TURKISH GRAMMAR OXFORD - NEW YORK, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Page bipLroGRarHy ANDREVIATIONS 1, ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY "The alphabet ‘The epostrophe vp hy ok ma ® y 15. "The glottal top 1, Deviled consonanc 17, Consonanecuster and epenthetc vowels 18, Foren diphthongs 19, Alteration of consonants 20, Consonant sarimilaton in sliaes 21, Vowele: general observations wee ae au whe 3convents ant ake 30. Vowel length 432. ceptions tothe rales of vowel harmony 23: Vowel harmony in foreign borrowings 1H Vowel harmony of eines 46, Vowel harmony of aie with Sosign borrowings 26. Akemtion of vowels 37. Accenuation: general observations 38. Word.accent, 4p. Excite nies ‘(THE NOUN 1. Gander 2 Number: the Turkish plural 4 Arbie pra 4 Other plrale The Arabie daa 6. The cae 17 Summary of case-endings Use ofthe cas 9: The absolute form 16. The scustive cae 11 The genitive ease 12, The dative cme 15, The oetve case 14 The ablative cae 25. Personal sfies 16. Personal gfx followed by cae-utes 18, Words indicating mainly "7 2s 3 as * 36 ” 8 Ww. v. 19: The eft sia 30, Placenames consitng in an iafet group 21, Canary tr without iat 48, Thirdsperson suis with substntvzing and defining 25. "The Jans cnstrction 24 Salises with zafe groupe 25: "The voatve ure of the thiedperton suc 16, Persian iat, THE ADJECTIVE 1. General observations 2 Avibutive adjectives 15: The indefinite article 4 Comparion of adjectives 5 Arabic and Person comparaives 1 Intensive adjectives Ne OUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 1 Dinsinutves 2. Dininatives of person 5 msl, <)mtrak, 1 aot soll 8 eee) se. it 1 (eet sy -cll b -hane 5. -ane PRONOUNS 1. Perna pronouns 2, Uses of the personal pronoun bok 8 8 s ss s seasaegeer2t eaevin. conrENTS 6, mereogsives 1 Tadd, determinative, and negative 8. baz, kim o-birtakam to. her hep 25.50 1s, butun 16. bagka, ager 2. sor 1 barbie x, ayn 20. Hy a. Mp 24, Kimse NUMERALS. 1. Cardinale 2 Cline 4 Fractions 4 Ondinals § Disevtives 6. Colectives 7. Dice numbers POSTPOSITIONS General observations 2. Primary postposiions with abestue care ‘5: Primary postpoiions with belute or genitive case 4 Primary postpoitions with dative case 5: Primary pstpoitions with ablative ese ” s Be 8s 8s 8 conrENTS 6. Secondary pstposions: 1 1 Secondary postpoiions: Tt 18, Secondary pospoiins: TIE Te, ley ro, The preposition A VIL THE VERB 1. The stern 2 The verbo bet 4 The preset tee oft Be! 4 User of ate {5 Bramples of the presnt ese of to be! 6 For based on te 27. The past tense of 10 be 8. The present conditional of tobe! 1. ‘The pat conor of 0 be 1, The inferential 1 The inferential conn 1a. The negative of bet 15, Intersogntive 4. Nepuve-interrogaive 15. The colar ve 16, Present 1. Uoes ofthe present 28 Paradigms of the present 19, Present TT te. Bote 1 fr Use of the fore 2s, Paradigms ofthe farare 2, Fore 1 2. Aorist, 3s. Us ofthe aos 26. Paradigm ofthe aris a7 ani-past 38, Poperfect 29, Other paradigns of the mly-past ge. Nevestaive geese1x as ¥ a & ss ss 6 Pal 8 CONTENTS ‘Ure of the dept Other paradigms ofthe nate Conon Subjunetive ‘Other paradigms ofthe subjunctive ‘Synopsis of he ve sin ign arsed five verbe Ate with a filing verb Summary ofthe form of oe? var, yore Extended ste “The recproeal or co-operative verb ‘The causative ve Doubly eumative verbs The repetitive verb “The relenve verb ‘The passive verb aes ofthe pasive "The potential ver "The order of extensions Ausiacy verte RTICIPLES Presa Future Forure inis-pst "The person participles eco gel- a 8 9 a 1: 16 tea ta 163 conrENts ces gate ro, -ecegt eat 1, Pesiphesie tenses and moods X, VERBAL NOUNS x ty Iniractony 4 The nine with aubject 5: Common nouns in smele 6m Common nouns in -me GERUNDS. sop 6 -inco 7 sincaye kadar, -inceyedek, -inceye dein ® ° ‘ene kadar, senedek, ene debin so. el, lk ber, -liden ber, lm ei fh oldu olasscya) ty -tikge 15 -digince| ve. ite 1 ten bagka 6s a er 16 169) m0 6 ca 180 186 8 i 18 a8 3 8“ conrENTS 1 inden bagka 20, Geeund-ouitleat 21, Wil maddetge 2. hale 2s. igi takatede 34, dif itn, -aiginden 4s. dit isp 26, igi kadar 2. lit gibt 24 -ecetne, -ecek yerde 22. Bouvalents of a it? Se then 3¢. Compound verbs XIL ADVERBS Genel observa 5 Nouns uted advebilly [5 Comparzon of adverbs 8. sie, mata, does to. Adverbs of pice agin 1a, Advesbs of time v4 Toling the tne 184 18 6 186 186 186 187 18 188 188 04 6 96 8 8 Base ‘coNTENTS 15, art, bundan bisle, gayet >, daha ar, hemen 2, gene, ying 233, The verb “tobe! in temporal expressions 24, derken XIIL CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES de Bme .. me(de) os derek +. gerekise) Sem «tem () 6h 7 Inter «= -i6ter ces olsun «olsun yale cya veya «yas, veyahat aa, flat da, ne VA sana, yalniz {2 mamafih, buneala beraber, bununiabirikte 3s madem(, dei mt) M4. meger(s) 5M 16, meierkt 18 albu, oys(kd) to. snk stra 2a, domek br diger taraftan, te yandan 2 geesi aa oye 24: ant 9) 26, berhatde ay ie 2h te 2 saan BERBERS a 24 25 26 a6 a6 26 = a aei conTENTS se. sank 21 Oslo dursun ba yok 4. yoksa XIV. WORD-FORMATION, 1, Deverbal sobetansives| at ik fa 6. tne aa ks ro. Ben, een wy -¥ 8 ey, -y 29, Denominal verbs ae. 3. Compound nouns and ajetves a8 ae 26 conTENTS 31 Abbreviated nouns 3% Tele groups $i Proper memes cnmiting in it roo 36 Noun noun jit a9, Noun third-person sui adjective 42. Noun} verb 41, Onomaapodie word-bverb 42 Verb ver) 4 Hyphenated compounds 4H Repeiions| 46. medonblets XY. THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS IN THE SENTENCE 1. Nora sentenees and verbal sentences 2 The principle of word-orde 4 The averted sentences devrie eure 4 The sentence-pls XVI. NUMBER, CASE, AND APPOSITION 1. Concordance of subject and ver 2 Singular and plural in ele groupe 4 Knmatc wie ofthe paral 4. Tho accusative wih Bie [5 Two idiomatic uses ofthe dative ome 6. The genitive a lial subject, 1. Appositon XVII, THE NOUN CLAUSE AND THE SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCE 1. The verbal noun in -me snd the personal participles 2 The eubtatial sentence as adjectival qualiier ae ans Bs = 28 28 250 a6 236‘4 The substntival sentence ax quai in iat XVIII, ADJECTIVAL PHRASES AND PARTICIPIAL QUALIFIERS 2. Teanlaton of English relative clauses 4 Two variant types of parcial quaier XIX, THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND Ki 1. Clauses of purpose 2 The aubunctve alter a negative main verb 5 The subjunctive im noun classes XX. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES ‘Open contin 2 Alermtives tothe conditional veh 5 Renate and nfalilled conditions “6 Apodoia to an unexpreowed prota 5: Alemative proases 6 Conceive clas 2 ‘Whatever, whenever, whocver, wherever per, sayet 2 Coninal ste ofthe Sature personal participle se The conditional base fh -sene, sentze 12, ote elenirsin? 4. ola gerek XXI, ASYNDETIC SUBORDINATION XXII. PUNCTUATION XXIII, SENTENCE-ANALYSIS XXIV. FURTHER EXAMPLES INDEX a8 29 2 2 216 a8 a INTRODUCTION “Tn subject ofthis book isthe oficial and literary language of the Republic of Furkey: Until 1923 the language of Tarkey vas known as Osmanhiea oF Ottoman Turkish, The dowafll of the Oxto- sman dynasty in that yor, after six eentries of sovereignty, made Fenccceary to find a new name to distinguish this language from All the other members of the sume linguistic family, whose dominions extend from the Mediterranean to China, The ‘Turks themselves distinguish ieinformally as TUrkgemiz, ‘our Turkish’, formally as TUrkiye ‘TOrkcesi, “Turkey-Turkish; this latter location is followed by French and German scholars: “Ture de 1) *Tiikei-Turkich’. “The growing practice among Fingish-speaking scholars, which i followed in this book, is to refer tothe language of Turkey simply as “Turkish, while calling ‘the linguste family to which it belongs “Turkic. "Vorksh isa member of the south-western or Oghuz group of the Turkic languages, the other members being: the Turkic Glalects of the Balkans; Azcri or Azerbaijani, spoken in north- twest Persia and Soviet Azerbaijan; the Qashqai of south Persia; the Turkmen or Turcoman of Soviet Turkmenistan "The problem of the elasifcation of the Turke languages and Gileets is a complicated one, ‘The migrations of the ‘Turkic peoples in the course of history, and their consequent inter- Frinaling. with one another and’ with peoples of non-Turkie fpcech, have created Hinguistic situation of vast complexity, Sthich has not yet been investigated sufficiently to permit the last tron to be said, An indiestion of the provisional nature of the Tnrious solutions so far cffered is that the editors of the first olume of Phiolegiae Turcicae Pundamenta (Wiesbaden, 1959) invited two acholare to write independent contributions to the tchapte: on clasifieston. Johannes Denzing’s scheme shows five sain divisions comprising eight groups, while Kar! Menges dis Tinguishes six divisions comprising twelve groups. ‘The map at th end of the volume shows six groups. Ie is still being debated whether or aot the Tuskie family i itwif @ branch of a larger “Altai” family, inchuding Mongol,= evtropucrios angus, and posibly’ Koren, The nneeenth-cntury conept of 2 "UrlAlai fay, embracing Frnih and Hungarian well 4s the “Altai” languages, no longer commands support. Te mas Basel chi on the fae tat hese languages share he eta segutnatio, vowel harmony, ar lack of grammateal gender ‘An introductory word mst be ad sboat agglutination. ot this feature which Englshspestes find mot alien, atfough it doen aca in English to inte exten nach a word sm eare Teor Bot in Turkish the proces of adding at to vic con rest in hoge words whic may be the equalent of « whole English’ hres. claie or sentences sokaltailer, the people in the tect irerken, "while they ave coming; avrupal laguniamsyabilenlerdenmigsnin “Vou son tobe on of tne sho may be incapable of being Furopeanized’. Out Bratch tentences are lite dystone walls with one chunk of mening ‘topped ito place ster another, The Turks lew ated in place ike bricks each comented to the next. Urey though we may fied his massive eaisuelmamalsymrs, we mist remember that he finds causly tied out frosted ae ‘monorlabic they sy that she ought no to be made to work. ‘bret explanation ls nesctsayTor the references tat wl be found through the hook to the language reform move ment! ‘The Turks had ben to convert fo Ila and to adopt the Arsbo-Persian alphabet from the tenth century onwards the course oftheir miration into western Asi. Inthe leventh entry when under the ladership ofthe Seje dynasty they overran Persia Persian Became the hnuage of their adminis tion and iterary culture. Persian had by this time borrowed b feat many words fom Arabic "These, together with «host of Persian word, were now nthe disp of educated Turk, who fet fro o uae any they washed ws art of thet weabulry. The bul of thee Arabic and Pesan borrowings were never asim Inted to Turkish phonic paterns, More, withthe orege words came foreign grammatical conventions, To offer an English analogy, wan if we sid not for abvious tenon? but Tor Tationesobvia or whet the condiio of Sour progenitor ‘everendn instead of hows your father” “This hybrid language became the ofa language ofthe Otto- “Se Ui He aa torn Md Tk re Ose! us 9s ei te a at ane Pe ment ia fvour of sinplifestion and: purteation’of he ier epespite certain excesses and absurdities, the success of the a‘The borrowing of French words bepan inthe nineteenth century, and there seems to be sila preference for the French forms of Words common to French and English; thus ‘detergent’ appears 1s deterjan, and kilosikl is far commoner than kilosaykl, Although this bool is, in principle, concerned with written ‘Turkish, it willbe found to contain a good many references to the colloquial, for two reatons, The fist that the gop betwosn ‘writen and spoken language his been considerably narrowed in recent years, 80 that tis not always possible to draw the line. The “second reason ie reminiscent ofthe problem that vexed the Islamic ‘theologians concerning the utterance of Satan that are quoted in ‘the Karan: a8 Satan’s les are part of Holy Writ, must they not therefore be true? Now if a novel or a newspaper happens to report conversations between speakers of sub-standard "Purkish, it can scarcely be argued tha the aub-standaed is thereby rendered literary; nevertheless the student is entitled to expect some ‘guidance on how to translate it, i he has bought what elim to be 4 Turkish grammar. For a similar reason, some obsolescent and even obsolete features ofthe language are discussed, as they may feceur in quotations or in Ottoman texts tranteribed into the smodern alphabet. ‘The aim in faet has been to present every form sand construction that the reader may mect in print, including fome which certain of my Turkish frends, and’ even T myself, may dist Atthough our familiar Latinchased grammatical terms do not ‘evacty fit the facts of Turkish they have been used as far a2 possible. The Turkish adjective, for example although it does not behave in all respects like the English adjective, resembles it closely enough to be permitted to abare its name. Occasionally Thave used the word ‘Substantive’ to include nouns and adjectives and sometimes pronouns. Any other less familiar terms ane explained at their first occurrence In translating the examples I have made extensive vse of word for-word renderings; for the peculiarity of the resulting English Trust ask the readers indulgence. ‘isa pleasure to record my indebtedness to Professor Fahir ta, Dr. Erciinent Atabay, and Mr. Berent Eng for their patience in answering my questions, A few ofthe grammatical examples I owe to the late Me. Philip Lechmere Stallard, who shared my love for this most fascinating language. