL Load and Resistance Factor Desiga-—Welds 221 S15 Allowable Stress Design Welds 227 5.16 Welds Connecting Members Subject wo Disc Axial Load 231 S17 cere Shear Connections Strength Analysis 243 S18 eventie Shear Connections Elastic (Sector Analysis 251 S19 Loach Applic Exventi tothe Pane of Welds 258 Selected References 263, Problems 268 CHAPTER 6 Compression Members 276 PARTI: COLUMNS — 276 G1 Geserst 276 62 Bier Elastic Buckling and Witrieal Background 276 63 Basie Colum Sueagth 278, G4 Tnelive Bucking 284 65 Resa Sues 284 66 Devekyment of Column Strength Curves Including Residual Stress 287 7 Strutaral StabiiyReeaech Couned ISSRC} Strength Curves 205 GS Lead and Resseance ctor Devin 300 69 ‘Eflectne Length 308 6.10 Laid und Resstace Factor Design of Rolled Shapes (Sad M) Subject w Axial Compression 311 Alinable Stes Design 817 ‘Shear EMect 318 Design of Luticed Members 321 PARTI: PLATES 327 6.41 lateaton w Stailly of Plates 227 GIS Strenghof Plates ander Uniform Eige Compresion 3366.18 AISC Width/Thickress Limits A, 19 Achiove Yield Stress Without Local Plate Buckling 839 6.7 AISC Width/Thickeess Limits, 0 Asseve Signicant Plastic Deformation 342 6.18 AISC Prosisions to Aecoun for the Buckling and Poss Buckling Strengths OF Pate Elements 345 6.19 Design of Compression Members as Alieted by Local Buckling Provisions 351 Selected References 388 Problems 368 CHAPTER 7 Beams: Laterally Supported 370 TL tewroduction 370 72 Simpie Bending of Symmetrical Shapes 370 13 Behivior of Laterally Stable Bears 372 74 Laterally Supported Beams—Load and aesstance ctor Design 375 TS Lateally Supported Beams—Allowable Stress Design 381 716 Serviceability nf Beams 388, 7.7 Shear on Roled Beams 390 78 Conceatrted Loads Applied wo Rolled Bears 396 79 Holes in Beams 402 7.10 General Flexural Theory 408 TIL Bianal Bending of Symmewie Sesto 410 Selected References 415, Problems 418 CHAPTER 8 Torsion 424 8.1 Introduction 424 52 Pare Torsion of Homogencous Sections 425 53 StearStrsses Dae w Boning of Thin all Open Ceone-Sections 428 B4—ShearCemer 430 85 Torsional Stresses in Shaped Steel Seations. 432 8.6 Analogy Between Torsion and Plane Bending 83 87 Practical Situations of Torsonal Loading 447 88 Loud and Resistance Factor Desig for Torsion —Lateally Stable Beums 452 8.9 Allowable Stess Design for Torsion —Laterally Stable Beams 458 8.10 Torsion in Closed Thin-Wall Sections 458 811 Tonion in Sections with Open and Chased Parts 462 S12 Torsional Buckling 462 Selected References 469 Problems 471conrents i CHAPTER 9 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Beams 479 9.1. Rational Analogy wo Pure Columas 479, 92 Lateral Support 480 53 Siength of I-Shaped Beams Under Uniform Moment 482 94 Elastic Latera-Tersional Bucking 484 95 Incas LateralTorsonsl Bucking 488 9 Load ard Resistance Fator Desigh—I-Shaped Beams Subjected 1 Strong Axis Bending 491 on lawable Steve Design-—I-Shaped Beams Subjected to Swrong-Axis Bending 499 9.8 Effective Latrally Unbvaced Length S09 99 Examples: Load and Resistance Factor Design SII 9.10 Example: Allowable Stress Design $26 9.11 WeakvAxis Bending of FShaped Sections 532 9.12 Lateral Buckling of Channels, Zees, Monosymmeric -Shaped Sections ‘nd Tees $32 9.13 Lateral Bracing Design 542 9.14 Biaxial Bending of Doubly Symmetric LShaped Sections 555, Selected References 560 Problems 964 CHAPTER 10 Continuous Beams $71 Your Introduction — S71 102 Pasie Strength of « Staticaly Indeterminate Beart S71 103 Plasie Aral Load and Resistance Factor Design Examples S81 104 Elastic Analjis—Laad and Resitance Factor Design Example 596 105 Baste Analyss—Allowable tres Design Examples 598 106 Spices 60s Selected References 605, Probiems 606 CHAPTER 11 Piate Girders. 610 im "2 ns us 6 ur ts no Inirodustion and Hisorcal Devekpment 610) Difference Between Beam and Plate Gitdor 613 Vertical Plane Buckling Limit State 614 ‘Nomina! Montent Stongth-—Loud and Restance Factor Design 618 “Moment Surength—Alowable Stress Design 623, “Moment Strength Redvction Due to end:Buckling ofthe Web 624 Nominal Moment Stength—Hybeid Geders 631 Nominal heat Strength—Elasic and Inelastic Buckling 633. Nominal Shear Sirength—Inclding TensionFied Action 639contents 3120 Secngth in Combined Bending and Shear 619 TAL Inermedinte Tanserse Stifeners 654 112 Beanng Sitfener Design 651 1113 Longtail Web Stfeners 663 11.14 Proportioning he Section 665 IIS Plate Girder Design Example ERED 671 Selected References 693, Problems 695 CHAPTER 12 ‘Combined Bending and Axial Load 702 at Introduction 702 Dilernis) Equation fr Axiaf Compression and Bending 703 Moment Meznifestion —Sinplied Treatment foe Members in Single Curvature Without End Trarslaion 707 “Moment Magnifeation Members Subject to End Momeats Only: NoJoin Transition 7H) ‘Moment Magnification —Members with Sidesway Possible 713) [Nominal Strength- Testability inthe Plane of Bending 71S ‘Nominal Siength—Falure by Combined Bending and Torsion 717 Nominal Strength—Hateraction Equations 717 Bisnisl Bending 720 Lina and Resistance Ficlor Design Criteria 722 UUnbraced Frame -—Lond and Resistance Factor Design 127 Design Procedures —Load and Resistance Fac Design 734 Examples Lond and Resianee Facir Design 737 Alowable Suess Design Criteria 740 evgn Procedures-—Allowsble tess Design 766 Seketed References 774 Problems 777 CHAPTER 13, Connections 788 i 2 B3 6 Br Gs 59 ‘Types of Connections 788 Simple Shear onections 792 Seated Beam Connections —Unsifened 809 Siilfened Sear Connections 816 Triangular Bracket Plates 823 ‘Continous esmn-To-Columa Connections 828 ‘Continooos Hezino- Beam Conacctions 86 RigilFrume Kness 862 Colum Base Plates $70‘CONTENTS. ix 15.10 Beam Spices 876 Seleted References 