Explosive Compaction of Powders, Principle and
Prospects
Introduction
It is the wish of each powder metallurgist to possess a
press with great capacity for developing high pressures.
Hard powders especially are difficult to compact. For this
reason the Hot Isostatic Pressing procedure was developed.
Explosive compaction on the other hand can develop very
high pressures, dynamically applicable to powders. Not
only relatively high densities of green compacts (approxi-
mately 100% of theoretical density) can be achieved but
also the technique has the potential for synthesizing new
materials. The main features of the method are explained
and a survey of recent developments is given.
The Direct Method of Explosive
Compaction
There exist several methods of explosive compaction.
For instance, a piston can be accelerated explosively in a
gun barrel, strike a holder containing powder and compact
the powder. Another method consists of a metal container
submerged in water in a closed vessel. When an explosive
charge is detonated in water the powder is compacted.
Today these methods of explosive compaction play a minor
role in applications. Gas guns, however, are important for
research purposes in order to investigate the physical
parameters and shock wave behavior during dynamic
compaction.
The arrangement for direct explosive compaction is
rather simple [l-71. A metal tube is filled with powder,
closed with end plugs, and surrounded symmetrically with a
layer of explosive of proper detonation velocity. When the
detonation is initiated at the upper end of the container, a
ring-shaped detonation front travels in axial direction over
the container, compressing it in a similar manner as in an
extrusion press. The magnitude of the pressure is controlled
by the detonation velocity of the applied explosive, ranging
from VD = 1700 m/s to VD = 8400 m/s and giving a pressure
range up to 30 GPa.
Higher pressures can be obtained using two coaxially
arranged tubes [8, 91. The inner tube is the container for the
powder to be compacted. The outer tube, called the driver
tube, is arranged coaxially with a space of about double its
thickness and is surrounded in the same manner with an
explosive as described in the previous method. The differ-
ence from the first method is that during detonation of the
outer layer of explosive the driver tube is accelerated to a
high velocity. When it collides with the container tube, very
high pressures are generated. The amount of pressure can
be calculated from the velocity of the driver tube and
shock-impedance data (product of shock wave velocity and
specific gravity) of the materials of the tubes involved.
410 0933-5137/89/1212-0410$02.50/0
R. Prummer
Explosive Compaction versus Isostatic
Compaction
When pressure is applied to an encapsulated powder
during isostatic compression, each volume element of the
powder undergoes the same densification with time (if
friction at the container wall is neglected). In explosive
compaction, however, a compaction wave travels through
the powder with the velocity of sound of the powder,
leaving consolidated material behind.
Shock Wave Configuration
As the shock wave proceedes from the container wall
towards the center of the sample two opposing effects
determine the strength of the shock wave:
- The shock wave is a converging one, so its pressure and
velocity increases with decreasing radius.
- Energy is consumed during compaction by plastic defor-
mation of ductile particles or crushing of brittle particles,
causing the shock-wave intensity to attenuate while
proceeding towards the center of the cylindrical sam-
ple.
It is the aim to allow both processes to compensate each
other. Only in this case is a uniform densification over the
cross-section of the cylindrical sample obtainable [5, 71.
This means that a conical shock wave configuration has to
be achieved. Many investigations therefore have been
made to determine the shock wave front during compaction
of cylindrical samples. The simplest way is to apply an
X-Ray flash, like shown in Fig. I. The sample is photo-
graphed from a side position during explosive compaction.
Since the exposure time of the X-Ray flash is only 120 ns,
the detonation front proceeding at velocity VD = 3500 m/s,
can be observed.
The high pressure is obtained by accelerating the con-
tainer tube in the radial direction. A shock wave is created
this way in the powder. In the case shown in Fig. 1 of the
compaction of an aluminium powder, indeed the shape
obtained is that of a hollow cone.
When powders with large specific gravity or when large
diameter samples are compacted a different method is used
to determine the shock wave configuration. Electrically
isolated pins are arranged at different radial positions in the
powder. When struck by the shock wave, the pins give rise
to a signal which can be recorded by means of an
oscilloscope or counter. For an explosive compaction of
tungsten powder with parameters leading to a uniform
density over the cross section of the sample, the shock
configuration was measured [lo] this way and is shown in
Fig. 2. It indeed is of the shape of a hollow cylindrical cone,
as expected.
Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 20, 410-415 (1989)
0 VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, D-6940 Weinheim, 1989
 t
c

vcrdichlclcs Material
40i
expand. Schwaden

Behiiller mrndung / Vcrdichtungswelle l ' ' ' ' i ' ' ' ' l ' ' ' ' l ' ' ' ' l ' ' " l ' " ' l ' ~ ' ' l ' ' ~ ~
Yo1 Delomllon\ -80 -40 40 80
Dirtanca from axis at symmetry (mml
Detonalionsfronl