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Grammatical sorks and dictionaries, The list below is limited 10 the tools an the one sce which ave een constantly by my side during ‘he sctal writing ofthis brammar To show the fall extent of my ine ‘Ehatdnes would involve ating the complete works of thee authors, Sival'es of Omer Atm Akay, Sandee Cagis, Vesihe Hatbogts (Gud Teg, Aeobst Mansuroi, Zeyep Kovknae, an Tat Tekin “The surnames o nls preceding sore ofthe es of ths Uist are ‘ued ae abbreietins for hem nthe preent Wwrk Banguofla ‘Tain Bangui, Tark Gromer (TDK, 1980. Deny Jean Deny, Granaize de langue trque Pa, 102) |A: Dilger, Tork Dine Goal Bir Baloy (TDK, 196) shun Haydar Esk, Yond Tark Dips (Istanbul, 196) Elive Al UW Elev Prk Dit Gromer (a Turkish ransation of ‘Deny with sme adionl note; Istanbul, £940 Ant Cort Emce, Turk Dill (TDK, 1945 gin Muhatem Ergin, Turk Di Bg (stan, 962) Gabsin —Aanarie von Cabain, Altnkiihe Grammatik (Leipzig, 195. Mundy €.8. Mandy, "Pukish Synene aa System of Quaiaton (arse in BSOAS (1935), xls, pp 279-303) OTD H.C. Hany and Pabir te, & Tare Beglsh Dinar, seco edition (Osler, 195 1S Tage Sts hid eon (TDK, 2959. YIK Yen! Idd Kilacuon (TDK, 19655 revi second impres ‘on, 196). pobrth tawny fe nia teers EOC GN oa 3 Sneha See SEE Esco scoala“ Tha ABBREVIATIONS. seote alti of the Sct of Oriental and Africon Stu, Uni wernt of Londen colo dave lay see Bibliography of Persia on Dr ogoar Tork Dit Arojmatrs Vile Balleten ‘Terk Dit Kuru, Aslare see Bboy see Biigaphy devia fo tecoming rrr # pstltd form neve etal found saute an scented eae represents the wound of ng a in singer,» ound formerly { Name Value French ain avoir be ob ce jin jam ge chin church aed © French @ in dre fe £ ge gin gate or in angular ymugak ge lengthens preceding vowel i ie ke Ie hin have French jin sf French j Tin itor in wt © French o in mote 8 Germans peop se sins ye shin shape u winput & German ye yinyet Yumusak ge (soft g’) cannot begin a word, Note that the. ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY hs ‘capital form of the dotted i is ako dotted. ‘The letter kc is often called lea instead of ke; less often, fis cali a. 2. The apostrophe. In addition to these twenty-nine letters, £80 orthographic signs are used in the weting of Turkish, "The apostrophe (’), known at Kesme igaret, is used: (a) To mark the glottal stop in Arabie borrowings. () To separate proper nouns, cr words specially emphasized from grammatical endings: Atatirk'ten “from Atstutk'; Ate ‘kara’da ‘in Ankara; vecizemiz, hatka hizmet'tir ‘our slogan is "service tothe people”. Tt is thus regularly used before the ese sufies ofthe third-person pronoun © when this is written with 4 capital letter as a mark of respec, the normal practice when ‘writing of Atairk end other great men (though not usualy of Allah): Osun “His'; O°na ‘to Tim’ (¢) To distinguish between homonyms: karin ‘stomach’, kar’sm “of snow’, kari'n ‘your wife’; halk oyunu ‘olk-dance’, halle foyu'nu ‘referendum’ (ace.). Tt oceues in some surnames com- Pounded of two words: O'kan ‘thst blood’, which might cther- Wise be read as ok}an ‘arrow-intelleet"; Ig'er “work-man’, Which without the apestrophe could be mistaken for the aorit participle of lgemek "to urinate (d) ‘To mark the omission of a Ieter, a8 in n’olagak for ne ‘luca “what wil happen?” 3. The circumflex accent (*), known as diizeltme igareti, primarily to indicate the paltalizing of a preceding g,K, or 1 and ‘secondarily to mark a long vowel in Arabi borrowings, especialy here ambiguity might otherwise arise: nar Persian nar ‘pomegranate’ but nr < Arabic mar hell-fre'; adil ‘ustice’ but Sail ‘just’; tari ‘Tistory' ace) ut tari ‘historical’. This rule is neglected in masculine names ending in the Arabie adjectival suffix, Because the final vowel ie nowedays pronounced short; Bedri, Rahmi, Rubi. ‘The original vowel length and conse- ‘quently the spelling wth the circumflex are retuned in pen-names of classical authors: Nef, Fuzuli 4. Consonants: general observations, Native words do not, as 8 rule, begin with ef, , I, m,n, x, or z, The only notable excep- tions, apart from such dnematopoeie words as ively ‘chick’ an hs ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY 2 Tololo ‘nonsensical jabber’, are the interogative particle mi, and ne ‘what? See also XIV, 46. j occurs only in foreign words “and is often replaced by ¢ in popular speech. A vowel is often Jnserted before Iu, and m when they occar initially in foreign ‘words: ilimon for limon "lemon’, irahmet or arahmet for Fahmet ‘divine mercy, tin’, inefes for nefes ‘breath’ (specially tose of breathing on someone for magical purposes). Some such pronuniations have become part ofthe written language: oro8pU fart’ < Persian rip, orug ‘fasting’ < Persian rose. “The consonants b, ¢, and donot occur finally in native words, 5. b, "The voiced labial i pronounced asin English, but pis less tneavily aspirated than English p. 6. g: In rapid speech the fist of to adjacent sis often heard 5 8 kag gocuk ‘how many children” pronounced as if written kat gocuk. 17.4, tym. In English these eters are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching the gums above the top teeth. In ‘Turkish they are true dental, the tongue touching the top teth "Modern m may represent an older 9, eg in yeni ‘new’ and sonra ‘after, ‘The m of the latter word i frequently dropped Speech and sometimes in writing 8.4, v. "The pronunciation i ighter than that of the corresponding hglish consonants, particularly ia the ease of intervocaic ¥, whichis heard a a weak w tavtK "hen is pronounced tawuk and populaly misspelt tauk. ‘Phe personal and local name Mustafa Bey is generally pronounced Mustabey or Mistiey. 98,5 In cojuntion wth an ofthe back vowels, 0, and thes ace pronunced ain gates fale respectively arg “chet ga cow Withee vowel and hey ‘nepaltzed ks Engh in angular and ein ere respect: ek tea? pronounced peeiek; Ree "cut pronounced EID keg pace’ pronounced lool. The paletazation of {he tal is eponse forthe nthe Engh form ofthis at sample, fos Thue Arabic and Pesan borrowings however, @ and Kare sia plats conjuction wie and. Tein such eases4 onTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY be that the circumflex is used: gvur ‘infidel’ pronounced grawur (hence the i in the old-etablished English spelling qian’ ef Kiazin, the usual English transcription of the name Kazim) ‘mahkiim ‘condemned’, Kibus ‘aightmare’, pronounced ma lum, krabis The cizcumflex in these words is solely o indiate palatalization and has nothing to do with vowel length Some inconsisteney arises feom the fact that Ke may stand for both the Arabo-Persian and 3 (respectively & and q in English transliteration). The second ofthese leters represents ak atticus Tated atthe uvula, the nearest English counterpart being the sound ‘of ein cough. Further, inital @ may represent Persian g or Arabic ath. In the combinations a = ghd and ka < qi, the crewes ‘cannot be use to show that the vowel i long because i would be taken rather as showing—falsely— that the ot kis palatalzed "To avoid ambiguity in such cases, the length ofthe a i shown by weting it twice: Katil ‘marder* but Kaatit “ourderer, This device is regularly employed only ia Kaatil but may be met with also in gaamuz ‘obscure’, gaasip “wsorper, kaab. astringent” Kaabile ‘midwife’, Kadir ‘mighty, and kaant ‘convinced sl of which are more usvally spel with single a Another complication anises from the fat that itis no more natural for Turks than for English-speakers to pronounce a back ‘consonant with a front vowel; ex. if one tries to pronounce hing ith the inital Consonant of cough the vesting sctnd is a8 much tun-Tutkish as it is un-Englsh, Consequently Arabic qi ie tran- soibed as ka, while gi (written giy in Arabi liters) ought to be anceribed 25 kay. In fact, however, although Arabic gimat= “value! appears as kiymet, in ther Arabic borrowings in which 438 followed by long i, such as haggat.“teuth and tag "cone tempt, the convention isto use doted i: hakikat, talkie. ‘The phonetic spelling hakiykat, occasionally seen in the early years ‘of the new alphabet, i no longer in general use. Tn most Anatoli elects itil I is pronounced as g, media and final K a8 the velar fiative kb, the sound heard in German ‘ach! So Korma ‘do not fear’ may be heard as gorkhis, gok ‘much’ as chokh. In standard ‘Turkish the of aliba ‘pre: sumably" is often pronounced as k, 40. 8 Yumusak ge is a concession to the traditional speling of ‘Turkish inthe Arsbo-Persan alphabet I represents te separate letters of that alphabet, oS” g and gh. The latter — the ‘ee er ee ee es RE wee aged to nounced and sometimes spelled kovmak, ovmak, ovalamak Ce ca ogermek ‘to become blue’, 8BUn ‘portion’, Or ‘accustomed’ Tne spdled Grek, dlvaneky sdvmek, givermek Oran, atte Gers Bia conjncon si on vowes had rye}: Blo doer "worn to common Fein iwi ger "aher"and fer i he wna hard ett nc atea of 9 but weve nee spe Sino pronounced iy oer prio, Mca rolary bros Bak tn oy aya ny 11h In conjunction with any of the narzow vowels 4, u, Oy pitcalarly when it ends ¢sylabl, his sometimes pronounced Inore heavily than otherwise, like the Arabi pharyagal unvoiced Itiative 2 mt “nai, ablamnusTime-tee' hnyar ‘cucumber’, intiyar ‘aged’, ruh ‘soul This is not duc, a8 some Arabists suppose, to a’ memory of the spelling of such words in the Pate One Tari Baoan Qe we Ye SiR ort sted Tas plye ie ow te ramen ok "omnes pol capt hago‘ ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY yaa, Arabo-Pet ‘The ft in the common masculine name Mehmet is silent in standard Turkish, there Being a compensatory lengthening of the first vowel. The spelling and pronunciation Muhammed are reserved for the name of the Prophet, while the intermediate stage Mehemmed is used in scholarly works for sultans f the ‘ame. In some regional dialects the h is pronounced in Mehmet but i silent in Alimet, with compensitory lengthening of the frst vowel. The of the name Ethem is also lable to be est in ‘pronunciation, ‘The final h of sahih ‘correct is dropped in writing a8 well as specch when iis used as an adverb meaning ‘eally's specch the first his sometimes dropped too, In sipshod speech intervocalc his sometimes dropped together with its preceding ‘vowel, so muhafaza ‘protection’ may be heard as mafaes, Allah ‘agkina “forthe love of God! is pronounced as one word without the ah ‘The expletive Allahum: seversen ‘if you love your God, for Heaven's sak’ is even futher contracted, to slisen, The h of hhanum ‘lady’ regularly disappears, together with the preceding vowel, when following a name ending in e or a: Ulviye hmm Fatma hanim are pronounced ulviyinun, fatminim, So too ia Persian borrowings compouniled with Bhine ‘house's postabane “post ofe’, hastahane ‘hospital’, eczahane ‘chests shop? are nowadays spelt and pronounced postane, hastane, eczane, all with long a in the midale syllable. “English-speaking students must take cate aot to mispronounce the leter-combinations ph, sh, and th: eg. ph in kitiphane “Iibrary" is pronounced as in phil; sh in Ishak ‘Tease’ ay in ‘mishap: th in methetmnek ‘to prise’ asin muhatch n alphabet; itis a popular and not @ leamed prov 12.1, As in English, this letter represents two totally different sounds, the ‘clear P of lit and the “dark I of eval Cleat 1 i formed towards the front of the mouth and is naturally produced in conjunction with the froat vowel, while dark I formed in the hollow of the palate, comes naturally with beck vowels. Thus we find clear 1 in yel ‘wind’ and Kole ‘save’, dak ln yu "yea and yol ‘way’ In foreign boerowings, however, a complication arises, such aa we have met in considering g and I, In Arabi, lis cea ‘except in the name of God, Allg" In French it is always clea, "That why the Arabic ne “AM ‘ave fA pte Abda the czcumile used asa reminder ofthis. "Ths the Hof Ham [pronuntation of fri, but is quite audible; in Turkish spelling, eer ate ceed ae 14. y Following 2 font vowel and prcsing » consonant ¥ is Ivey aie bt lengthen the poeeing vowel: tee maternal rn Oe ho SRO ee Naan ROGER Bay Bes cn” Bann Snr X Tih Di Kame phen iii ha hun te Gach See pre ese nt: ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY 146 pronunciation between sta and se Ether. Turkish it may be Pinay nding fran og Arte tal tp (hme) te seeondary, sunding fr ‘ayn. The later ts 2 woeed pharyng fuip; to produce i, udnts of Avie ve sometimes tld 80 Sing afar down the sale they cana hen one not ower. Te isasdifclt for Turk for other noneAnibe. The potal sop, ‘both primary and secondary, is preserved in spelings (0) Te avid ambi: alin of he wi’ gn. of te but tel'in “denunciation (Arabic an) Kura lage (Arable pd but kur’a ‘conscription by lot’ (Arabic gur'a). 2 (In high se ot of reps orth wtinal aie spelingpariculaly of religous terms: ger't “pertaining tothe sacred law’ (shar't), Kur*an ‘the Koran’ (Qur'an). 7 1 is preserved in pronunciation but not in writing when intervoelic ain midafan “defence” (mudif') eoss reget” (tern) Otherwise the moder practices tot the sponrephe in writing and to neler the pot stop in speating: gana ar (ont) rnermu ofl na mir) mesee-prblen (mala) Ifthe glotal stop is ard fi Beene the peer fo clery, pedand, or speaking lowly and deiertly. 