881 Problems 888 CHAPTER 14 Frames—Braced and Unbraced 895 Mal General 895 142 Flas Buckling of Frames 899 M3 rocedre for Etective Length 907 a of Frames under Primary Bending Moments 907 14S Bracing Reguiements—Braced Frame 913 146 Overall Stabity When Plasic Hinges Form 918 Selected References 919 CHAPTER 15 Design of Rigid Frames 923 Is Inroduction 923 152. Plastic Analysis of One-Sory Frames 923 15.3 Load and Resistance Factor Design —One-Story Frames 935 154 Multstory Frames 981 Selested References 982 Prebloms 953 CHAPTER 16 Compost Steel-Concrete Construction 955 16.1 Historical Background 985 162 Composite Action 957 Ved Advantages and Disadvantages 959 164 Effective Width 960) 16.5 Computation of Elastic Seton Properties 962 166 Service Load Streses With and Without Shoring 965 16.7 Nominal Moment Strength of Fully Composite Sections $67 Shear Connectors 972 Hybrid Composite Giders 981 Composite Pleural Members Containing Formed Steel Deck 082 Design Procedure—Load and Resistance Fistor Design 983 Design Procedure—Allowable Stres Design 983 LLRFD Examples—Simply Suppored Beans 985 ASD Example—Simply Supported Beam 992 Deletions 995 Continuous Beams — 961617 Composite Columns 999 Selected References 1001 Problems 1008 APPENDIX 1007 TABLE A1 APPROXIMATE RADIUS OF GYRATION 1008 TABLE A2 TORSIONAL PROPERTIES — 1008 INDEX 1010Preface “The publication af this ert dion elects the continuing changes cecrsng i design sequlrement fr suctral sel. poriculal the fist sifcant updating bythe Amer en institute of Steel Cosiratin (AISC) of the Load end Resivance Factor Desi CLRED} Speciation for Srarral Ste! Balding. Design of sructura tea! members hae developed ver the pis 98 years fom 2 ‘spe approach olin a few be properties of te td eementarymatherais 10 2 ophistated trestment demanting thorough knowledge of sreteral and materi ‘behavior reson den pace utlzes knowledge of mechanics of Water, srr aly. abd particulary. structural stability @ combination with manly recognized ‘Seign rules for salty. The most Widely quod design sues ae those of the America lose of Stel Consruction (NISC), gic ia Load and Revstonce Factor Desi Specfation for Srucral Ste uli an Speiftion for Sractaral Set Bul ings Altace Siax Design and Pic Devin eeferted 0 hereuter a LRED Speciation and ASD Speefiation especie “The specie occrrence dictating eis Kurth din the gulbication ofthe 1983 LLRFD Speciation fetfecie December 1.1993) with Commentary. along withthe ontesponding LRED handbook, Maal of wel Conseuton Lo und Resistance Factor Design, 2nd alton. 1994, Volume U (Siracrural Members, Specifications. & Cones) sind Value I (Connections) References ure comtnied 10 the WHO ASD Speciation (effective Jue 1, 1989) with Commentry: and the cvreponding ASD hind, Mena! of Sie! Contraction —Allmuble Sires Deven and Plastic Dei. th Edion, 1989, Stel member and compponenhy ae ssid from tse handbooks referred to hereafter us LRAD Maal 30 ASD Man. “The fourth edition floes the same pisopical approach that has aie wide scceptate of wr since te fis ton Ws published in 1971. Ts edition cotiniss to asic presenti gical manner the theoreti! background needed fr develping and explaining dessn requirement, prticelry the of the 1993 LRED Sprcitstion Beginning with eoerape of backer material. isdn relerences fo Fetinent scars he development specie forms we inthe AISC Speciation alowed by sonorous umber of design examples explaining In dal the proves of sling iim weight member sas zen conditionsPREFACE Emphasis throughout tis our eon son the 1988 LRED Speciation, That speciation bane on stil se ads andthe esitances Wel sibtues| jet ovaries tes Bod effin, ssh ax bsoing moment she, nl fre, and fosional momen Tae rational exten of oth loads including Nod effets) and Festance ess nse siretures ning ore uf safety troyehout, This modern sop af design, discs only rif i one section af the secon eto, maine tsar ting the predominant approach to dss {Censlerabe exons han boon plced om presenting for te beginners Nl a6 the udsancd sudce the sew cane sd iaatc maby concepts. the under Sanding o hich essential wo propor ppl te design rls, The sme concept are fsppiable whether design is acconing’ Wo the LRFD Speciation or the. ASD Speciation. The explanation of ibility concept is incorporated nt he taps is ich way thatthe eadee may’ eter sud im detail the aby concepts ogc sequence rani posgone sy of sections otaising detailed Jevelopment merely Accepting qualitative npanation and poceeding iret to desig, ‘Ashi fourth edition s repre a majority of desig sil done according tothe tradiionalAllovable Stress Design ie, Working Sens Deng) That method facses On Service (working) ads and lst computed sexes, compatingthoe stress oth able ining values. However be kp teaver eat Set peara sould be toward tbe more rational Loot id Resance Fistor Deion Speciation. Stength ‘even phiksopy (reflected inthe 1986 and 1998 LRED Specifcation) anes tored erage lads and compares the seegth proved with sich cored leads or lead Sse). Thesrength it ay given case deers he “lumi Sa” or me ofan, Sch an ycing.frctre, or bushing. The tational “plastic design ineade a6 {Chaps ofthe 1989 ASD Speciation, ian option intepaly includ put of he RFD Speciation. “Thowghout the tex the deory ard bachround mer. ing common both the LRED and ASD plsoiss of design hie Been verted. The specie devin ‘roves nd lasetiveeximpcn se weve, eagerly in sepa sections thin the chaps that tary tay iter he Allowable Sree Desig the Usd and Restance Fair Desi ptions sera “The tet eto contin the we of Sluis an aon othe primary we ‘oF toh Pound uns Although neither the LRFD nor the ASD Speciation contains SU Uni some se of SI ite appease Ie tet LRED and ASD fel ve thee St fauialent conversions are the practical ones mode by the author sen a footnote ‘nthe fet pare containing the AISC-specthed Inch od wats. Tabs and grams feral contain bath Ich Pound ad Stans. Depending on the peatccny ried of the xen, this ext prides mate ria foe po autses of tres ofr semeircre burs each, 1 suggested ha the bearing ours in eel sactre fr undesradute ss ight conti he mail [Chapter F throu 7.9. 