T VD
Explosivsloff

Behallnis fur
Explosivsloff
Fig. 3. Shock front in explosive compaction of tungsten powder
[lo], simulated [12] by the HEMP-code [Ill.

N verdichlendcs Another means to control the shock-wave configuration

Pulvcr
Ronlgenblitzaufnahrne eincr Explosivvndichlung
Fig. 1. Explosive Compaction of Aluminium powder. X-ray flash
pattern, revealing the shape of the shock front as a hollow one.
is computer modeling. The HEMP-code [ll] was devel-
oped and applied for modelling of explosive compaction.
Using Priimmer's [lo] experimental data, Reaugh [12]
simulated the shock wave configuration during explosive
compaction of tungsten, as shown in Fig. 3. Also in this
case, as expected a shape of a hollow cvlindrical cone for the
shock wa;e front is ohained.
It is interesting to note also that the pressures necessary
for Of tungsten, Obtained
and by computer modeling, correspond well [121-Comput-
er modeling is a good tool to forecast experiments and to
reduce the number of experiments necessary for optimiza-
tion of the process of explosive compaction.

Parameters for Explosive Compaction

E
E In order to obtain cylindrical samples in explosive
1L compaction with uniform density over the cross section, the
12 unverdichtetes cone shaped shock-wave configuration has to be achieved.
To solve this task by computer modeling the Hugoniot-data
10
of the powder must be known. They describe the relation
a between volume and pressure under the action of shock
6 waves. Such data are available for many substances,
including powders [13]. However, if new powders, like
L
rapidly quenched or melt spun alloys have to be compacted,
2 such data are not available. Experimental investigations
0 therefore are of great importance.
Numerous experimental investigations [5,10] revealed a
linear relation between the pressure required to explosively
Radius ,
-j ' t
vn compact a powder and the hardness of the metal powder
I I I I I , particles. Aluminum powder, for instance, requires only
0 2 L 6 8 10rnm
moderate pressures to achieve a densification of 100% of
Fig. 2. Shock front in explosive compaction of tungsten powder, theoretical density. Whereas to compact, for instance, a
measured by the electric pin method [lo]. highly alloyed steel powder of hardness 500 HV a pressure

Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 20, 410-415 (1989) Explosive Compaction 411

 1 included. Also the most recent results obtained with

t RelationshiD between hardness

of powder 'particles and
explosive compaction of diamond powders [ 141by means of
a flyer plate technique are included. Although different
experimental methods were used in order to determine the
pressure for consolidation /' pressures, the linear relationships in Fig. 4 holds. This fact
/ allows the determination of one of the explosive's parame-
ters. An explosive with a minimum detonation velocity of
/

//
/
'
/
0 / is required to densify a metal powder, where HV is the
2
UI
8-
P direct expl. cornp (Prumrner) hardness of its particles and @E is the density of the
M gas gun (Morris) explosive.
H gas gun (Herrrnann) For ceramic powders, however, difficulties arise due to
B gas gun (Butcher)
M L gas gun (Linde) the effect of adiabatic shearing. During compaction, as the
G gas gun (Gourdin) shock wave proceeds toward the center of the cylindrical
S gas gun (Akashi. Sawaocka) sample, an already consolidated outer shell has to be
crushed in order to allow the center part of the sample to be
compacted. Adiabatic shearing is the mechanism for this
I ) purpose. Figure5 shows the cross section of an alumina
4dO 5;)O 8dO 960 I:' 10000 rod, made by explosive compaction of AlzO3-powder of
Vickers hardness in kN/rnrn2 5 pm particle size [15]. Thin metal foils (100 pm thick) were
Fig. 4. Pressure required for densification of powders as a function
used to make the shearing visible. When the density of the
of hardness of powder particles [lo]. consolidated rod is limited to 95% of the theoretical
density, adiabatic shearing can be avoided.

of as much as 6 GPa is required for full densification. The

linear relationship between the pressure required for
densification and the hardness of powder particles is shown
in Fig. 4. Data taken from other authors and obtained with
other methods than explosive compaction, especially by
using a ballistic gun or a flyer plate technique, also are
Temperature Effects
The compression of matter by means of shock waves is
accompanied by a sudden rise of temperature. There are
significant differences in the behavior of solid and porous
(powders) materials with respect to shock heating.