16. Doubled consonants. Th nts. These are not pronounced separately, but their enunciation is spread over a longer time that thet af a single consonant: bata ‘west’ but batt it sank eli ‘his hand” but ell ‘itty’; iti mit did he go?" but gittim mi ‘did T go?” ‘The final consonant of the accented syllable of interjections is sometimes doubled: yazik or yazzak ‘a pity? bravo or bravvo ‘well done!” Similarly 0 sant ‘straight sway", the 0 being ac. ented, is regularly pronounced with a doubled s, though not s0 spel Doubled final consonants ia Arahic borrowings are simplified inco single consonant, exespt when the addon of 8 ule hig sig oto hte eames reps the Ane 1 maria ste ie pronounced at tw Frou i but et The Nee es Sonat, As some Attic See eo er en Sera 1 fy mms of into sf meaning by te rete se Hereeon set, te rat a ltd eco me har ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY . consisting of or beginning with a vowel makes the doubled con Stinantpronounceable: hagg ‘right’ > hak, ace. hakkt; badd uit” had, ace, hadi; full “cotlity" > Kl, ace, Kb “afio“pardon’ ~ af, acc. aff, with the orignal assimilated to the f'Phe doubled is Tost in tamizs ‘contact’ > temas, ae. ‘wsualy temnast, pedantiealy temasi 17 Consonant-clasters and epenthetie vowels. ‘Two consonants never oocur together at the beginning of native words, if we {xcept the colloquial Brakmak for birakmak ‘to leave", Within Sivord, tis rare to Gnd more than two consonants adjoining When comonant-lusters occur in foreign borrowings they a implied by the addition of a vowel (a) before or (@) within an nial cluster, or (¢) within final cluster (a) French station ~ istasyon; statistique > istatistk; snlendide, = ispikindit (name of an apartment-building ia Taal). Telian seala ~ iskele ‘quay’; sgombro > uskumrt ‘mackerel; spirito ~ ispirto“sleobol. English sew > uskurs teams > Hstimn or istim, (@) Gerinan Schleyp ~ silep “eargo-boat’s Groschen > kuru ‘plane. English train ~ tren, French sport > sapor: lub > Kultip; claseur “- kildsBr “file’. "The tendency among the ‘educated is towards dispensing with such epenthetic vowels in. initial clusters. The time-honoured kurug and silep have no iemative fms, but tren is used side by side-with tiren, kIGp ‘sith Kulp, KIaSBe with kilisOr, (@) Numerous borrowed nouns end in txo consonants, which ‘rurks have difficulty in pronouncing unless the frst is Lor F or linens a vowel is sufficed: Arabic dam ‘name’ > isim, ace. ism; “td justice” > ad, sce. al; gim ‘part’ > kisim, ae Rist; “tglSntlligence’ ~ aki ace. akin; matn ‘tex’ > metin, meta; tr life’ ~ Smiir, sce. Gmail; fkr ‘thought’ > f ce fikrl, Persian shaky ‘city’ > gehir, acc. seb Some borrowings ofthis shape, however, retain the epentheti vowel even swhen vowel i sufficed: Arabic rif ‘class’ > 8 TeUSamuts yr ine’ sate, ace, sates; shir ‘poetry’ > gil, i Persian cahr “poison” > zehir, acc. zehiri; tuk {ohum, sce. tohumu, Presumably the retention of the ey"ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY a8 ‘ove was viginaly a ulatsm, Therese sgn tha the numer ‘of such words stom the Increuc; pauls requent fn nome ‘apes gee ised of genre forthe date of geht Conversely, some native Words ending in consonant owel consonant deep the origi! vowel whens vowel is ble ofa om ceo, bepin bran’ ac. beya 18, Frcgn dphchngs. The Ania iphthon, writen is sei Ts a eoag of ovens ay topent ay or ey; In her event an cpr vowel appre before «following eononant unless that consonant followel by 2 vowel Mayr food? = hayirse hays Hoan (mete tame) = Hlsejin, ace Mlseyats my tendon: Ome = mest Fscepton’ the Arse dl cing "ym > sym repent vonel “The Arable a phthong, wen aw snl appears as a © the former general taking an pete Novy gs ‘people’ Ravina! ond” = havll"apecment aoe ‘bow’ > kavis; haw ‘pool’ > havuz; the accusatives being avi, kil ka, bk havura Te Engl apt one feat an oon, appt ef and vat th we ees ‘ove thew bing prone opt mine The cossbonog ch era yest ve mt fevts vy ‘ivi sevks yee = ger a tet” nav, Excepting jac tyainy 2 evi nes cee jes ‘want eat, nos Coe nator Smet Ce bevy ace nv healt gl pee bt suing ps Tt rere ‘foot’, ace. aya; ekmek ‘bread’, acc. ekmei{i; sokak ‘street’ (iat ee uae Seat ca, “a ee cee) ou; Bik ‘shy’, ace. QUAL as well as QOKlL Most, however, follow the pattern of kk ‘root’, ace. KOKI, and dok ‘dock, ware house (Engin through Tren ac. dak, " ecm err ter Se a ear naa oo us ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY " ahengi. In borrowings from western languages the g is usually etained in writing but pronounced as i except by the Ieamed: Keliring ‘clearing’ (a financial tern), miting ‘political meeting” ‘ff. Final postwocaie , vulgarly pronounced ky changes to & before an added vowel: Katalog ‘catalogue’, ace. Katalog; jeolog ‘geologie’, ace. jeologu or jeolog"u, epending on the fetent to which the user of the word regards it as a naturalized part of his voeabulay. Inthe latter example, a in the nex, the Epostrophe dees aot marc «glottal stop but preserves the original f from the usual intervocalc change to lig Yootball league’ ce Tigi or lig; the colloquial form, however, 6 Hk, ace. Mk ‘bp €lG, Jit. An origina b, ¢ (.e, Arabic or Persian j), oF d becomes pg) oF Tat the end of most polysylabic borrowings and some monosyllabic, but seappeare before a vowel: Arabie hitdb “hook? > kitap, ace, Kltabi; ihtyaj ‘need? > ity intiyact; Persian taj cxown" ~ tag, acc. tact; fay? = damat, ace, damadt; French serdnade > serena, acc serenade Tinal p, §, and & are voiced before vowels into b, ¢, and d, regularly. in polysyllables, ceasionally in. monosylables: dip ‘bottom’ ace, dbl; gag ‘tree’ ace, aca; Arabic shart ‘tape’ > gerit, ace. geridi; French groupe > grup, ace. grubu; principe ‘principle’ — prensip, ace. prensibl (the sccusstives grupo, prensipi are pedantic), Care’ mut be taken not to confuse at Morse’ ace ath, with ad ‘name’ acc, ads, of ot ‘grass, ace. ott ‘with the archaic od ‘fire’, ace od. 'A few verb-stems change final to d when a vowel is added, cg, eto dot, aorst eden; git- ‘to go, aorist gider; t= "to posture’, aorst Ber. ‘Fina p and t may arise from a doubled final 6 and din Arabic borrowings, When a vowel is added, the orginal voiced double consonant reappears: mufibb‘irend” > mubip, ace. mubibbi add ‘ejection’ > Tet, ace. £e0dl, There is no current example ff the change from jj 10 ¢: hai ‘pilcimage’ becomes hae, acc hhaces, thus avoiding confusion with hag ‘crucifix’, acc. bgt (© Armenian Whack) The original voiced consonant is similaely preserved in had “limit” (§10, last paragraph), which is hus Biotnguished from hat Tine’, ace. hatts (= Arabic Kia). The hormal unvoiing occurs, however ia serhat ‘irontier’ (< Persian Sar “head, chief-+ Arabi fadd limi’), 2c. Serta® ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY fae In foreign words which have become part of popular speech the original voiced consonant docs not reeppear before 2 vowel Arabic hab’ “pill” > hap, acc. hapt; French fnbe ~ tip, tc, ‘tipi. set “parapet” (= Arabic sadd) has alternative learned ta lar forms: see. seddl and sett respectively. ‘here was a short-lived fashion in the ninetoen-fities for con= sistntly spelling (though not pronouncing) with, €, al d the absolute forms of all nouns subject to the alternations by, e)¢, 1: Kitab, muhib, ihtiyac, tac, gerid, red, ete. This fashion is reflected in the second edition of OTD (1957) and the thied edition of 7S (1950), but notin the filth edition ot Fld Kelacusse (1959) or VK (1063), which print kitap, muhip, thtivag, tap, gerit, ret, ete. Survivals of the practice may be regarded. ay Idiogyneratc 20. Consonant assimilation in suffixes. When a suffix beginning With ¢, dy or gis added to a word ending in one of the unvoiced ‘consonants ¢,f, hy kB, , $f the ini consonant ofthe sli is unvoiced to ¢, {, ork. The suffix -el denotes occupation: esi ‘old’ eskiet ‘ld-clothes dealer’, but elektrik-gi ‘electrician’! ‘The’ sufi of the locatve cate is =de: lamir'de ‘in emit? but Paris'te ‘in Paris’. The loeative ease of ig ‘work’ is sometimes spelled igde to avoid confusion with Agte “behold”; similarly the locatve of ts “base” (naval, ete) is spelt de to avoid confusion with the dative case Uste of tst “top, The adjectival suffix Ban. atulsgan ‘recleat but umut-Kan “forget Those writers who follow the fashion mentioned at the end of §19, Le, who do not, in writing, eeognize the unvoicing of final b, c, and d, do not unvoice the inital voiced consonant oF suffixes either; eg kltapgt ‘bookller’ they write s kitaber and ‘Sevingte ‘in joy” a8 sevincde 21, Vowels: general ebservations. Turkish vowels are normally short but may be login three situations; se §3o.'The difenence betmeen short and fong vowels is of quantity not quality: the Positions of the speceh organs ie the sme; the change is tn the length of time during which the breath flows. That is why long ‘9 may be writen aa see § 9 thied paragraph and, § 30 (e), Laz ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY » Vowels ae casted cording to three eriteria 4 “back ng to whether it i the front or () ‘Front’ or "back, according Ins ofthe tongue which interrupts the flow of breath, (0) “Open” of ‘clse’, acording to the amount of space let inctween tongue and palate alternative terns ate ‘high’ and ‘Tow’ {G) Rounded? or ‘anrounded’, according tothe position of the lips. ‘The cight vowels of standard Turkish a tabulated thus: ch enir 2. a. A back open, nrounded vowel ke the a of Fre 2 over Eageh man, Short, aba the ong the mounts teh a front sound of verging om tht of whieh cat be hearin ere speaker? promaon af sme Bebe ‘Strong an inthe Ioanbal werd ame he” (Caewbere ta) Shor kat stenting, call gorse to the 23.1. A back, close, unrounded vowel. It is very close sound fin tn bot a hes approximation can be chesed by spreading the lips as if to say easy but saying cushion instead the result will be the Turkish agin ‘in winter. Short, dig ‘extern’; long, yaptigim ‘which T did’. ‘The corresponding capital leter is, whereas the capital form of fis ‘in mote: sok 24. 0, A back, open, rounded vowel, like French ‘0h ‘much’, yok ‘non-existent, Long, as in dod ‘he was born, it ig much like the vowel of English daw without the final u-glide. [A word of warning is necessary here. Some English-speakers, wate that Turkish ois not the same 25 English on fot, goto the inher extreme and pronounce goK and yok exactly lke choke and Soke, thus providing thee ‘Turkish friends with 2 good deal of muscment, Turkish 0 isin fact closer tothe vowel of hot than to that of choke25, u. A back, close, rounded vowel, between the vowels of English gut and poo. Short, burua ‘nose’; long, wife ‘luck’. 26, €. A front, open, unrounded vowel, like French ¢ in dre, Short, sever ‘he loves long, teske ‘effect’. It also has closer Pronunciation, verging on the sound of i, which is sometimes Iheard especially in the ist slabes of vermek ‘to give’ and gece ‘night’. ‘These two sounds of e are not separate phonemes in standatd Turkish, In dalet, however, el ‘hand’ and el ‘people’ ‘homophones in the standard langusge, ae pronounced diferent, ‘with open and close e respectively, 27.4. A front, close, unrounded vowel, asin French si closer than. Jn English pin. Shot, dig "tooth long, fine “needle” 28.0. A front, open, rounded vowel, as in German; the French eu in peur Short, gOrmek ‘to see’; long, 8renimek ‘to learn", 29. 0. A front, close, rounded vowel, as in German; the French ‘win mur, Short, Gzim ‘grapes’; long, dajime "button 30. Vowel length. ‘The three situations in which long vowels (q) In foreign borrowings: ghasi(A) ‘warrior forthe Faith? > azi(pronounced giz!); bordbar(P) ‘together’ > beraber (long 8). Many originally Long vowele, however, are shortened: habab(A) ‘roast’ > kebap; baggdl ‘greengrocer’ > bakkal ‘grocer’. This ‘tendency i sil in progress, as may be scen in so recent a borrowing as jeep > cp, with shore ‘A long vovtl ia Arabic borrowings may represent an original short vowel-}hamsa or short vowel-}ayn: la'thir‘efect’ > tesit (e long); ma'tim “known ~ mal (both vowels long). A large number of Arabic borrowings retain an original long ‘vowel in the last syllable when a vowel is added, but shorten it otherwise; tesir is one such, ace, tesiel pronounced tir, Others jn common use inclode hayat ‘life, ace. hayati, zaman ‘time’, ace. zamant; mal ‘propery’, sce. mali; cevap ‘answer, ace, ccevab, all the accusatives with a long. AIL such words are indicated in the OTD. sv ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY ss Mazel neva nye weft to dete og at vice? pete petate apeling iyman for imam “ait. Yakop Fee ecneol Taney geet writer, abitual ete asst barged no et oe eg forth aie 9+ va etamate parageph), ‘The speling lymet for Arabic lina Neth, mere eso hay tweedy Bfeonnant (sip when Be ee ne its ce 40), any font vowel followed by rhage ak ewe followed by & pronpnced Foe ae sept “rts eyve Hl da “oun wean a rer Oe aed emphasize «wor, one vowel may ena eects tng aye wn ad on. me ier olen oan cen tha would ein ype pt aleve tlana "ever? Ok a ea ees muy outa or Tog tne’ vue gomnk uel ages kat‘, fakanaaaat "a goktna yy ie a moth an expen of io, 7 se tpcied vay ona Donel vot orginally epantedin Arby hams "oy at er a ag om eanpronding wort oo re yates A) karan Peace emuenueritatied 1. Vowel barony, The prnsipe of vel arms, wish ae uth wort formato snd station ed the vermin taney iowa conomy of msc el Capreed inthe ales i the disvwel of words ack wwe, an subsequent seen fact vowels ittbe Ra fore owe sey ee wet olan rst sve Wig) At the fist vowel is unrounded, so too are subsequent vowels i he fist vovel ssn, absequent vowel are ter ronan ss or tvaunda 2nd ope “The Si rl ss on the phenomenon of palatine sir pre tongue Wisk nero the breath ve6 ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY sr the plate in the production ofthe frst vowel of a word remsis jn use for the production of the subsequent vowels of the word, ‘The second and third rules are based on labial assimilation: if the lips are rounded for the frst vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels, whereas if they are unraunded for the frst vowel the speaker doesnot make the effort to round them subse quently. There ia a partial exception to the seeoad rule: the special ease of words whose frst vowel isa followed