10, 12 and 16 except Sections 4, 66.612 19 6.19. 7910 FHI, 91849915. 98, 9.12409,14,amd 12.619 12.7, The second couse would review some (the same topics the te couse tut mre ap. emphasing ems mite ithe fit couse. br abltion, se Fetiningchaprs—-nately Chapter on lorsan, Chaplr Tes pate gies Chapter 13 om connections Chae [o frame, and Chapter 15 fon fame Sgn are sugested for incision, The primary philnophy emphasized in bv courses sul be Lag and Ressance Factor Desig‘The reader will need ready acces tothe LRFD Manual” thcustout the td of te ‘ext paisolrh when working With te examples, Hosexer: ene eben his tes thatthe reader become prfcent in the routine se of tbls the tables se¥s only {ha gide to obwining experience wih aration of sign parameters nd ae 28 Sirising a good deen The LRED Specification and Commentary ae contained Inthe [ERED Morual andar therefore nt inched 0 this book excep for varices nisi proxisons qoted sere they ate explaies. “The deat we ofthe compute snot specials employed an where inthe eX “The authors the to of Pas pecpes in the clasroom is he Bhan pint However the eer may find ha acquiring the dat seo standard section properties. fvalable for purchise fom AISC. sl he hapa. The authors recommend the ake of 3 Spreadsheet safware seas Lows 1-2-2 or Micronoft Exel, slong ih tha sea the htabse properties. estes ofthis fourth edition at: (1) detailed presentation of seeagt-reated hacksround and design sles for Loud and Resistance Factor Desig (2) af inepraled treatment of bth the 1993 Enad nd Renseanes Facto Dssign Speciation slg wih ‘he 1989 Allowable Stass Design Speciation ‘Other special features a Is fext are (3) comprekensie treatment of design of “-xhaped members sujet frson (Cheper 8-Inaing spied practical metho: (4) deta eaten of plate girder theory at relates o Loa and Resistance Factor Design (Chapter 1) anda comprehen dsge example of atwo-spancontinwus dee ting two fret gro wel (5) ete tear ment of connections (Chapter 13) Including significant dension and lation ofthe deg of components, Chapters ‘which nese extesvelyrewetan othe hid eition ty st LRFD appt othe 1986 seit, hve bee upted forthe 1983 LRED Speciation and improved fot ote Yea nd wndertaing 262 eeu of SBS fom aes The aus edb to stdens oleae nd et urs of he Ks tes cations wp ne sugstsed improvements of wording. the errors and recom ‘mended item or ncesion or dton The suggestions have been carefully comldeed resting ns complete evo, Te continued esoperation a lp of AISC toh Neste nani, Direct, Research and Codes. also appr “The ttt are etl adele a Dr. Robert E Andro ols State Let ‘sty fe his exonaive und dete maggesions to eee 70s and prove esty ‘paring al eager The detailed suzzetins rn Dr, Patrick. Zaank of Coulian State University rgarng Chapt [= are sincerely apres Special thane are duc Dr. Dil C. Salon of the Buy ofthe Univers of [eashiLineoin for his many snc sagzestons and ace reardiag the etre smanasstip SRA LAPD Sect Coes an asc paxiv PREFACE ne suoes abo acknoweage with thanks ie comments ad sugestons ein inaterrs iron clarity. and general improve vob: by Dr. Thomas M. Mure fof Vezina Posten: Tastus, De. Gary 1. Krats of the Unversy € Nebraska Lincoln Dr. Abdl-Hamil Zarek of Georgia Insite of Tecnolegy abd Dr. Grezory c G. Deen of Corl Unversity {Users his fourth edition are urged to comarca with he authors paring aspects of his book patculars om identi fers and suggestion or improve “The serior autor affectionately dedicates this Book in emery of his Ite wie ‘Bere Saino, fo er pllnee ahd encouragemest thaugh he Test eee eons, Carle G, Salmon Join E Johnson — February 1995 SeConversion Factors sen ne Pond Un ra iV, Ue a sina ce SeuChapter 1 Introduction 4.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN Sirvtural design may be defined as @ mistare of art and science combining the Mpurtencad engineers inutvefeling for he behavior of structure with a sound Ceeicte ofthe prvcples of sacs, danas, mechani of materials, and struc. reat netsh produce a safe economical structure tha wil serve ts intended pepo. ‘att about 1850, structural design was largely an art eelying on inition fo determine the size and asrangement of whe siractural elements, Early man-made iy conform those which could also Be observed in nature, suc ichea, As the prinipies governing the behavior of stretures ane 2 para anaes hive become beter wadestond. xn procedures have become sore sient aethations involving sce principles should seve as a ade wo deiion making a notte followed bey. The art or inne abiiy ofthe experienced ‘elmer uiized to make the decisions. ide by he computations ress 1.2 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN ‘Design isa process by which an optimum souton is obtained nts ext te concern pen the Senn af artes pica. set structures, any design, eral at mua be established to vate whether or nt ax optima has bse sieved Fae itunes typical eriria may be (a) mintoum cents (b) iim weigh Fo" Snr construction ine: mim [bor isin cost of manufatere 1G Bane’: products, and (7) maximum efficiency of operation to owner. Usual aera ave invotved, cach of which may require weighting. Observing the TARE oul crtera,ihmsy be apparent tat setting ecarly mcrae enteia sey eae and eos