Energy Consideration

Figure 6 gives the pressure-volume relationships

(Hugoniot-curves) for shock loading of solid and porous
materials. When a sample starting with specific volume VO
is compressed by means of a dynamic pressure PI to the
smaller specific volume V1, its internal energy increases
by
1
E = - (Po
2
+ Pl)(Vl - Vo)

where POis the starting pressure. Most of the energy is

dissipated by heat; a part of it is stored in the material
(lattice defects and distortions). From Fig. 6 it can be seen
that porous materials are accompanied by a higher increase
of internal energy, since the starting specific volume Vo is
larger.

Explosive Liquid Phase Sintering

Fig. 5. Cross Section of a rod of 18 mm diameter made by Most of the internal energy E in the explosive compac-
explosive compaction of A1203 powder (grain size = 5 p n ) with a tion of porous materials arises as heat at the powder-
spirally shaped metal foil (niobium) to demonstrate the occurence particle's surface. If this heat is supplied rapidly and if its
of adiabatic shearing when compaction pressure is too high [15]. dissipation occurs comparably slowly, surface melting of

412 R. Priimmer Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 20, 410-415 (1989)

 Hugoniotkurve des
’Festkorpers
Pl -PlVl
Entlostungs-Adiobate
ij
2
0
,\\‘Schockwellenenerge
= 112 IP .P0,lV -V0)
k Zunohme dei irmeren Energie

Po
Vl “0
- v; Fig. 6. Hugoniot-curves for solid and porous maten-
spezifisrhes Volumen spezifisches Volurnen als - schematic.

the particles can take place [16-191. After cooling a
structure of the consolidated materials is obtained consist-
ing of a shock-wave-hardened interior of the individual
particles welded to neighbour powder particles by a rapidly
solidified “interphase”. Therefore this process is called
“Explosive Liquid Phase Sintering”. Figure 7 shows the
metallurgical micrograph [101 of an explosively compacted
superalloy IN 100. It can be seen that the dentritic structure
in the welded interphase is much finer than in the original
powder particles. It can be estimated from the distance of
the dentritic structure [17] that the cooling rate in the
welded interphase is very high (in the order of 1014sec-l). A
compacted sample made by “Explosive Liquid Phase
Sintering” therefore consists of work hardened interiors of
the powder particle surrounded by a network of extremely
rapidly quenched material.
It is self-evident that the explosive liquid phase sintering
(ELPS) process allows sintering of amorphous materials.
During compaction of amorphous powders heating occurs
and leads to a melting of the surface of the particles and
rapid cooling does not allow recrystallization to set in [10,
15,20,21] provided that the compaction pressure is not too
high.
In more recent investigations it has been shown that bulk
samples made of superalloy powders by explosive compac-
tion can have superior strength compared to conventionally
(hot isostatically pressed) samples. Figure 8 shows the yield
strength (Fig. 8a) and ultimate tensile strength (Fig. 8b)
versus the annealing temperature. Annealing was applied
after dynamic compaction with a gun. The compacted
sample has a yield strength of 1 GPa, which is about 10%
higher than that of the hot isostatically pressed sample.
After heat treatment at 620 “Cthe shock-compacted sample
has a 20% higher yield strength and a 40% higher UTS than
the hot isostaticalIy pressed sample. The increase in
strength is attributed to interparticle melting (ELPS, as
described above). In addition a high density of fine and
uniformly dispersed y”-precipitates is observed. In compar-
ison to hot isostatically pressed material the shocked
material is activated, resulting in faster nucleation kinetics
and therefore in finer (about half size) and in a larger
number of yrrprecipitates in the shock compacted mate-
rial.