by By m, p, OF ¥, a8 the lip-position for the production of these labial con sonants isnot far removed from the rounded postion necessary for the production of ‘The practical effect ofthese eules may be set out thus 1 may be followed by a oF 1 It may algo be fllowed by u, iB, mp, oF V intervenes 1 may be followed by a ot 4 Con a Bon Nena BL lave OT late If the vowel of the frst syllable is, say, e, that of the second will be e orf s, for example, gelen and gelin are posible! words bout gelan'and geldn are aoe. To find the possible third vowels of a word beginning gelin, we look at iin the first column and see that it can be followed by ¢ or 1; thus geline and elint are possible but gelind and gin: are not. It will he observed that, asa rule, o and 8 oceur only in fis syllables, ‘owe! harmony isa process of progressive assimilation, the frst vowel affecting the second, and so on. There are some insances of regressive assimilation; for example, in © bie "the other the @ is fronted to 8 by regressive assimilation o the i which i in twen rounds 10 giving the form Obie, Sec aso bu gin > biigiin in § 32(8) and imparator, menecer, madalya, apotet, and fev in $33 1 pple ia meine pombe wa sanded ‘unde vowel: tn Tor’ naw ifn; Yazup having write now aD iss ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY ” imi abel hardy her 1) Rater he shel: man sgh" = bun Exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony. These are of four ions noted 34, Vowel harmony of suffixes. Apart fom the excep in § 3 (6) ll suffixes ate subject to the cules of vowel harmony, the quality of the lg syllable of the word determining the quality Gf he vowel ofthe suffix, Some sufixes are twofold, their vowel Sppenng at € after front-rowel words, a8 a after back-vowe! Sond. Other ate fourfl, thir vowel bing i or after une Monded and sounded front vowels respectively, 1 or walter TMnrounded and rounded back vowels cespectively, ‘The suffix of the dative ease, for example, is twofold: -e with front-vowslORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY tae words, gark, ace. sarki; fee the penultimate paragraph of this section (0) Arabi words ending in ¢ oF -at-(p. 8, footnote): dikkat ‘attention’, ace. dikkati; saat ‘hour, clock’, ace, saati. But ‘Arabic feminine plural in at take back-vowe sulfixes:rlyaaiyat athematis’, ace, riyaziyati; ruhiyat ‘psychology’, acc rruhivats, So foo do words ending in t derived from the unvoicing, Ur Arabic final d: igtisid "economy" > iktisat, ace, iktisadi smagsad ‘purpose’ > maksat, cc. maksadt. {@) Arabie monospllables with an a followed by two consonants, ‘the second of which isa front consonant: far “war? > harp, fee. hari: harf “letter of the alphabet’ > harf, acc. harfl; hard “west! garp, ace. arbi. When the two consonants in ich words represent a sound-combination unpronounceable by ‘Turks, the epenthetic vowel isa foe vowel, because of the final front consonant; cf Kavil, kavim, and kavis in § x8, and note flbo: twogl “time’ > vakit, gaér “tomb! > kabir, buhth “is: ‘Guin, topic! = babi; accusntives vakti, kabri, bah, (@) The Persian yar ‘Trend, beloved! (confined to poetry) has frontvowel suffixes: ace, ydri, gen. yarin, dat. yfire, and Yyarim ‘my friend’. ‘The explanation that this isto avoid, eon Jhsion with the mative words yara ‘wound’, yarn, yarum ‘all and yarin ‘tomorrow ie too facil; it could never have happened if yar had not ended in front consonant.ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY he ‘Some such foreign words, how have be i eer, have become complete raturalze, because they conform to Turkah phonetic pate, fd they therore tke Back-vnel uff: Samat “ake ap) Could precy wll es mative word lke Kant ings wie Stat, id i double a, eld not. Sir aml (Free Cana 'oks is Tsksh 6 kara ‘gl’ and i sean nat So ve asin (ec se. aay by analogy with this word, partly through its frequent use as a ‘mus tem, f(A) icon > fst, ee. fal sought ina f mau i noncTerkth. Likes rab ‘ee crore ‘though marked as non-Turkish by its initial r, belongs to the buckevowel cls Beease of ts everyday ure 7 ‘Arabic words ning ng, eve i they havea rome vowel in the le ae bce! sl hy“ gv 6 vk re nvky ce se J top = ek There 4 tendency t eine more and more of thes exceptional vel mons. Some ler eo slg ana or rather san’at, font-vowel sues; fora your person tod oul be roid onc, ind a irk pe Sion hat ro, hra,havby ands on ilo ay gat to rolu, idraki, harbr, first in vulgar speech, then in educated ‘speech, and finally in writing. : 36, Alteration of vowels Ifa sfx beginning with is added to a esse ending ine or they navtons he eos inte Tas ‘Specie es) te vo arty or whe he bath eel pre aa th el as they rounded, when th ora becomes dor Thm bee -yecck bekliyecek: ania yacak = anfiyacak: (Ure yor adyor kolla-yor > kolluyor, Some writers disregard these changes, rng bekteyecehyanlyacak, tiveyor, Koller Pest Imlé Kilecuzw recommends disregarding ‘them except. before 37. Accentuation: general observations, ‘There is little unanimity aout acentaton among writers on Trish grammar Ax one listens to ‘Turkish being spoken one notices that some syllables fare more marked than others. ‘The problem isto identify the way t4a8 ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY * thwy are marked; is it by stess or a change in musical piteh?* Inthe present work ‘accent means arise in the pitch ofthe voies. That apert from the nature of the aceent, there is some disagree tent, even among tative authorities, about which syllable in v"eiven word is accented. ‘The reason why such disagreement is Jwasibl iy frst, that word-aecent in Turkish isnot so powerful Win English, where the accented syllable often swamps the Tinaccented (Ext'6rd'a'ry"), or as in Russian, grammars of which have to give rules for the pronunciation of unaccented Sytbles, Secondly group aocent aad sentence-accent (je. intoma- tion) both override word-recent so completely that some euthori- tice have denied the existence of word-accent altogether. An EBnglish parallel will make this clearer. If one were asked to mark where the word-aecent comes in machine, one would naturally put Woon the sccond syllable: machine. Buti the word is used as the Second clement of a compound noun its accent is Tost and the Soupraccent, prevails; swing-mackine. If 2 manufacturer of Novingemachines tlls his wife that he has bought one for her, ther reply may well be an inctedulous “You've baught a sewing- frachine?” with both words and. group-accent lost and the Tentence-eccent on “bought prevailing. 438. Word-accent, With the exceptions stated below, Turkish ronda are oxytone, ie. accented on the last syllable; when an Uytone word is extended by sufixes the accent is on the last lplable of the: word thus formed: gocake ‘chil!,* gocuklar Children’, cocuklarimiz ‘our children, gocuklarunyzin of out hildren’; 0d soon’, odad ‘in the room’, odadakl "that which {ela the room, odadakilée ‘those who are in the room’, odada Kilerdén ‘From those who ate in the room’. Non-oxytones keep the accent on the orginal syllable: téyze ‘aunt, teyzeniz. ‘your fun téyzenize ‘to your sunt’; Amkara’da ‘in Ankara’ 39, Exceptions (9) Place-namesare not oxytene: Anidolu ‘Anatolia’ fstnbul Most are avecnted on their ret syllable: Paris, Zonguldak. ‘Thin rule is particularly to be noted with regard to place-names nT Ba tee einen pie ete cn ero inate mci sible eve en” ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY tap Which are spelt the same as common nouns: misit ‘maize’ Misur gypt';sitkecl “vinegracller’ Sirkect, « dist of Istanbul; ebék ‘ll, baby’, Beek, vilge on the Borphorur aramdin “ited shep', Karaman, 1 cy of southern Anatolia; ord ‘army’, Orda cty on the Black Ses, Polyylabic plae-names of non-Turkish origin generally retain their orginal acentution:ngitére'Fnglnd’, spay Spain’, “Antalya, Malatya. "There x, however, «tendency forthe seat to go back to the begining of the place-name; residents of Malaya, for example, generally accent the mame of thelr cy on the Gat lle (0) Forcign nouns ussllysctsin their orginal accenuaton: Jokiinta sestarant (Maia Laan) ta ishing’ (Greek idea) rhdyo ‘rao, wiees eked "tan; KOktey “cocks octal partys gazéte“acspaper (Tali gosztt) (6) A numberof nouns denting relatives and living creature: inne ‘mother, abla ‘elder site, rime “husband's iter, yénge ‘brother's wife, hla “psteral aunt, tayze ‘maternal unt, mea “pstsrnal uncle’, gekirge “geass hopper’, karinea “ane, Koka pole-et" (@) Adverbs are usualy accented on the fist yale: gimat ‘now’, sonra after veld ety’, Ansiz or Ansan snl’, Aincak ‘nly. Thi applies alo to adverbs formed from nouns With the addition of a cates: legen from the truth’ But Bérgekten ‘truly In several saver the fic ofthe old instru Teenal ease appesrs: ign ‘in winter, yin in summer” (he fentves, “of winter, of surimer, are spel ientclly Dut are ected’ on the last sllable, "The now of place (XU, 12) are accented on the fst sllbl: bia "this place’, Ora ‘tha plac’, brada ‘here’, Graya ‘thither. So are nouns used adverbilly without sufixes: mibayét “end! but mibayet “inlly' goKIGK “multad’ but g6ktuk ‘fen’ arti “esidue’ but tak "hence fon¥’ So too ae some, but nt al, adjectives used ae adverb: Yel ‘alone Bue yle “nl; sai "corset bt shelly” {G'. On the other hand, Tygon fena “ba and abu “auick” remain oxytone even when used to mean “wel, badly, * Rangole (p. 18) giver fourteen exe f res a ng ertirer ihcare a one, enpcng ht hy muy ae beer seen Wve meer af the sven the wordnet tat O1D sere es ony ne ofthe four and 13 ony they th done ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY 2 ‘The third-person singular of the aorist of olmak ‘to ‘Become’, ofr, means not only “becomes But ale all right, O.K." In thie sense it may be accented the fist syllable as an adverb {@) In compound words the accent uevally falls on the end of the feet element: aplik ‘naked’, exilenplak ‘stark naked; bag. thead’-bakiin ‘minister? > bigbakan “prime minister'y bir ‘a-takim ‘set > birtakim ‘several’ (f) Diminutives in clk are accented on the first syllable ‘ifacak tiny’, éveik Tite house’ (2) Polysylabicsufixes, except -leyin and -cesine (§ 40) are accented on the first syllable: gd-Ince ‘having gone’; yap-irak “by doing’. ‘So too are interjection and vocatives: ay ‘come on!” Aferin ‘bravo!’ garsén ‘waiter’ but garson “waiter!” 40, Encltie suffixes, The following sufixes are enclitc; ie. they ‘themselves ate never accented but throw the accent on to the precoding syllable: (@) -Ie ‘with’: momnuniyéte ‘with pleasure’; onda “with him’ (6) -ken ‘while’: yazirkem ‘while writing’ (6), The adverbial suite ~co and its extension -cesine: iylee ‘yell’, hayvineasina ‘bestially (4) ‘The adverbial sufi -leyin (compounded withthe instru ‘mental -in): geeéleyin ‘by night’, akgamleyin ‘at evening’ () The negative efx -me: gel ‘come’, gélme ‘do not come’ anladi ‘he understood’, animads "he did not understand (J) The suffix yor of the present tense: geliyor ‘he is coming” (@) The sufixed forms ofthe verb ‘to bes se § 41 (2). (8) The vowel ofthe Persian iafet; see T, 26. Part ofthe controversy about Turkish aocentution is over the question whether these sufixes are propery described as eneitic for stonal, ie, without accent. ‘The former seems correc, a6 we see if we take snon-oxytone auch as bagbakan (§ 39 (@)) and add “les bagbakanla, with the accent before Ia at least ab noticeable ‘as that on bag. Those who take the opposing view adduce, eg. side ‘simply’ from sadé ‘simple’ and éyrica separately" from ayri ‘separate, in which the syllables immediately before the bili are not aecented; these words, however, simply have the socentuation normal in adverbs.on oNTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY Lae AL. Encltic words. The following words are enclite: (Those parts ofthe verb ‘to be’ which are nt formed from ‘the stem ol-; they are encltic both when independent words snd when suffixed: arkadagim id or arkadagimdt "he wes my friend’; evil Ise or evllyse “if she is marred’; kimse "person" (V, 24): memninum ‘I am gla’ (6) The interrogatve particle mi. ‘The rise in pitch before this particle is most noticeable, predominating over the word-accent anfimadi ‘he did not understand” but anfamadi mi? id he not understand?" When the present tense, howeves, is followed hy this particle i retain the accent on the penultimate: geliyor “he is coming’; gellyor mu? “is he coming? gl) IE Pospositons: slain gIbI “ike you’; Benim. igin (d) The conjunction ki: diyorlie ki Ginmyacak they are ‘ying that it ill not happen" (note also the accent before the negative suf in the last word). (6) "The adverb de: bide ‘we too If more than one ofthese words come together, the accent is on the worl preceding them: blz de mi gidelim? ‘salle go too?” 42. Group-accent. The two most obvious features of this are () That in iafet- groups (UT, x7) the accent is normally on the fiat element, on the syllable which earres the accent when the word is spoken in isclation: Tirkiye Cumhuriyet! ‘Republic of Turkey"; yemék edast“dining-roon’ (b) Demonstratives are accented when they qualify nouns: bit ‘gocuk this child’ but ocak bu “t's only a child (Vs), 43, Intonation. Sentence-accent or intonation is partly emotional, depending on the feelings and emphasis which the speaker wishes to convey, and partly syntactical and automatic, The general rule is that arse in pitch denotes that the thought isnot yet complete, ‘whereas a fall in piteh marks its end, Thus the subject is uttered with arising intonation, the predate with a falling. "The protsis of a conditional centesce likewise ls a rising intonation, the pods «falling. Questions and exclamations have arising ine n THE NOUN 1. Genes. Turkish s devoid of grata ender, no does the AE pslne et the forms of ord, The