forestablishing an optimum fequensy willbe ificl, and (tape mpi. Ino practical tation, de evaleation mast Be qualita Me neejne bjetveetron cas be expressed mathematical then ouiina: sion ech gues ay be employed to obtain # maxim oF nim for te objectivefaction. Opinization procure and tsniguss comprise an ene subject that ‘outside the scope of this tex. The citron of eininam wei i emphasized {roughout ander the general ssnpion that minum materia epresens mi fu cost, Other subjective criteria tbe kept in mind ven though the nkegraion ‘of behavioral principles with design of sical Met clement i this text ules ‘only simple cbjctve criteria ch a weigh es Design Procedure The design proceuse my be comiderol to be comps of ow pacts—fanetional design and structural Irumowork design, Panctioal design eases that intended resuls are achieved, sich 3s (a adequate working areas apd clearances: (b) proper entiation andfor air conditioning: fe) adequate tramsportation faites, sich a ‘evar, surwag nd cranes orto handing equipment: adegate light Ing and ie) attic. “The stun framework deen ithe skction ofthe arangement and sizes of strat element so that service Toads maybe sel cated and isplacements re within acepiable lini13 MISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF STER STRUCTURES 3 “The iterative design procedre may be outlined 48 flows 1. Plonning.Esablishmentof the unetions for sich he sactare mus serve Set ertevia against which fo niesure the resting Jesyn for being 40 psimum, 2, Preliminary structural configuration. Atrngemment ofthe elements fo serve the funtion ia sep 3. Establishment ofthe loads wo be cacie, & Preliminary member selection. Based on the decisions of tps 1,2. and 3 Selection of the member sizes o sity sn objective eaterion suchas kas tweight or eos. ‘8 Anas, Stroctral analysis ivotsing odsing the loads and the structaral framework o obtain intro forces and any desited defections. 6, Bvaltaion Areal seagth and szviceabiltyrequtemens satisfied aad the result optimucn? Compare the result with predetermined ene 17. Redesign, Repetition of any par ofthe sequence I through 6 found neces Sar of desirable asa est 0” evaluation, Steps 1 dough 6 represat an erative process, Usiaiy inthis text only steps 3 through 6 wil be subject to this iteration since the tractral configuration an external loading wil be prescribed 8 Final decision The devermination of whether or tan optimum design has been sciove, 1.8 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF STEEL STRUCTURES. Mets as.a structural material been with east eon used on 2 100-1 (30m) are span ‘sti was but in England 1777-1779 [1.1] A numberof easton bidges were built daring the psi 1780-1820, mostly arch-shaped with main srdersconsising 0-130 Orato 620) estas) fs ro. “Host! tert 66) 70-898) 5) Apomea ows 7 in tsesasy ay cratesy “SD s0=100 Tt 2 is) 8S) "as) AsoGaaso 4075) 58.38) force ds ASua10} 1804) Gee) SK) 8518S) AmGweene Pn we. a 90) t8) ‘iso, crteso os we ay Bas) G0) Go ceateco 0 is wit was Grate 65 os 0 Wit nasTABLE 214. (Continue) 21 STRUCTURAL STEELS 48 ‘07 Ga Cras ‘Grae 68 ate Crake 168 Gs CT ‘Gudea rate sow cat 100 ‘S100 vr 51 Gre Grae 68 Grae 10 Moetun S034) Ss\i80) aavsiss sso) 50.330) S045) 0048) 4) 85) ss) ‘war ssn) ross) s Maxum Terie eens ASTI AG fwereh —ferpaies “reuse te fn ver es om shapes omses — oretns. - ‘ino Sous S380) ssa; $680) S00) 265) Souls) fe Tievalle a0 Tea 7 0-550) “G0 cs “o0) ™ wa au 20-750) “Gon, 102-130 Over 24 cones) ei tio-30 ap 0-0) “eh 6202750) “00, 75 20) s01580) 90,620) produ AISC Spain 15,1] ep ABI A “Astacio ape 3 MSs nea Et tsa te eh cnc crane magnus api Jn ASTAU AOIAEM 18) and inte AISE Manes 118) seas Atenas ate acl ASTM Speccnton4 CHAPTER 2 STEELS ANO PROFCRTIES AST seater 5 hae | Alas ied ve oped ert AISE Spectatos -5 120 epe N Cenmsnoao8 ‘ele blige cosracon we odontal only spony Ge 98 ‘Sap ne heed wld a ea a “Seta ohne Hen het il. eg eel in Gras 42d Sony sal pede eo gen “Sera stipes i Sci pce hon eer: trina 1 3 1006 ras eae wae epee tec io Aa concen see tmp22 FASTENEASTEEL2 47 Figure 24.1 Typical stress-strain cures 2.2 FASTENER STEELS ‘The detailed treatment of the design of threaded fasteners appears in Chapter 4. A brief description of the materials used for bolts appears in he following paraeraphs. ‘The headings are the ASTM specification exace ties. ‘A307 [2.4], Carbon Stee! Bolts and Studs, 60,000 psi Tensile Strength ‘This material i wed fo what are commonly referred tas “machine bolts," These are usually used only for temporary installations. Included are Grade A bolts for general applications, which have 2 manimum tensile stength of 60 ksi (415 MPa); and Grade B bol for flanged joints in piping systems where one or both flanges arc cast iron. The Grade B bolts have 4 muasimum tensile strength limitation of 100 ksi (700 MPa). No well-defined yield point is exhibited by these bols, and no ranimum Yield strength (for instance, 0.2% offset strength) is specified A325 [2.5], High-Strength Bolts for Structural Stee! Joints ‘This quenched and tempered mesdum carbon steele wsed for blts commonly known as “high-strength structural bolts," or high-strength bolts. This material has maxt- ‘mum carbon of 0.30%. lis heat-treated by quenching and hen by rebeating (temper48 cHaer A449 (2.71, ‘A490 [2.8], Tensile Str ER 2 STEELS AND PROPERTIES ing) to a temperature of at least 800°F, This steal behaves in a tension tet more similarly to the hear-ueated I-alloy stels than to carbon steel. It has ax ultimate tensile strength of 105 ksi (733 MPa) (110 1 -in-diam bots) 0 120 ks (838 MPa) Go Lin-diam bots). Is yield strength, measured at 0.2% ole, iv prescribed at SL ksi (365 MPa) minimum for 