Residual Stress, Stored Energy

Part of the shock wave energy is absorbed in the crystal
lattice. Lattice defects (point defects and dislocations) are
Fig. 7. Explosively compacted Superalloy IN 100: individual par- created leading to an increase of lattice distortion and a
ticles welded to one another [lo]. decrease of subgrain size. Both can be determined by X-ray

- 1.6-
D.
9
a - 1.8.
2
b

U 0
- 1.4- A A A

Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 20, 410-415 (1989) Explosive Compaction 413

diffraction methods. A summary of all existing data [lo]
reveals that after explosive compaction a dislocation den-
sity - derived from lattice distortion - and values of stored
energy can be created in the material in magnitudes similar
to such after heavy plastic deformation of metals. This rule
applies both to -compacted metal and ceramic materials.
Stored energies of up to 9 Joulelg were observed, e.g. in
T i c [23]. Such high values of stored energy can lead to
enhanced diffusion. An activation of the sinter process was
observed [24, 251. There is also evidence for enhanced
chemical [26, 271 and catalytic [28] reactivity of ceramic
materials after shock-wave treatment.
Shock Wave Synthesis
The large amounts of energy available on particle’s
surfaces during explosive compaction of powder mixtures
permits shock wave synthesis of materials. The first
observed chemical synthesis of this kind was that of the
formation of zincferrite with its constituents [29] and
shortly after that of T i c [30]. It was found that the amount
of explosive necessary to initiate the chemical reaction is
related to the reaction temperature under ordinary condi-
tions [31, 321. Also exothermic reactions are possible under
shock wave conditions. Superconductive materials were
synthesized by means of shock waves, such as Nb& [33]
and Nb3Si [34] using stochiometric mixtures of the consti-
tuents.
Of special interest presently are methods to fabricate
high temperature superconductors starting either from
superconductive powders or its constituents [35]. The
superconductive properties can be maintained in the high
density green compact as long the pressure during compac-
tion is limited [35, 361. If superconductivity is degraded a
heat treatment in an oxygen atmosphere is a good means to
recover the superconductivity. Explosive compaction has
been used to make superconductive coils starting from the
powder [37].
Also widely investigated is a process for explosive
compaction of mixtures of powders which are associated
with an exothermic reaction. This process, called combus-
tion synthesis is investigated in order to form hard mater-
ials, such as titanium diboride TiB2 [38]. Also parts of
intermetallic phases, like TiAl or Ti3A1 can be made [39] by
means of combustion synthesis. Further research is neces-
sary to demonstrate the superiority of such products
compared to conventional fabrication.
Explosive Transformation of Matter
Polymorphic transformations of materials are also
observed under conditions of explosive compaction. The
most significant discovery was that of the transformation of
graphite to diamond. In massive production of diamond
powder, a mixture of graphite and metal powders is
explosivelycompacted. The metal powder serves as a shock
plate and a heat sink. The obtained diamond powder with a
particle size of 0.2-10 pm is used for grinding and surface
finishing of metal and ceramic materials and as a consti-
tuent in cutting tools. Also the transformation of graphite-
like boron nitride to its cubic modification can be per-
formed in a similar manner [43, 44, 451. Both diamond
414 R. Prummer
powder and cubic boron nitride powder produced by
explosive transformation reveal severe lattice distortions,
which are dependent upon the cooling rate after passage of
the shock wave.
Summary
The explosive compaction method consisting of a cylin-
drical container surrounded by a proper type and amount of
explosive is an inexpensive method to achieve high densi-
ties close to theoretical density. The explosive’s parameters
have to be adjusted to the type of the powder to be
compacted. The required explosive’s pressure is linearly
related to the Vickers hardness of the metal powder
particles. If higher pressures are applied, an “explosive
liquid phase sinter”-process can be achieved, allowing the
welding of individual particles. The residual properties of
the material are characterized by a high defect structure and
by dislocation densities and subgrain sizes comparable to
those after heavy plastic deformation. The same is true of
compacted ceramic powders. Enhanced sinter reactivity,
chemical and catalytic reactivity may be the result of high
values of stored energy observed in the ceramic materials,
shock wave treated under conditions of explosive compac-
tion. The properties of materials produced by shock-wave
synthesis or by shock-wave transformation are also deter-
mined by a high-density defect structure.
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Address: Prof. Dr. habil R. Priimmer, Tokyo Institute of Techno-
logy, Center for Ceramics Research, RLEM, 4259
NAGATSUTA, MIDORI, YOKOHAMA 227, Japan.
[T 3761
Explosive Compaction 415