third-person pronsn SSEPy ta hese’ andy elir ana he se it exes’ “Pane tually distinc umes forthe male and female of mst donee imal, aygin salon, Kneak "e's bo “tu, at Ten The gender of ober ara thine i esesry Ip the use of dg "ferae” oe erkek "male: dist kedi "female nt ere ay ale bear ‘ius chy eos penne of er ye aii snay be shown by singe ora woman in apposition. Lay fatebe pt student’ kadin.garsom "waives kadin Karaman ‘levine kare "brother or site’, Kakardey ten as one word) ae” rsSge ts se keno the Fastin posted by French and ct or showing gener: acess akin female dance is akkase (A) or dane; female cle skate (4) "he rm Cine sl gyn the netsing Kivalige ee’, imparatrige“empres garige ‘Ruin’ (2 brabic, inertia, cara). Modeled on theses the nealgins tamriga "golden from the same of the old ‘Tamh ey-god Ta "Phe ocd mum dy, orginally if of Kn han) i eld by same to emtsin an ate Turn feinine ending. {he scr Turceh ein ‘ou’ orginally “wae of 4 Beg Spey tngh te evdence sigh "The ening more prob Stuy ch poses suf of the fseperon singular 2, Number: the Turkish plural, "The plural is formed by adding er to the singular; talebeler ‘students’, kizlar ‘girl’. The + Sade Copan in erate "Tage “Kaa” fin Kellan Ser Dav Site np ssp, tages tne hana uy deve om Devan ‘ioc i sD eth ae* tue Nous ns ‘singular? form. of the noun, however, is numerically nextal (hence ts we ater numbers), denoting category or an india Inember of that category: polls "the police’ or “the polceman’, bir polis ‘a policeman’, plier te policemen’ git agar he tes pocuy, Dir gitryurar he write poem’ lleler yarar “he wits poem's easuaulcspionage’, bi cas ' ase of espionage!) ahramankk “heroism Kaliramanliklar “dco of heroism’; ilk “goodnes ylikler "beneactions "Thus ‘adigahn bi iene of aut, means ‘ne of the category “sltan’, certain sultan” and rnay well Bogin a faye Bu Padigahlarin birt means ne ot fall the historical Iie ‘ho have held the it, one of the Salta A singular verb i commonly used with an inanimate plrat sujet the plural verb being sed for individuals: The tse of 2 plural verb with a singular subject, second or third peron, is 2 atk ofrexpet. Se further XVI, 1 and 9), ‘Personal names may be usd inthe pl ie our ‘the Joneses" to refer toa family in Turkish the plural may be of» given name 2% well as ofa surname: Mehimetler “Mehmet and fis smi GF.$ 35, end ad IN to cls Bal ord eenir ws we a om of aes among lervishes, even when speaking toa singe person Popularly supe owed t0'be the plural ofthe present pariple of ermek 40 ain ii in fat the plural of eren, ill an ancient regula Piel fe man ‘Numralar sully flowed hy singular noun:kark harem “forty thieves Ug slahgor hice mosketers,on ikl ada “telve ‘and, Th use of a plural non ater a numeral shows that the ‘etsons or things in question frm a partly wellknown and linet ety: kare haramiler “The Foy Thos oy ele gorlar "The Thuce Musketers' on ik daar ‘he Dodecanese”! ‘The plural uf may beaded Url othe mera Tourten? json d6rt and the fourteen ofier dropped from the Commitee of Nationa Unity in November 960 were refered to in the press din conversation as ondoruer "The Fourteen So karKlat "The Fory Saint) 3. Arabic plurals, Arabic as two typeof purl (@) The exer or sound plore mascline i made by ad forthe nominative, infor the acute and genitive skis "Now tthe Dadecancates tin te ery a Ad re + One acon exeptin rain the Righty Guided!” (ai being are pmitgas 6 tiplted aw nore ral eter dos 0 Sahm Chigte! ieee pguoh of $2. A modern pale ‘urdan Osmani) took their Arabic feminine forms in the official name of the Empire: Devlet-t aliyesi Osmaniye "The High Ottoman State The Turkish words for ‘tome’ and ‘same’, bazs and aymt, are espectivly the Arabieba'd “pare and ‘ayn ‘counterpart’ with the Persian iafet, and mean literally ‘part of and ‘the counterpart of Purists condemned the use of native ‘Turkish words in Persian inafe, ut many Turkish words were in fat so used in Ottoman phrsology, eg. ord ‘army’ and sancak ‘banner’ in ordu-yu hiimayun nd. saneajie serif, “Imperial Army" and ‘Noble Banner, Le. the standard of the Prophet. Such phrases were hssed 36 alat-1 meghur ‘widely disseminated mistake’, ie Solecism legitimized by usage. Te plural of tis term, incidental ‘was galatat-1 meghure, the adjetive being made feminine to hares withthe feminine plural noun. An oft-quoted saying rans: Balat-r meshur lOgatei fasihten yedir ‘the generally used Solecism is better thin the chaste locution’ "Nowadays, Persian izafet compounds which have become part of the standard vocabulary are usually speed as one word: akst- Seda ‘echo’ (reflection of voice’); hikmetivucit ‘raion dtr Akliselim ‘common sense’. These present no difculty because " Oriilly sues ger cI 0 a ensoe ty leg oy de un 1 ate secon orale 6 ee uu THE ADJECTIVE 1. General observations. ‘The dividing line between noun and adjective is thin one, bute still worth drawing. If we take a8 the criterion ofa noun the permissibility of using the plural, ca, and personal suffixes after it, or the indefinite article bir before i, ‘ery few of the words classed as adjectives inthe dictionary will be excluded. buy ‘big, old, DUyUklerim ‘my elders; hasta ‘it, bir hasta ‘a sick man’s'geng ‘young’, genglerin “of the young’; Avrupalt "Europesn’, Avrupaliya “to the Europes ‘The only large clans of exceptions, ie. of adjectives which are not vused at nouns, are those formed with the ‘Turkish sufixes ~s Aijmsi, “fijmtrak, and -(s)el the Arabic -i, and the Persian “ane and -vari, to which may be added recent borrowings like demokratik snd kiltirel ‘On the other hand, i we take os the criterion ofan adjective the permissibilty of putting it in the comparative and superlative ‘ogres, vast numbers of nouns willbe excluded. In other words, although most adjetives can be nouns, the converse does not hold good. 2, Awuibutive adjectives, ‘These precede their nouns: cesur ‘adamlar brave men’; uzun yo ‘the long road’. Two exceptions: (6) kare and kp, ‘square’ and ‘bi’ follow names of units ‘of length in French ftom which they ate horrowed: KiDHM ‘ye lett 3.572 mil kare (9.251 kilometre kare) dit “he rea of Cyprus i 3,73 square miles (,25taguare Mlmetes) bir metre kip or ir metrekp ‘one cubic met (0) meri the late sometimes used ater the nae of the eceied instead of before, in imitation of Arabi usage 3. The indefinite article. bie ‘one’ may beso termed although the name is not entircly appropriate. One reason is thet the noun introduced by bir may be inthe defined accusstive; see XVI, 4.Pa ‘THE ADJECTIVE Hh Another difference from what we understand in English by the indefinite article is that bir may induce a noun in the paral, the eficet being vaguer than with singular noun: Dir sey -minildandi he mumbled something’, but bir geyler mirsldandi ‘he mumbled something or other"; Die zamantar ben de ‘gocuktum ‘once Ttoo wis ehild, where bir zaman would be too precise: ‘at one time’. In this latter example it should also be noted that bir isnot used before gocuk, although the English thas ‘a child’; its omission is eustomary with the complement of sch verbs a8 “to be and ‘to become When it serves as an indefinite article, bie usually comes be- ‘eveen adjective and noun: BUyUk bir tarla ‘a large Feld, zel bir bahge ‘a beautifil garden’, When it means ‘one’ it must precede the adjective, just like any other numeral: ki KGgik {arla satts, bie BUyOK tarla ald “he sold two emall els, he Dought one large field. ‘This must not be taken to imply tha bir swhen it precedes an adjective and noun is says to he translated by ‘one’; English idiom may sometimes call for '° or ‘any (f XVI, 4). ‘The Key to understanding this point fies in the basic principle of Turkish syntax: whatever precedes, qualifies. ‘The essential difference between gizel bir balge and bir gizel Dahge, both of which may translate “a besutful garden’, is that the first means a beautiful member of the class “garden’, the stcond a member of the class “heniful garden’. gizel bir bahge is a beautiful garden as distinct from a leas beautiful or even 4 frankly ugly garden; Bir izel babe is beautiful garden a8 Aistinet from a beautiful meadow or an ugly forest 4. Comparison of adjetives, ‘The comparative degre i expressed by putting the second member of the comparison (introduced in “English by ‘thaa’) in the ablative case: air "heavy", kurgun-dan fir “heavier than lead. “Less... than" is wansated by putting faz ‘lile'betveen the second member in the ablative cae and the adjective: kurgundan az agar ‘less heavy than lead’, daha ‘more" ‘nay be inserted for emphasis: kurgundan daha air, kurgua- dan daha az aur. Tt is not essential, however, except in the absence oft second member, eg in this hammer is cheaper, that one is stconger’ bu gekig daha weuz, Bteki daha saglam, or in such “fosting comparative’ as “For Whiter Washing? daha beyaz gamagir gin. ms ue apyecrive s “The ancient comparative sufi «re, which appear in a few dissnutivs IV, (0) etait nga farce in perk "bter, Isat tom ye good”. ye and yefrek, sso speled yey, yeyrek, survive only in proverb “The superlative dies i expressed hy en ‘most’ Istanbul en ‘aye gehrimindi ‘Istanbul ie our grestst iy’; bu toprak en az verimlldi ‘this ol is east fel 5. Arabic and Persian comparatives. ‘The Persian Deter ‘worse’ feeurs mostly in proverbs. ‘The Arabic elative, which serves as both comparative and superlative, is familar to us from the slogan “Allah akbar God is most great’. In Turkish ies currently sepre- tented by elzem ‘essential’ the Arabic alcam, elative of lzim necessary"; enfes “most delightful! (anfar = nef); ake “price (agdam — gadim ‘ancien’); ender “most rare” (andar nidir; ehwven ‘easiest, very cheaply’ (alan < ayn). Often these ‘words are reinforeed in Turkish, 98 daha beter worse’, en enfes “rose delightful. 6, Intensive adjectives. ‘The only regulat* use of prefisation isto intensify the meaning of adjectives and, les commonly, of audverbe. The prefix, which is accented, is modelled on the frst syllable ofthe simple adjective or adverb but with the substitution fof m, py 1, or § for the last consonant ofthat slab. Te is hard to discern any. principle governing the choice of consonant, xcept that pis commoner with back vowels than with front ‘vowels, ‘The following lst includes the coramones of such forma- tions; the meaning ofthe intensive isnot given when is obvious from the meaning of the simple word, a= apagik “wide open, ‘manifest’ from agik ‘open’, or Yepyeni “brand new" from yeni agi open apagik bagka other Dambagka totally diferent belli evident besbel bbeyaz white bembeyaz, bok ordure Dombok utterly useless bos empty bombos butwn — whole Disbittin altogether, entirely "be eacaing ssc he oan snags emek tars!6 THE ADJECTIVE m6 ‘gabuk quick sgargabuk cavlak — naked, bald eascavlak ‘auziak 7 dumdiziak dora straight dosdogru dolu full dopdolu gk blue gomgok Kara black apkara kate hard askatt Jarmua red kipharmeas kat, kapkazit kuru dy kupkurw Kitik drunk iskiitik mavi blue masmavi mor violet mosmor sari yellow sapsart sikt tight ssumsikt siyah black simsiyah tala inate taping) tartar gute empty tamam complete tastamam tazefeesh raptaze temiz clean tertemiz toparlak round tostoparlak wun long upuzun yasst fit yamyasst yeni new yepyent yesll green yemyesil Irsegular ar: 4plak ‘naked, cuseyplak as well a gieeaplak: sagiam ‘helt, sapasaBlam; yalnr aloe’, yapayanz Well as yapyalnez; gevre ‘eeumfcrenee’ gepogevre as well sgepgevre ‘all round’; ind in) daylight, eupegdndd ‘in Ire dayigh's dz “Ane, didi “absolutly At and dpe dla “downigh, openly"; parga ‘pics’, paramparga “broken tw bite. The itenivestruklam or sizusklam ‘sopping wee is current, although the simple stklam "we sno Tonge We From ey, an eater form of Ash “good comes epey “eather a lof Other such formations are sometimes ereted in speech without svtainng general eurency, eg Bepegeng fom Heng young” Iv NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES "Tait chapter deals with the suffixes whereby nouns and adjectives ae derived ftom other nouns and adjectives. 1, Diminutives, ‘Phe diminutive sufixes are -rek, -eek, -celiz, ik, and ce, of which the fist two are no longer productive, Before these suffixes, adjectives invariably and nouns usually drop final (@) -rek, the ancient comparative sufi (IT, 4), survives with diminutive force in aewrak ‘rather biter (act ‘bitter, bozrak “ght grey’ (bot. ‘grey’, KOgirek ‘rather small (ktigOK ‘small, tufarak ‘rather tiny” (wfak ‘tng’, algarak ‘loses’ (algak Tow’) (6) eek survives in oyuneak toy’ (oyun game’); in yaverueak (alto yavrucuk), the diminutive of yavru "the young of an animal’; in bibyicek “bigish’(biyik "big’) and Kiigticek ‘very Small’, orayacak ‘all that way" (oraya ‘thither’) is provincia (6) ~ceilz, an extended form of -cok, is particularly common «with nouns denoting living beings and conveys sense of affection, sometimes anixed with pity: adameagiz "the poor wee man", Kizcagiz ‘the dear liwle gi’, ayvancagz “the poor livle ‘creature’ (hayvan ‘animal’, KOyeeBa ‘the dea litle village’ (G) -eik, the most widely used diminutive sufi, throws the accent on tothe first syllable: Aygecil ‘litle Ayesha’; Mehmet~ sik “litle Mehmet, the affectionate term for the private soldier evelk ‘litle house's algaetk ‘very low, humble’ (algak). From ‘bebek ‘baby’ and Kopel ‘dog’ come bebecike and képecile, les commonly Debekgik, Kopek tk, ‘A few monosylables vary slightly feom the regular pattern: az “tle, few" makes azacile and azicike ag well 28 azedk; dar ‘narrow makes daraeik; bie “one? makes bieicik “unique (¢)-ce has a modifying effect om adjectives: giizelce ‘quite good (but not so good as the simple glizel), seyrekge ‘rather infte- ‘quent’,uzunea'rather long’ denggequite young It makes a few ‘Bouns from verbal nouns in -me (X, 7): fom bilme ‘guessing’Fy NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES IN, bilmece ‘viddle’; from bulma ‘finding’, bulmaca ‘puzzle’, especialy ‘crossword-puzle’; from kapmia ‘catching’, kapmaca ‘the game of pusein-the-corer'; from gekme ‘drawing’, cek- sece ‘drawer’. This sux, which is accented, must not be con- fused with the enclitic -ce which makes adverbs; see XI, 2. It may be followed by elk as in genigpectk ‘pretty wide’, yakan- ceacik ‘quite nea’. 