1310 1(-in-diam bolts, and 92 ks (643 MPa) for bolts to L in. diam Gee Table 4.1: Quenched and Tempered Steel Bolts and Studs “These bolts have tensile strengths ard yield steesss (strength at 0.2% offset) the same 4s,A325 for bolts 1 in diam and smuller; however, they have the regular instead of heavy) hetagon head aod longer theead length of A30" bolts, They are also available in diameters up 3 in, The AISC Specifications [15,116] permit use of Ad4 bolts, ‘only for certain structural joints reqnising diameters exceeding | in. and for high strength anchor bolts and threaded ros. Heat Treated, Steel Structural Bolts, 150 ksi (1035 MPa) rength ‘This material has carbon content that may range up to 0.53% for 1 nium bol, and has alloying elements in amousts similar the AS14 [2.11] sees. After quench= ing ino, the aerials tempered by reheating to at least 900°F. The vinimam yield strength, obtained by 0.2% offit, ranges from 115 ksi (803 MPa) (ver 240.14 in iam) 40 130 ks (908 MPa) for 2 in. diame and under, Galvanized High-Strength Bolts In order to provide corrosion protection, A325 holts may be galvanized. Hot-ip {galvanizing requires the molten zinc temperature to be in the range of the heat ‘restment temperature; thus, the mechanical properties obtained by heat treatment may be diminished, Whenever galvanized bots are use, the nuts must be “oversized.” Ifthe nuts ave also galvanized, they’ must be “double oversized.” Steels having tensile strength in the range of 200 ksi or higher are subject to hydroper embrittlement when hydrogen is permitted to remain inthe stel and high tensile stress is applied, The intraduction of hydrogen occurs dusing the pickling operation ofthe galvanizing process andthe subsequent “sealing-in” of the hydrogen tnd zine coating [2.24], The minimom tensile strength of A325 bots is wel below the tical 200 ksi range. On the other hard, A490 bots have a maximum tensile strength OF 170 ksi a value considered too close to the entical range. Thus, galvanizing of ‘8490 bolts is not permitted. 2.3 WELD ELECTRODE AND FILLER MATERIAL ‘The detited treatment of welding und welded connections appears in Chapter 5. The clectrodes use in shielded metal are welding (SMAW) (see Sec. 5.2) also serve as the filer materia! and ate covered by American Welding Society (AWS) AS.1 and [ASS Specifications [2.25], Such consumable electrodes are clasiied EOOXX,24 STRESS STRAIN TABLE2311 ELECTRODES UScD FOR WELDING HAVIOR (TENSION TEST] AT ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES Sihided Sioned «Gases owed Wweane wating wisn weidrg «Mn Gum Sawn Gia fea ANSAG! ANSE? aWSaSte AWSaszo | _S! crass "wrasza—weabae eras) Pa FOXSEXNX BS rox HRSX MTX Fr 45 sox & Foxxx ext esos SS soaxx Soo FrowKENax fos sot is ioe oo Finacen as eux 8 os “Pl sui rapremeatanerby ANSDI IES) machi wri s num sn os) ra Ginn as 70-9) 485-055 Omi $80 s0"100 $sh-600 mie S30 oon 690 Too"130 —o-kos ron 130 Moe ho-3s 49 [ETOXX, ESOXX, E9OXX, E1OOXX, and ELOXX. The “E" denotes electrode, The frst ow cits indicate the tensile iength Ks; thus the tensile strength range from {60 t 110 ksi (414 t0 760 MPa). The "X's" represent numbers indicating the usage of the electrode, For submerged arc welding (SAW) (se See. 52), the electrodes which also Serve a filler material are specified under AWS AS.17 and A5.23. The wel-electrose combinations are designated FEXXEXXX, FIXX-EXXX, etc. up t0 FIIAX-EXXX ‘The “F” designates a granular Mux material that shields the weld as itis made. The frst one or two of the three digits following the “F” indicate the tease strength (6 means 60 ksi, 11 means 10 ks). The “E" stands for electrode and the other X's represent numbers relating 1 use. The yicld suesses and tensile srengty of com- monly used electrodes are given in Table 23. 2.4 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR (TENSION TEST) AT ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES ‘Typical stress-strain curves for tension are shown in Fig 21.1 for the three categories, of steel alrendy discussed: carbon, high-strength low-alloy, and heat-treated high: strength lovwalloy. The same behavior occurs in compression when support i pro vide so as to preclude buckling. The portion of each ofthe stzess-strait curves of Fig. 2.1.1 chat is utlized in ordinary design is shown enlarged in Fig. 2.4.150 CHAPTER 2 STEELS AND PROPERTIES 2 ere ome oon, i [Bess opee eet Pil Figure 24.1 Enlarged ypical stress-strain curves for diferent yield seses, ‘The stress-strain curves of Fig. 2.1.1 are determined using a unit siress obtained by dividing the load by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen, and he strain (inches per inch) is obtained as the elongation divided by the original length. Such Ccuves are known ab engineering siessrain curves and ese co a maximum sess level (known asthe tensile strength) and then falloff with increasing stain until they terminate as the specimen breaks. Insofar a the material itself is concerned, che unit ‘ress continues 10 se nti failure eccurs. The so-called true-stress/rue:strain ‘cave is obtained by using the actual cross-section even after necking down begins and using th instantaneous incremental seis, ‘Strese-stain curves (as per Fig. 241) show a straight line relationship up 10 @ point krown asthe proportional limi, which essentially coincides withthe yield point for most structural steels with yield poins not exceeding 65 ksi (450 MP2). For the ‘quenched and tempered low-lloy sees the deviation from a straight line occurs {radually, asin curve (@), Fig. 24.1, Since the term Yield point is ot appropriate to ‘ouve (eyelid strength is used for the sess at an offiet sain of 0.2%; or alerna- wey, 2 