2. Diminutives of personal names. Apart from those formed with elk, these do not seem reducible to a rule; there is no ebvious zeason why people nmed Mustafa chould be addressed Mistik, Commonly the fist sllable only ofthe name i retained and to it ie added 4,0, ora syllable ending in g: Ereliment > Erci; Neriman > Neri; Mehmet > Memig or Memo; Metin > Metig; Fatma > Fatog (also, alfectedly, Fats or Fatt; Hasan ~ Hasso; All and Aliye > Alig; ‘Cemal > Cemo: Ibrahim > Ibo, ‘The forme in -o are accented on the fist syllable. They are more familiar and socially less acceptable than ‘those in +5 ef. the difference ia English between Bert and Bertie 28 diminutives of Albert 3. -i)msi, -@mtrak, si, These three sufixes in some contexts hhave diminutive effect but basicaly they mean ‘resembling’, like English ~ih in soomantsh, The initial 1 of the fist two is lost after vowels, (2) -{i)mtrak, the a of which is invariable in the best author, {used with adjectives of colour and tate; beyazumtrak whitish’; egilimtrak "greenish'; ekgimtrak ‘sourish’ (ekg "sour: Acimtrak ‘rther bitter, ‘This suffix is sometimes spel with What secms to be an epenthetic vowele.g. beyazimuirak—but may be a survival ofan older form. (@) -()mst is added to nouns and adjectives: maifara ‘cave’, ‘maaramst ‘cavernous'; duvar ‘wall, duvarimst ‘wall-like'; rapor ‘report’, raporumsu bir yaa ‘a report-like writing’ ‘a feeble atempe ata report (6) sl is attached only to nouns and adjectives ending in a con- sonant, #0 cannot be confused with the post-vocalc form of the ‘third-person possessive sfx: erkek ‘mal’, erkekst ‘mannish's {gocuk “child, gocuksu ‘childish’. But ‘foolish’, from budala “Yoo! ¢ budatams, while budalasr mean ‘his foo WW44 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES » 4. ci. This sls padded to the singular of nouns and occasionally to adjectives and adverbs to denote persons who are professionally or habitually eoncerned with, or devoted to, the object, person, oF ‘quality denoted by the basie word: work gg workman, smile sted silkman tooth diggh dentist, forman forest formant forester ‘Atatirk ‘Atatirkgh Ataurkist halk people Ihalkgt populist or adherent of the People’s Party gta noise Sirlticd noisy (of people) millliyet nationality nationalist yol rood teaveller nat obstinacy nats abstinae alan falachood vyalancs Tir, deciver kagak contraband Kkagakgt — smogele sikiyet complaint sikayetst complainant Roentgen (dicaverer of X-rays) rémtgencl radiographer or Peeping Tom, voyeur stato status quo statikocu conservative sifir zero sifirer schoolteacher ‘who is lavish with zeros aka jake sakacr joker ‘merhum ‘the lst." ‘merhumen devotee ofthe Tate Prime Minister Menderes eski old feskici ——old-clothes man. toptan wholesale toptanet wholesaler Dele (clang) fre, gratis beleygl scrounge, arsaite ne what? eel of what profession?0 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES ——W%,5 lemay be atached toa phrase: havat ready’ elbise “lothing’, hhazir elbisect ‘dealer in ceady-made clothing’; evet efendiza "yes, sir’, evet efendimel “yes-man’ Tn popula speech itis used redundantly with nouns denoting cceupton such a8 $ofBr “driver, kasap (A) ‘butcher’, garson “waiter: gofbreU, kasapst, garsoneu, Cf. sie, XIV, 2. 5. -li, This is added to the singular of nouns to make nouns or adjectives which denote: {) Possessing the objector quality indicated bythe basic word: yoker —sugur gekerli sweet ikkat— stention, care ikkadlt attentive, careful ae horse ath horseman resim picture rresimli__ illustrated mit hope Gmitli hopeful fakil intelligence skill intelligent Dulut cloud Duluth cloudy BGrGlea noise QrIRGG noisy (of things) rahmet divine mercy Fahimetli deceased (6) Possessing the objector quality ina high degree: gene jaw geneli talkative aha price ahah expensive zed hal pid sevgi affection 5 beloved yap ge yay aged (6 Belonging toa place or institution kiy silage byl villager, peasant ger city gehieli —city-cveler Istanbu Istanbutta citizen of Istanbul Gin China Gin Chinese Nicerya Nigeria Niceryalt Nigerian ise Iyece sell Iyove student Osman (founder ofthe Osmantt Ottoman (member Ottoman cor subject ofthe dyna) dynasty) 16 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE surF: [Added to the name of a colour, it makes an adjective oF noun meaning dressed in that color: siya black ‘slyahly dressed in black kaurmuzt red armuzslt dressed in red It may be added to a phrase trun boy ong stature uzun boylu tll Beng omuz broad shoulder genig ommuziubeoad- shouldered forta yay middle age forta yaglt middle-aged farmizt yanak rod cheek karmuzt yanakly red checked Dir mart tarih-l the date bir mart tarihii dated 1 March 1 Mareh samur mud samurlu muddy famurlu yilz muddy fees gamurlu yiizltimuddy- faced feullams use (X, 11) ullanigh: serviceable yaygin kullamg’ wide use yaygun kullamiglt widely ved "The sufi appears to be used redundantly in bombelt ‘conven’ < French bomb ‘convex’ In ganjanlt ‘sho’ of silk; other forms being janjanis and cimeanls) itis not redundant, as the Prench changeant is used as a noun in Turkish in the sense of the quality possessed by shot silk: ganjan kumaglar-t ‘shot fabric 6. +o. ll Pairs of words of opposite meanings, each with 8 suffixed “Hl, are used adverbally and adjetivally: gece] {Gindiiz-I0 gatigmak ‘to work night and day’; Krz-lt erkek-li ‘grenci gruplart “groups of pupils including both girls and boys’. The basic words may be adjectives: uzak-h yakin-lt Kkahkahalar ‘bursts of laughter both far and near’. The li in ‘this eis historically distinet from that discused in the precedingNOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES ——1V,7 7. la, This suffix means ‘without’: Umitstz ‘hopeless’ sonsuz niles’ gapkastz ‘hates’, girUltUstiz ‘noiseless’, dikkatsiz “earslece’, tarihsiz “undsted’ It may be added to pronouns as vel 26 nouns: onsua ‘without him’, sensiz ‘without you’. See also XI, 12, 8. lik (a) Added to nouns or adjectives, it makes abstract nouns: gizel beautiful aizellik beauty Kolay easy Kolaylik ease, facility yi good ‘yi goodness, ‘good action asker soldier askerlik military sgocuk child gocukluk childhood, childish chilishness iki 80 sit duality igs ‘workman {slik ‘workmanship Kagak-g1 smuggler Kagakgilke smuggling Atatirk-ci Ataturkist Atatlekeilok Atturkism ikkat-li careful ddikkadilik —carefulness ikat-sie careless ddikkatsialik —carclesness Vulgarly it is added to Arabic abetract nouns: insaniyet “umenity’ > insaniyettik; cf. ofOred, ete, §4, end ‘When “lik is added 9 nouns of rank the esuling word is not invariably abstract but exhibit the same ambiguity ae “the Pre dent’ ice” (the effce he holds or the office in which he works) kaymakamhk may be the rank of lieutenant governor oF his oficial residence or the district he administers; karallle may be kingship or kingdom or reg. (}) Audded to nouns it makes nouns and adjectives meaning ‘intended for or stable for én front ‘nldk pinafore tz cal sulk fatecellar kira hire ial for bir, to It 802 eye ‘gézlk ceverslasses, spectacles 1,8 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES o amagr linen Baba father sehit martyr Ihastane hospital mahkeme law-coust gelin bride ‘gamagirhik babaltk seit hhastanelik mahkemelik ‘elinlik laundry adoptive father, paternity military (person) ‘brought Delors a court smarriageable ie, mubile, rial, state of being 2 bride (9 Added to numerical expressions it makes nouns and adjec- seksen yilz hundred yl year bir saat one hour fon iki twelve cars ‘araba sseksenlik onluk yilz Halk valk ya yale bie saatik bir yer fon ik ‘arababk bir konvoy ‘octogenarian tenner; coin for note of yearling hundred yearold place one. hour's Journey away acwelve: car convoy,6 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 9 ‘Phe numerical expression may be a noun in the loative ease yiiz-de —inaundsed —yilzdellk percentage onda inten ‘ondalik tthe, ten per CE @linde in the day iindetik daily wage (4) Adied to adverbs of time: simdi now for the present bugiin today for today Although these may be translated as adverbs, atin bugnlGk bu kadar yeter ‘that’s enough for today’, they really belong in (2) above; bugimllik means ‘the today-amount 9, dag "This suffix is not affected by vowel harmony but it does appear as -tag after unvoiced consonants, Added only to nouns, it denotes common attachment to the concept expressed by the basie noun, lke English prefixed or sufficed ‘fellow vatan —home-nd vatanday compatriot fellow citizen kul school okuldag schoolmate mestek profession meslektag collexgue din religion dindagco-teligionist, atime, epoch ‘sadag contemporary (jor now) “Two exceptions: kardes not -dag is the standard Turkish for “brother” or ‘sister’ (= karin-dag “womb-fllow’), and ‘name- sake’ i adag with a single although ‘name’ ie ad. ‘The possible explanation forthe latter anomaly is that its second element is not ag but e9 ‘mate’ and this word adag is the most ikelyerymon ofthe eufie dag, "The language reformers have chosen to make thie sul con form to vowel harmony in the neologism ig-teg-Ilk ‘co-operation’ (ig ‘work) and in the resurrected gimtil-des ‘sympathizer’ (originally gBnildag fom gOnil ‘soul, apparently through ‘misunderstanding of the phonetic spelling sed by Redhouse.+ {4 Tinh and Baie Lexicon (Constantinople, 292) 1508: &. TS, ", NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 6 10. -Ril. This invariable sufic isa provincial. Added to titles ‘or personal names it denotes ‘the house or family of. 2: Kay makamgil, Mehmetgit, aso in the plural Kaymakamgilier, Mehmetgiller. Ie may be sufixed, after a personal suffix, 00 nouns denoting relatives: teyzemgil ‘my aunt's family’, ‘the standard ‘Turkish for this being teyzemaler (IT, 15, end). Tt has been used by the reformers to cain names of plant and animal families: {01 ‘rose’, gUlgiller “Rosaceae; Kedi ‘ca’, edigiller ‘Felidae’ AL, -(G)el. Arabie words ending in the adjectival sufi -F have greatly entiched the Turkish vocabulary; witness auch words as tari ‘historical, dint ‘religous’. Arabic nouns ending ia -at drop it before adding the 1, hence siyast ‘politcal’ (siyaset ‘polities) radi ‘voluntary (irade ‘wil, milf ‘national (mmilet ‘nation. "The language zeformers, in their desire to purge Turkish of foreign elements, advocated the replacement of this useful sfx by -s0l or, when added to words ending in 8 or 7, el. This they employed with foreign boreowings and with Turkish words, Doth existing and manufactured: tarih (A) history tarihsel historic siyaset (A) politics siyasal political ceebir (A) algebra ceebirsel Algebraic Kimya (A) chemistry Kimyasal chemical fizike physics fizksel physical oe self Szel private Dilim science Dilimsel —cientfc anayasa constitution anayasal constitutional In this last example the suffix has been reduced to -to avoid the cxcophonous -sasal "To justify this innovation the reformers cited such time- hhonoured word 26 uysal ‘compliant’ (uymak ‘to conform), Ieumsal ‘candy’ or ‘a sandy tract (kum ‘sand’) and yoksul ‘destitute’ (YOK ‘non-existent’). The real inspiation of it, hov= ‘ever, was in such French words as cullurel and social® 1 1 mucho a French boring the noun KU, but not heave sie ping tr tere feo te re“6 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES —IVy12 12, -varl, ‘This Persian sufi, meaning ‘like’ sill productive in Turkish to a limited extent: Sekspirvart ‘Shakespearian’ GBrsilvari “Churchillian'; James Bondvari bir casusluk “a James Bond-ish eave of espionage 13, ll, This occur in afew words and has the sense of ‘tending towards, accustomed to, addicted to's ak white kil faded Kir grey Jeurgil)——gezsled adam man adameil fame or ready t0 ‘attack man Dalik fish alike heron tavgan hare taygancil eagle ‘lim death ‘Slémedl sorbund Some ncologiams have been made with this suffix: ben encll selfish ana mother fanacit — mother-bound ev houte fevell domesticated kkitap book: Kkitapgil bookish 14, -hane, The Persian Khe ‘hous’ isnot quite dead as a sufix in Turkish; pastahane ‘cake-shop i of more recent origin than hhastahane, eczahane, and postahane and unlike them it keeps its h more often than not (I, 11). It is added to few Turkish words, eg stithane ‘dair", buzhane ‘ice-house’, dikimhane “tailoring workshop’, aghane ‘cook-shop’. Probably ephemeral is kazakhane ‘clip.joint ' from kazak ‘swindle’ 36, -ane. This Persian sufi, in which the a is long, serves (a) to make adjectives or nouns into adverbs: mest ‘drunk’, mestanie ‘drunkenly’; (6) to turn nouns and adjectives indicating persons into adjectives describing things: gah ‘king’, gahane "regal; alr ‘poet’, sairane ‘poetic; dost ‘frend’, dostane ‘ftiendly" (as in ‘a friendly word’); midebbir bir paga ‘a prudent Pasha’, paganin mildebbirane harcketi ‘the Pasha's prudent action’ {eis mentioned here because it has recently shown ite productive of at leat one word: from bilgig "know-all, bilgigane “in a Jnow-all fashion’ * Nowe § excepto following eed conten v PRONOUNS Personal pronouns: Singular First Second ‘Third hi, ben sen face. beni seni gen. benim senin ont da, bana sana ona oc, ende sende onda ab, benden Senden ondan Plural ah, biz siz. onlar fac. bial sia onary gem bizim sizin—onlarin fla. ize size onlaea ic, lade Sizde —onlarda abi bizden sizden onlardan In pre-ninetoenth-century texts the usual forms of the third ern eng) 1, ant, ans, anda, andan; (pant, Te will be noticed thatthe table exhibits sore anomalies the sm in the genitive ofthe first-person singular and plural; the change froin e to @ inthe dative ofthe frt- and second-perton singular in the third person the m before the case-sulixes of the singular and before the -lar of the plural. The most plausible explanations ‘of these anomalies are: the original beniq and bizin. became benim and bizim under th ifluence ofthe pronominal suffixes im and simiz, helped perhaps by the labial b. ‘The original suffix of the dative was not ~e but ~Be; henge, senge became hhene, see and the influence of this nasal brought about the change to bana, sana, a change poeibly helped by analogy with the old third-person dative anja > ana; this very form aa may Ihave been due tothe influence ofthe in an earlier Sona. Theno PRONOUNS Ws appears in the third persoa also when 0 takes the sufixes -siz (LY, 9) and -ee (X11, 2): onsuz “without him’, onea ‘according ‘to him’ ‘The usta explanation of this mis that itis the ‘pro- ‘nominal n? which appears after the third-person sufi and in the ‘eclession of -ki and Kenai (3, 4)." ‘ois 4 demonstritive ax wll a4 4 personal pronoun; see § 5. siz isthe regular polite form for ‘you’, singular or plial, and Diz is used colloquially for (XVI, 3 (0); they may therefore take the plural sufi in the colloquial —bizler, sizler—when referring to moce than one person, Tn courtly speech, whichis steadily becoming rarer, ben-may be replaced by bendeniz. ‘your slave” (< Persian banda; the resemblance to bem is coincidental), the full meaning of which has Ihecome somevshat abraded, so that a following verb nowadays i usually in the fist and not the third person, and, for example, “mmy humble opinion’ ie bendenizin fikrim “your slave's my “opinion”. Similarly, siz may be replaced by 2at-t alin or zat alifert (Persian izfet), erally “your high person, their high ‘person’, which are followed by a vetbin the second-perso plural 2. Uses of the personal pronouns. Aa they are definite by nature, ‘we may call ben, sen, 0, ete, the nominative instead of the absolute ease; there is'no question of their being used as an Indefinite accusative, “The persons of verbs are shown by eaines but a pronoun in the nominative may be used for emphasis: o git, ben gitmedim “he went; 1 did not go "The pronoun abject of a verb is generally omitted if it can be understood for the context: kitaba din aldim, daha okuma- ddim “I bought the book yesteeday; Thave not read (it) yet "The use of sent “the” with terms of abuse is conventionally ‘explained bythe ellipsis ofa verb such as“ dsike/deplorejwarn'= ‘seni gidi! “you scoundrel!; sent afacan sent! ‘you chee little urchin you!" More preciscly, the reason there it no verb is ‘thatthe speaker does not have in mind any specif verb but only an inarticulate emocion of displeasure of which sent isthe object, Tn the genitive the pronouns can be used predicatively; ef IT, 11: bu memleket nigin bizim? ‘why is this land ours?"; bu para benim ‘this money is mine'; senin olsun “keep it (it "Tie puted ot ie snc, by lie, p97 ae va PRONOUNS o “Levit of-you'); mesuliyet sizin dedi ‘the responsibilty is They may reinforce the personal sulfixes: ev-imix or bizim_ fev-imiz ‘our house’; sokage-imz or sizin sokajjantz “your sroet";ad-4 or onun ad ‘his name’ ‘The genitive of the third-person pronouns can revolve ambi= fuites which might arise from the various posible senses of, for example, gvcuklart (ef, 11 15) fonun gocuklart his children onlarin gocugu their child fonlarin gocuklart thee children Pronouns of the fist and second persons in the genitive are also sed informally as attributve adjectives. replacing the personal suifies; ‘our house” can be bizim ev; "your set” sizin sokak. ‘The genitive of the thied-person pronouns eannot, however, replace the personal sufises in stindard Turkish: onun ad instead of adi or onun adi is 2 provincialism (cf. Abedin Mustafa, p. 43, penultimate paragraph) 3. -Ki. The pronominal or mixed” suffix -ki is exceptional in the ‘matter of vowel harmony, not changing except after gin “day” and dln "yesterday, when it becomes KU, Added tothe genitive ‘ase of a noun or pronoun, it makes a poatesive pronoun: ‘metsi-nin-ki ‘the one belonging to the servant; Gocug-un-k ‘the one belonging tothe child"; benim ‘mine; seninki thine’ fonunki ‘his, hers, the one belonging to it; bizimki “ours; sizinki ‘yous’; onlarink ‘their’. bu kalem benim degil and bu kalem benim degil may both be trnalated “this pen is not mine’. The former isa simple denial of ownership, the later implies "have a pen but tie i not i. "The aaun in the genitive to which -ki is sufixed say be in the plural and may have a personal sul, the one belonging to your frend the one belonging to your frends Added to an expression of time or place, which may be an adverb or a noun in the locative cate “Ki makes « pronoun or adjective: yazin “in summer, KOylUnlin yazsnki kazaner “the immer earnings’; buglin ‘today’, buginkt gazete» PRONOUNS wa “today’s newspaper’, bugiinkiler “those who are today, people nowadays"; yarin “tomorrow’, yarinki toplants “tomorrow's secting'; simdi ‘now’, gimdtki durum ‘the present situation’, ‘kul caii-r ‘school-age’ okul gaindaki cocuklar ‘children of school-age’ (who are in school-age’). lamir'deki biiromuz. KUsik, Adana'daki daha buyUKtUE ‘our office which-is-in- amir is small, the-one-in-Adana is bigger Pronouns in Ki may be declined, In the singular the ease- ‘endings are preceded by the pronominal , but this doesnot 2)- pear in the plural, ‘Thus the declension of benim ies follow: Singular Plural ‘ts, enim benimkiler mine fac, benimkini ——enimkilert mine gon denimkinin —benimkilerin of mine det ‘benimkilere to mine tos enimkilerde in mine ab, Denimkilerden fom mine socuijun boyu babasiminkini gegti ‘the child's stature has passed hig father's; resimlerimiz, kardeslerinizinkilerden aymetiir ‘our piczures are more valuable than you brothers 4- kendi, Asan adjective it means ‘own’: Kendi oda-m ‘my own oom’, Kendi kizet ‘her own daughter, Kendi memleket-iniz “your own country’ ‘With the personal sufixes it makes the emphatic or efcxive pronouns ‘myselt, et-: kendi-m , kendi-n, Kendi or kendi-s, kendi-miz, kendi-niz, kendi-leri. For ‘hicelf with relive resning, Kendi is far more usual than kendisi; indeed, purists maintain that Kendist should never be vised reflexively, Both {oom take the pronominal n before all ese-endings abs kendisi ce Kendisini eon Kendisinia at. Kendisine hoe Kendisinde ‘hi, Kendinden kendisinden As a reflexive pronoun Kendi is utvally repeated, the Gest time in the absolute with no sufi, the second time with the appropriate personal and cate sfx: Kendi ke ettim ‘T defended mysel;igt Kendi kendi-m-e yapamadim “T could not do the job for (or "by”) myself’; Kendi kendl-n-i tenkit edivor ‘he is criticizing himsel; kendi kendi-miz-den korkmiyali ‘let us not be afaid of ourselves Kendisi and is plural Kendileri are commonly employed as simple thisd-pesson pronouns with no relleive or emphatic sense: Kendisi evde “he is at home’; Kendilerini gdrddnd rai “have you seen them? [As Kendis iterally means ‘his sc it may standin aft with 1 proceding noun in the genitive: AtatirkGn kendisi ‘Atak himsel"; Meclis"in kendisi "the Assembly isl. 5. Denvonstatives: ‘bu this (close tothe speaker) su this or that (a lite farther away) © that (aso “he she, it’) When used as adjectives these words are invariable. For theit declension when used as pronouns see o in §1: sing. bu, bunu, ete, gu, gum, et.; pl. bunlar, ete, sumlar, ete. ‘gu means ‘the following’: gu teklif ‘the following propossl, this proposal which I am about to mention; bu teklif "the pro= posal which has just been mentioned’. ‘Where we say “this or that’, Turkish profes ‘that or thi’: uma xyap, bunu yap ‘do that, do this’ Tn archaizing Tegal Tangvage, 4gbu may be found for the adjectival bu. Until the last century gol was sometimes uscd for gu "The personal sufixes are not used with the demonstratives except in such stereotyped expressions as gu-nun bu-nun §u-s0 bbu-su ile alikadar olmiyan ‘not intrested in other people's busine (the that and this of tat one and this one’) o-m0n fgussu bus “his private conceras’ (This that and this) ‘Demonstratives precede attibutive adjectives: bu uzun yot ‘this long rad’; emis omuzla glresch that broad-shouldered wrestler; 0 meghur aktéir “that famous actor’ They may come within a definite laf; ef I, 17, end “An idiomatic use of bu isto place it after a noun: samatkr ba, literally ‘arts cis, meaning “the fllow's an artis; what do you7 PRONOUNS we expect?” So hayat bu ‘that’s life for you’; gocuk bu ‘he's only child; don't ask too much of hisn ‘From bu, gu, and 0 are formed bByle, goyle, and dyle, used both as adverbs ‘thus’ and adjectives, sch, thilthat kind of Diyle adamlar such men (a this) gByle evler such houses (at those over there) Sylefikirler such ideas (es those) ‘The addition of the third-person sufi to these words makes them into pronouns (ef. Il, 22): biylest ‘thie sort of person’, sbylesi or 6ylesi ‘that sort of person’; plural: Ddyleler, 69" Ieleri, Oyleleri. The singular forms are also used adjctivally-— Dylesi adamlar ‘such men'—but thie use has not achieved general currency beriki, Seki, mean seapectvey the nester and the further of two. They may be adjectives or pronouns; being compounded ‘vith -K, when used as pronouns they take the pronominal before all cases of the singular: bu gazeteyi istemiyorum, ‘Btekicn-i ver "I-don't want this newspaper, give me the other fone over there’. Steki beriki means “this one and that one, any= body and everybody’. 6, Intersogatives kim who? hhangi which? ne what? kag) hove many? ‘kim declines like @ noun, in singular and plural: bu ganta kkim-in? ‘whose is this bag?; kim-i gOrdiin? ‘whom did you se0?"; kimer-e? “to what people?” ‘ne exhibits certain irregularities Singular Phra abs, ne neler fcc. neorneyt neler or nelesi gen. neyin or neninnelerin da neyeorniye— nelere Toc, nede’ nelerde ‘bl, nesden, nelerden, "There ate also alternative forms with the personal suixes, ‘meaning ‘what of mine? ‘what of yours? et Singular Paral 1 nem orneyim —nemiz or neyimiz 2 men neyin neniz neyinie 3 mest nevi nelert “The usnal accusative singulrsme: ne yaptn? what have you done? rey i sed (G) Tor what speci thing?" eg you hea that sreone is sng tothe upern and sk ne grecekin? "hot ae yo song {ae you may clit the fcetows reply an oper, of course ‘There no danger of this i'youank ney gorecekin? ‘what (specie item the repertoire re you gong to sce? "The dened ceustn paral neler isin sed for "what pei hings? {@) When anther interogatve flows, epecly one co pounded with ne: nepi ve He zaman yaptin? what have you Gn and when’; Kim ney kimesatyon? who i scling what towhom? ‘The regular spelling of the dative singule ie meyer neye yorar? for-what i ieiable?, while miy generally wed in Thesense ef what for, wy? a the abltive eden, “rhe pla i used in exclamation neler grdGmt “what things Fa? (One of the commonest uses of ne with personal sfits is cxemplifdin nen var hare the matter oh yu? it hat or exis, what do you have? cent? Note also meme Tizam? shat ei todo with me? fi. "torwhatofeine ie necsay bu olel-un nein? "yu sre this schoo what, esha is your poston inthis choo? kaprctmtyim Ts ne maybe the qualifing clement of an indefinite ie, ne dere var? hat kwon iy thre? (on the timetable) Ingealy,beeine the anawer wil lso const in an indefne tft: Geometr ders There aster of aan who te 0 fella tend that he has Seen ghost, hora, tein bi ereor Ie cin only ster ho-ho-ho, Fis fend asks me hos? "wht, tho? the ho belnging what ne ay be an adjertive a ell ab pronoun: etc? “what need? me inat! "what obstinacy, me gael gigeMer! “what Tovely Hower? Te may alo render “how at in ne ze “how” PRONOUNS wr beautifull oF me malim? “hose do you know? (lit. “how is it known?) or why" a in me karigivorsun? ‘what are you inter= fering fot)? Te forms pact of many compound interrogatves: ne zaman, ne vvakit when?"; ne kadar ‘how much?"; nigin (— ne fin “what for?) ‘why?'; nasil (= ne asit ‘what basa?) *how?", "what sort of - . 2; mecl ‘of whit profession?” With the adverbial suffix -ce (XI, 2), it makes (a) nece “in what language?” and (@) mice, meaning originally ‘how many? then "how many! and nowadays mostly "many" "The elision of thee of ne, a seen in nlgin and nas, efrequent onvertation ne olacak? ‘what willhppen = nolaeak? 