0.5% extension under lal, as shown in Fig 2.4.1. Weld stress the general term to clude the unit stress a a yield point, when one exists, othe yield strength, ‘The ratio of sires t0 strain in the initial straight line region is known as the modulus of elasticity, or Youns's modus, E, which for structural steels may be taker25 MATERIAL TOUGHNESS 51 ‘appeosimatsy’ 36 29.000 ksi (200,000 MPa). In the staighe-ine resin, long and unloading results i so permanent deformation: hence itis the elosic range. The service load unit stress in sel design is always intended w be safely below the ‘proportional limit, even though in ordre ascertain safety Fciors agaist failure or excessive delormation. knowledge Is required of abe stress-strain behavior up to a Strain about £5 t9 20 times the maximum elastic sain, For steels exhibiting yield points, as curves (a) and (b) of Fig. 2.41, the long. plateau for which essetially constant sres exists is known as he plastic range. The Tod and resistance factor design method consciously uses this range. The higher strength sels typified hy curve ca Fig, 24.{ also have a tepion that might be called the plastic range: however, in tis Zone the stress is continuously increasing (instead of remalning constant) as strain creases. For lack of having a region of constant stress with increasing strain, the sels wlose yield stress exceeds 65 ksi are a0 ‘permitted to be used for plastic analysis (LRFD-AS.\ and ASD-N2), Plastic analysis (reated in Chaps. 7 and 10) relies onthe ability of sel to deze strain) at constant For stains greater than 15 1 20 times the maximum elastic strain, the sess agsin increases but with a much fatter slope than dhe original clastic lope. This increase in ssength is calle strain hardening, which continues up 9 the tensile siength. The slope of the stress-strain curve is known a5 the strsin-hardening mod ‘les, E,. Average values fortis tdulus and the strain , a which i begins have been Setermined [2.26] for evo steels: A36 steel, ,, = 900 ksi (6200 MPa) at, = (0.014 in. per in: and for A441, E, = 700 ksi (4800 MPa) at, = 0.021 in, pe i. ‘The strain-hardening range is not coasciously used in desips, but certain of the bckling limitations are conservatively derived to preclude buckling even at stains well beyond onset of strain hardening. ‘The stress-strain curve also indicates the dtilty. Ductlity is defined as the amount of permanent strain (1e. strain exceeding proportional limit) upto the point Of fracture. Measuremen of ductility is obtained from the tension test by determining the percent elongation (comparing final and original lengths over a specified gage Uistance) of the specimen. Duetlity is important because it permits yielding locally Adu to high stesso and thus allows the stress cstibution to change, Design proce- ‘dures based on inelastic behavior require large inherent ducsility, pariculaiy for treatment of stresaes near holes or abropt chase in member shape, as well as for design of connections. 2.5 MATERIAL TOUGHNESS “The use of steels having higher strength than A36 without beat treatment has rested in problems relating Tack of ductility and materish facture (2.28) at east the use of ‘sch stocls requlfes the structural engineer tbe more enscious of material behavior In strtural steal design, toughness @ measure of the ability of steel to resist fracture: ie to absorb energy. Accordiag to Rolfe [2.27], material toughness is defined as “the resistance 1 unstable crack propagation in the presence ofa notch.”52 CHAPTER. STEELS AND PROPERTIES Unstable crack propagation produces bs growth ofa subertcal crack trom fatigue For unas tension, roughness can be expresed as the toa area under the stces-sirain curve cut 1 the facture point where the diagram terminates. Since Uniasal tension early exists in real stctures, a more useful index of toughness is tase on the more complex stress condition a the rot of a note. Notch roughness i the measure of the resstance of a metal 0 the stat and propagation ofa crack atthe hase ofa standard notch, commonly using the Charpy notch tet, Ths test uses a small rectangular simply sepported beam having a ‘V-notch at midlenath, The bar is factured by alow fom a swinging pendulum, The amount of energy absorbed is calculated from the height the pendulum ruses alter breaking te specimen. The amount of energy absorbed will increase with increasing temperature at which the tests conducted, "Though the Charpy V-notch fest has been a common means of determining notch toughness, other Fracture criteria and more revenly fracture mechanics have been used (2.27) Barsom and Rolfe [2.29] and Barsom [2,30, 2.31 Jhave excellently presented the important factors relating wo fracture of see. Figure 2.5.1 shows the typical relationship between temperature and toughness, tnd also shows the transition Irom dict o bitte behavior. such as one may obtain from the Charpy V-notch test. The temperature atthe point where be slope is seepest (point A of Fig 2.5.1) ithe transition femperstore, Since beitleness and ductility are ‘qualitative terms, the varius structural steele have differen requirements for ductility ft various temperatures depending on their service environment (leading. tempera ture, stess and strain levels, loading fate, and number of lad repetitions) For example, a moderate amount of ductility may be required for ordinary structures where very low lemperatures ae not expected: in sach cases, 15 feb has tle froeture, as apposed 0 stable creck of Seesgey ee ® ae Nim Figure 25.1 Transition temperature curve for carbon see! obnined from Charpy ‘V-notch mo tess. dap rom Re. 220)26 VeLD STRENGTH FOR MULTIXAL STATES OF STRESS 59 commonly been the enemy absorption required. The corresponding temperature jebiained from the test resus shown in Fig. 25.1 would be abou {7"F The temper tue at which marked deetease in slope begins to occur is known as the diclity transition tenperatare, This would indicate tha the material may Be expected to be brite when service temperatures ae below 17°F. 2.6 YIELD STRENGTH FOR MULTIAXIAL STATES OF STRESS Only when the load-carrying member is subject 10 niaxial tensile stress ca the properties from the tension est be expected to be identical with those of the structural member. Icis easy 0 forget that yielding in 9 real srucure is usually nor the well- defined behavior observed in the tension test. Yielding #8 commonly assumed to be achieved when any one component of sires reaches the eslawal valve F, For all states of stress ther than naa, «definition of yieking is needed, ‘These definitions, and there are frequently several fora given state of sires, are alle Yield conditions (or theories of failure) and are equations of interaction between the Stresses acting. Energy-of-Distortion (Huber-von Mises-Hencky) Yield Criterion ‘Tis most conmonly accepted theory gives the wail yield stress in terms of the thee principl sttesies, The yelderterion® may be sated ia, ~ 9: ad + o)') e6) where 0, 04 are te tensile or compressive stresses that sc inthe thre principal directions. the sesses that atin the three mutually perpendicular plans of 210 shear, and 0, is the “yield stress" that may be compared withthe uniaxial valve F For most structural design stations, one ofthe principal sess i either zero ‘or small enough be neglected: hence Ea. 26-1 reduces tothe following forthe case ofthe plane sess Gl sresses considered ace acting in» plane) 262) ‘When stresses on tin lates are involved, the principal stress acting transverse © the Plane of the plate is usually zeto (atleast first-order approximation) Flexural Stresses on beams assume Zero principal sess perpendicular tothe plane of bending Furthermore, structural shapes Fig 1.5.1) are comprised of thin plate elements, so ‘that cach i subject to Eg. 2.6.2, The plane sess yield erterion, Fg, 26.2, i the one ‘sed throughout the remaining chapters where needed, ai illustrated in Fig. 2.6.1 See Ath Boe. Richard J. Schmit and Omar Mido, Advanced Mecanes of Mori ve New Nore Don ey & Sos ne. 195: p. 38138,5 CHAPTER? STEELS AND PROPERTIES t -.—-D—-# t igure 26. Energy-c-dstorton yi criterion for plane ares ‘Shear Yield Stress “The yc point for pureshear can be determine from astess-stran cure wit shear loading, or if the malta yield esteron ic known, that relationship con be used. Pure sear occurs on 45" panes tthe principal planes when; ~ 0; andthe shear sures 7 = 0, Substation of; = —o io Eq. 262 ves o} = at + 03 — of-a) = 307 263) = oJNG = shear yield 264) hich nites thatthe yee conton for shear ses ating alone is a,/V3 = 0580, 265) Poisson's Ratio, 42 ‘When tess i applied in one direction, strains are induced not only i the direction cof applied siress but also in the other two mutually perpendicular directions. The usual ‘value of jase is that obtained from the uniaxial sess condition, where itis the ratio ofthetransverse strain longitudinal stain under load, For structral sees, Poisson's ratio is approximately 0.3 in the elastic ange where the material is compressible27 HIGH TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR 55 ‘and approaches 05 when in the plastic range where the atrial is esseatially incom- pressible (ie. coxstant resistance no matter what the strain), ‘Shear Modulus of Elasticity Loading in pure shar produces stress-strain curve with straight line portion whose slope represents the shear modulus of elasticity If Poissons ratio and the tension- compression miodalus of elasticity are known, the shoar modulus Gis defined bythe theory of elasticity as * 2, On oe hich for srictral sels stoner 1,000 ks (78.800 MP. 2.7 HIGH TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR “The design of suuctres to serve under atmosphere temperature rarely involves concer abot hightemperature behavior. Knowle of ck behavior i desabie when specifying Welding procedures, ane iS necessary when concerned with the fost of fe ‘Whon temperatures exceed about 200°F (93°C), the stress-sraincurve bein ‘become nonlinear gradually eliminating the well-defined yield point The modulus of ‘elasticity, yield strength, and tensile trenath all reduce a temperature increases. The ange from 800 1 LOKFF (430 to SA0°C) i where the rate of decrease is maximum, ‘While each steel, because ofits different chemistry and microstructure, behaves somewhat differetly, the general relationships are shown in Fig. 2.7.1. Ste's having relatively high percentages carbon, such as A36, exhibit “strain aging” inthe range 300 0 700°F (150 to 370°C). Ths s evidenced by a relative rise in yield strength and tensile strength is that range. Tensile strength may rise to about 10% above that st oom temperature and yield stength may recover abou its room temperature valve ‘when the temperature resches $00 10 600°F (260 ro 320°C), Stain aging results in eereased ductility, “The modulus of elasticity decreas is moderate up to 1000°F (540°C); thereafter 1 decreases rapidly. More importantly, at temperatures above about 500 to 600°F (250 to 320°, steels exhibit defarmetion which incteases with increasing time under Jad, a phenomenon kaaun as creep. Creep is wel known in concrete structures; and its effect in steel, which does not occur at atmospheric temperatures, increases with increasing temperature ‘Other high temperature effects are (a) improved notch impact resistance up 10 about 150 10 200°F (65 10 95°C), as discussed in Se. 2.5; (byincreased britleness due ‘to metallrpical changes, such as carbide precipitation discused in Set. 2.1, beg to ‘occur at about 950°F (510°C); and (€) corrosion resistance of structural ste in- ‘ereases for temperatures up fo about 1000" (540°C), Most stels are used in applica tions below 1000°P, and some heat treated steels should be Kept below about 800°F 300).5 CHMPTER 2 STEELS AND PROPESTIES Rant ese I i Figure 27. Typlol eects of high temperature on sts ftrin car properties af stucturl steels. (Adapted from Ret. 226)28 COLO WORK AND STRAINHARCENNG 87 2.8 COLD WORK AND STRAIN HARDENING Alter the strain ¢, = F./E, at frst yield has been exceeded appreciably: and the Specimen is unloaded, reloading may’ give a stress-strain relationship difeing from that observed during tbe inital loading. Elastic loading and unleading tests ia 20 Id point, suchas © poinc A of residual strain: however, inl loading beyond the » ing toa ain at point B.A permanent st OB has occurred Fig, 2.8.1, results in umlo ‘The ductility capacity has been cedaced fom a stain OF tothe srain BF. Reloading exhibits behavior as ifthe sres-strain origin were at point B: the plastic zone prior to strain hardening s also reduced. When loading has occurred until point C is reached, unloading follows the dashed line to point Die, the erigin fora new loading ts now point D. The length of the Tine CD is greater, indicating that the yield point has increased. The increased yield point is referred to asa strain hardening effect; the ductility temaining when ‘rom point D is severely reduced from its original value prior w the initat doa loading. The processof loading beyond the elastic range to cause a change in available phetic temperature, is known 38 cold work, Since real ly. when done ata ‘Sructufes are not loaded in uraxial tension-compeession, the cold work effect is ut ‘much more complex, and any theoretical stdy ofits outside the scope of the text ‘When stroctaral shapes are made by esldorming from plates at atmospheric temperature, inelastic deformations oceur at the hes, Cold working ino the stain hardening range at the bend locations increases the yield strength, which design | see a i elasonstip 5 sung ly pat jE ott et of veo Figure 28:1 Eset of string beyond the elas ange,58 Figure 282 Etet of srsin aging ater sessing into steao-hardesing rate and unleadig. specifications may permit taking ito account. The Specifcaion forthe Design of Cold-Formed Stee! Structural Menbers* [1-11 bas such provisions. Upon wnloading and ater 3 period of time, the steel will have acquired different properties from those represeates by points D, C, and F of Fig. 28.1 by a phe- hhomenon known as strain eging. Stain aging, as shown in Fig. 28.2 produces an {addtional inereae in yield point, restores aplastic zone of constant sires, and gives ‘new sirain hardening 7006 at an elevted stress. The original shape ofthe siress= ‘rain diagram is resor:d, bur the ductility is reduced, The new stress-strain diagram ray be uted as if it were the original for analyzing cold-formed sections, as long as the ductility that remains i sufficient. The corner regions of colé-frmed shapes ‘generally would not require high ductility for rotational strain about the axs of the bend. ‘stress relieving by annesling will eliminate the effects of cold work shoul that be desired, Annealing involves heating to a temperature above transformation range and allowing slow cooling; a recrystallization occurs to restore the orignal properties. BBittence [232] provides an excellent summary ofthe bases of heat eating. 2.9 BRITTLE FRACTURE ‘As has been discussed in several sections, te! that i ordinarily ductile ean become brittle under various conditions. ‘Barsom [2 30, 2.31], Barsom and Rolfe [2.29], and Rolfe [2.27] hve provided an excelent summary of fracture and fatigue control for stractual engineers. Rolfe Reeron hancfrth a he AISI Spin28 GRITTLE FRACTURE 59 [2.27] defines dvr fracture as “a type of catastrophic flare that scours without Prior plastic deformation and at extremely high speeds.” Fracture behavior is afected by temperature, loading rate, sess level, flaw size, pate thickness or constraint, jth seometry, and workmanship, Effect of Temperature [Notch toughness, 35 determined the Charpy’impact energy vs temperature curves Gee See, 2.5), is an indication of the susceptibility to brite facture, Temperature is vital ctor in several ways: (athe value below whic notch toughness is inadequate: () the 600 to 800°F (320 to 430°C) range causes formatin of bite rnicrstrecture and (6) over 1000°F (540°C) causes precipitation of carbides of slaying elements to sive more brite mucrostrcture. The othe temperature factors have already been tiscused in earlier sections Effect of Multiaxiat Stress: ‘The complex stress condition found in usual structures, particulasly at joints, is nother major factor affecting brtleness. The Primer on Britle Fracture [2.33] has provided an excellent rational presentation of this and forms the basis for what follows. The engineering stress-strain curve i for uniaxial stess; prior to fracture s ‘necking down occurs a shown in Fig. 2.912 If biaxial lateral loading as shown in Fig. 29.1b could be appliod, plastic necking down could be suppressed to the point where the bar would break in 4 brite maaner withoot elongation and without redve tion in area. The fractute stress based on the unreduced cross-sectional rea-sntld be the same high value as that based on the necked-down eross section jn the uniaxiat tension case, Te unit stress would be far above the nominal maximuru tensile strength, \ | Tiana (aah ae) Figure 2.9. Uniawil and wisi! loading