2; ne yapalim.? ‘what are we to do?” > napalim? Inangl and kag are adjectives, the latter always construed wth a singular noun angi viliyet? “which province?"; hang iliyetler? “which provinces?; kag villyet? ‘how many pro- vinees?” With the addition of personal sufixes they become pronouns: hangi-miz? ‘which of us2"; kag-inz? “how many of| you"; hangl-si? ‘which ane of them 2"; hangi-ler-i? ‘which (pl) of them?” 7. Indefinite, determinative, and negative, Most of the pronouns fn this eategory are formed from adjectives by the addition of the thied-person suffix, on the pattern of biyle-si (§5). Thus bir ‘a, one isan adjective: bir adam gitti ‘one man went bir-i js'a pronoun: adamlardan biri giti, birt kalds “one of the ‘men went, one remained’. ‘The sufx may be doubled: bir-l-sh biri and birisi may also mean ‘someone’; in thie use the ante= cxdent of the third-person aufix ie people at lange, 8 “they” as ‘vague a in ‘they say": birt or birisl bana seslendi ‘someone called out to me’ Tn those words below the word-accent which biti the clement it caries 8. baz, kimi ‘some’ (adjective). "The final vowel of baz is the mark ofthe Persian ieaet, ois unacceated. kimt in this adjectival sense isa neologsm. Both qualify singular or plural nouns: bat for kimi adam ‘some man’; bazi or kim adamlar ‘some men’. Pronouns: bazsst, bazilars, kimi, kimisi ‘some. people’; ‘bazimuz, kimimiz ‘come of us; baziniz, kiminiz “some of you’ 9. birtakum ‘2 number of (it. ‘a set’ slays qualifies plural nouns: bietakim kéylOler “ number of vilagers'. Like the indefinite artile, i may come betwen adjective and noun: Kiigik birtakim devletler “a numberof small states’. Note the distinction between birtakim kitaplar "a number of books’ and bir takm kitap ‘est of hooks (for the construction of the latter see XVI, 7). Pronoun: birtakms ‘a number of them’ 10. her (P) ‘cach, every’, with noun in singular: her gin ‘every ay’; her iki-si “both of thems her Gime “all three of ws hher biti, herkes(P) everyone"; her bir-imiz ‘each one of us’ hher kim ‘whoever’; her ne ‘whatever; her ne kadar ‘however ‘her hangi ‘whichever’; her hangi bir ‘any", Compounds ‘of her are sometimes sriten a8 one word: herbirimiz, herne- kadar, ee 11, hep is an adverb meaning ‘altogether, entirely, aways’. With the personal sufies it becomes a pronoun: hep-imiz ‘all of us’ hepriniz ‘all of you’. ‘The thied person is hepsi (= hep-i-si, swith the sfx doubled) all of i, al of them, everyone’ 12. ok as sn adverb means ‘much, very": gok konugtuk ‘we tallied lot gok faydalt "very wef. With a noun, singular or plural, it means “mich, many": gok Hp “much work's gok igh ‘many persons’, gok yerler ‘many pacts ‘With possessive suffices it is» pronoun, meaning ‘most rather ‘than ‘many: goetimua ‘most of ue; goji-unuz “most of you" ‘oR nox of, most of them’. "The last is used as an adjective se well sa pronosn, like bbylesi and kimi: goju insanlar ‘most people’; goftu zaman ‘most times, ost often’. ‘iegok ‘a good deal of is followed by # noun in singular or plurals pedants say singular only. Pronouns: birgoBu ‘a good deal of it, a birgoklart's gond many people or things good many of them's 13. az as an adverb means ‘litle : az igor ‘he drinks litle’. As an sajective, with «singular noua, "fw, litle’: az kigt few persons’; fan garap iger ‘he drinks little wine’. See alo IU, 4. baz ‘elite’: biraz yiradUk ‘we walked a lite’; birwz ‘ekrmek yedinn I tea litle bread’; Birazct ‘a litle of i.* PRONOUNS va 4, birkag “2 few, several with singular noun: birkag gin kealds “he stayed several dys ‘Pronoun: birkagt ‘several of them’, et. 15. bitin asa noun or as an adjetive qualifying a singular noun means ‘whole millet-in biltin-0 “the vwhole of the nation’s Datu millet ‘the whole nation’. As an adjective with a plural rovin i means ‘all: BOtiin milter “ll the nation 16. bagka, diger (P) other’. Pronouns: bagkast, bir baskast, bagka biri, diger birt ‘another of them, someone or something else's kaldir bunu, Dagkasim getir “ake this avay, bring another. benden baska ‘other than me"; benden bagkast ‘someone other than me’ 17. Bbur (<0 bir; I 32, end) ‘the other, the next’: Shir gin “the day after tomortoi; Obi dUnya ‘the next work” Pronoon: bir "the other one" 18, birbir oc bitibir, vith the appropriate possessive sui ‘means ‘each other: 1 birbirimis or biribirimiz 2 irbiriniz or Bieibiriniz 4 iebiet, bieibiri, or bieibirtert birbirimiz-e yardim ediyoruz “we are helping each athe biribiriniz-i seviniz ‘love one another"; biribirinden gizel farlar ‘girls each more beautiful than the other’. The Persian yekdiger isan inereasingly rarer alternative. 19, ayns ‘same’. In view of ite origin (Ul, 26, thied paragraph) this ought tobe immediately followed by snoun, asinaymizaman “the same time. Teis, however, regularly used nowadays with an intervening adjetive and even predicatively: aya uzun yol ‘the same long road’; Redeflerimlz aynt “our aims are the same’ "This ayn, which is froquently misepelt ayn, is accented on the first syllable "There is another word aynt, accented on the last syllable, ia ‘which the'r isthe Turkish third-person suffix: ad-1 bemim-ki- rnin aynetedir ‘his name is the same as mine’ lit ‘hisname v0 PRONOUNS 7 of-mine ieits-counterpan’, ‘The stifix is sometimes doubled: Dunn ayn-isient alalum ‘let's buy one just like this’ (of-this its-counterpart). This, however, is vulgarism, against which schoolchildren are warned. Oddly, what they ae told to put in its place is tpkist “its replica’, which also contains a doubled third-person suffix. ‘The bare form *tapnk (Arabic fly) is never used, though tupk (the Gna being tut of the Persian iafet) is commonly put before a noun or pronoun to reinforce the post= positon bi “ike'> tipke abast bb ‘ost like his father ‘upkt onlar gibi jut lke them 20. sey, as well as meaning ‘thing’, is an all-purpose pronoun, used like Freneh chose to take the place of a word or name the speaker cannot for the moment reil For its syntactic function sce XV, 3. When it takes the third-person suf this is usually oubled, ey-i-st (sometimes spelled geyst; cf. hepsi, §11 probably because in ordinary speech gey-is barely distinguishable from sey: gey-in gey-insi ne oldu-—mektub-un zarf-1? ‘what fas become ofthe what-d'yecall-it of the whatd'ye-call envelope ofthe leer? 21. falan, falanca, fin, flinea ‘eo and so, such and such’ are adjectives and pronouns. falan tarihte, falanca geldi ‘on fuich and sich a date, so and so came’ alan snd filén also mean “and so on sfter nouns, ‘or there- abouts after expressions of time or quantity: camiler-i falan fezdi ‘he toured the mosques and so on"; temmuzda fin elecekler ‘they will eame in July or thereabouts on lira falan Istiyor ‘he wants ten lis of ao". They may be sed together Bedri, Orhan, Himit falan filan geliyorlar ‘Bedi, Orhan, amit and so on and so forth are coming’, falan festeki2 and falan fegmekin are similarly used and convey even less en- ‘usin atthe prospect 22. insan ‘human being’ ie used for the indefinite ‘one; bu Sicakhikta insan gabuk yorulur “in this heat one gets vied ‘ick’, See also the use of the impersonal passive in VI, 4. 223. hig, in origin the Persian for ‘nothing’ has the same sense in ksh: ne yaptin?—hig ‘what have you done?”—'acthing’ Tealto functions as an adverb reinforcing negatives: hig konugmaz "he doesn’ tlle al’. With bir tis writen 2 one word: highir| hhaber yok ‘there is no news at ll Tn ponitive questions it translates “ever, ia negative questions “Snover hig Byte gey olue mu? ‘does such x thing ever happen?”: ‘hig Antalya'da bulunmadinz mi? ‘have you never been in Antalya?” 24, kimse, originally ‘whoever it a? (im }i8e, XX, 7), now means ‘petson, somebody not clearly specid’: bir kimse sizi ‘ariyordu ‘someone was looking for you’, In conjunction with 2 nagative it means ‘no one’, lke French pesome: kimse airs fetmiyor ‘no one is paying attention’; Kimse-siz gocuklar “ehildeen who are alone in the world” (IV, 7) Its diminutive is tise in the negative sense only: kimsecik Sok ‘there's no one kkimsecikler kalmamig ‘there are no people left a al’ vi NUMERALS ark ~ allt se ‘ltmig te vyetmig p seksen fe doksan 9 yz 160 bin 1,000 yirmi 20 bir milyon 1,000,000 yirmi bir 21 bir milyar 1,000,000,000 om 30 sir er Numbers are compounded by simple justapostion: yiiz bir “a hundred and one’; ig milyon dére viz yirmi bin sekiz yiiz doksan alt "hice million four hundied and twenty thousand tight hundred and ninety-si’ Tn the numbers from 11 t0 19 inclusive (which may be found written a one word), the accent ison the 08, Ta higher numbers the last syllable of the unit x accented ‘Whereas ‘one hundred’ and “one thousand’ are yilz and bin respectively, “one million’ and ‘one millird? (je. an American billion) require bi. In writing figures, a full stop (nokta) is used to separate the thousands; thus bes bin altt yéz otuz iki is written $.632. (On the other hand, a comma (Virgil) is used where English uses 4 decimal point, so 75 (seven point fir’) appears as 7.5 (yedi ‘irgll bes). Los commonly, the thousands are separated by 4 comma, and 4 fll stop may be used for the decimal point 5682; 7°5. Tn vague ascesaments of mumber such as ‘two or three’, ‘ve or six) the ‘or not expressed: HAI Og, bes alts. For ‘three oF four, idiom mysteriously prefers Ug bep to Ug dlrt. CE. the» NUMERALS va expressions lig agaga bog yukars ‘alittle more oF Tes telly “three down five up’ and lige bese bakmamak ‘net to hagle about the price’, literally ‘not to Took at three (or five" Care must be taken not to confuse on beg “fifteen with beg on lve o te Care is also necessary with viz, which besides “hundred? may sean feause” or ‘face's Ik yt “wo hundred"; ki yal ‘two- faced’ ikiyiz1010K “hypocrisy; yl let ‘surfacrate’; DU yiizden ‘fr this reason’ ark is used for an indefinitely high nurnber: kurkayal ‘centi- pede’ (fory-fee’); kirk yulda bir ‘once in a blue moon’ (in forty years). ‘When caseendings or other suffixes are written after figure, the rules of consonant-assinlation and vowel-harmony mast be ‘observed: from 2t0 9 ikiden dokuza, 2 den 9 a;"fom 3 t 7, ligten yediye, 3 ten 7 ye; "Irom 6 to 11 altidan on bire, 6dan apostrophe may precede the sufix: 2'den 9a, ex. ‘ase of the singular form of the noun afer numerals, 2. Classifiers. A numeral is rarely used aloncy eg. in answer to 4 question; either the noun i repeated orf the things enumerated are separate entities and not units of measurement, the word tame (sed, grain’) is added after the numeral. kag saat bekliyor= sunuz?—iki saat ‘how many hours have you been wating?” ‘wo hour’. kag kitap aldiniz?—dort tane “how many Books have you bought? ‘four’. tane is often inserted beoween numeral and noun (unless the latter is 4 unit of measurement) beg tane anahtar “ive keys; sekiz tane mendil ‘ight handker- chil. Te is also added ater kag, especially withowt a following noun: kag tane istiyorsunuz? “how many do you want?” If people are being enumerated, kigh ‘person’ ie similarly uae: kag igi geliyor kokteylinize?—kark alt igh "how many are ‘coming to your evektail-party? forty-six’. When enumerating cattle, oF vegetables euch a8 onions and cabbage, bag “head!” is interposed after the numerals elli bag str “fty oxen’; yiiz bag Koyumn ‘a hundred sheep iki bay hana ‘two eabbages'. CE: the English “ity head of etl’ but note that Turkish uses simple apposition, with no “oP sc ee rk 8G, ease Bute oat tng vhs NUMERALS cl “hand? is similar'y used when enumerating shots ofa firearm or deals of cards: bir el tabanca att “he fired one pistol-shor': bir el poker oymiyalim ‘le’s play a hand of poker’. Other such classifiers were used in Ottoman: aded ‘number as alternative to tane; kita "piec’, of books, document, ships, ad fields; pare “piece, of artillery, ships, and villages.* 3. Fractions, The denominator, in the loeative case, precedes the ‘numerator: gte bi (it “n-three one’) “one-third Yedide drt “four-acvenths'; ybade yirml beg "owenty-ive per cent’; yzde yiiz ‘one hundred per cen,” The percentage sign consequently precedes the number: , 25; 9 100. The namerator is put in Aefinite izafet with the whole, of which the fraction is. pat: Sgocuklarin beste ig "three-fifths of the children’ (ofthe Ehildren, in-five theiethres'; gelie-im-in ylzde yieml begt “ewenty-ive per een. of my income’, This lst example would ap- pear in gures as gelirimin % 25 i. yekOn yi Slgdm-d-ntin 18,7 si (ylzde on sekiz virgil yedisi) ormanlarla kapi- dir ofits total suface-area, 17 % is covered with forests ‘buguk means and a hl and is used only after whole numbers and, joculasy, after az ‘litle’ and yar “halt on buguk kilo- _metre “ten and a half kilometres; az buguk kigi ‘a handful of people; yart buguk ustalik “inadequate craftsmanship ‘yarim isanadjectivemeaning'sall-"-yarum saat'a half-hour’; yarim kilo domates ‘haf «kilo of tomatoes’ (note the eppos: tion). For no clear reason, yarumda means ‘at half past telve vyart is used (0) Asa noun: talebeler-in yart-stkiz ‘haf of the pupils are sirls'; gece-nin yart-eiont konugarak gegirdik "we spent half ff the night in talking’; gece yart-st “midnight; gece-nin ‘yari-sten-da ‘in the middle of the nigh’ () At an adjective meaning ‘mid, at the half-way mark’: yart ‘dece ‘midnight; yart yol-da burakmak ‘to leave in the lurch’ (Gt “at mid-way’), (As an sdverb: yart anlamak ‘to half-understand’; yart ‘Tiirkse, yari Fransizca Konustuk ‘we spoke half Turkish half French’. sive ite thie" Mr es The Stop of Langage (London Alen & Uni gah& NUMERALS ve ‘seyrek (P) ‘quarter’ is now litle waed except when telling the time; see XU, 14 4. Ondinals, ‘The suffix is -inei after consonants, -ne after vowels: Dirinel or ik ast yirminel ath Ikinel and yirmi birinct tet Ustined 3rd otuzunen ath dirdined th Jarkines jet beginct 5th ellinet goth altines ion altmisinet oth yedinci 7th yetmiginei eth Sekizincl Sth ‘ekseninci Sout dokuzuncu th doksanines goth fonuncu 0th yiaiine’ reoth fonbirinel ith bininci 200th mlyonmaes—nloth fryer Gund lent ‘hs wl be sen fom ‘hand ‘ne, th etn sui sigh ony et enema compound mer “hemes be writen far figures nl, 2 ah ‘nh oe Someabbcone iw le The fi aspen: Hag how mye? somone ‘ua (on "el ba) nines nye oma at aed int Ones nd th ames otsoveegn and oma crn suchan congrats rd cbs 2S rae Se onl gute nc thn rien bt sl gop Fhe th umes HX ve SX asi the tent (esi) erty SRV or KAVIN Lee Eternagyont Fuse STeeabohth (lem okie) itera a fT “The Rea nce ay pred fl rer mame ‘Sethe say be wt Sli iH Sel, oe XU Slim al te Nig a ss nd Sel "hei Ars ode soneines wed ith ane of soviet They se cel at abi sont ona tamis Sh Sts a se Sh vis NUMERALS All the as are long. Mehemmed-i sani — ikinel Mehmet, ‘Muhammad TT; Selim-t salis = Ugiinei Selim, Selim ITT, 5. Distributives, Tete answer the question kagar? ‘how many cach?" and are formed hy adding to the cardial the suc after consonant, -fer after a vowel: bbirer one each Sekizer eight each ikiger to cach dokuzar nine each figer three each fonar—teneach brder four each fon birer eleven each Deger five each yylemiger twenty exch altigar six each fotuzar thirty each yediger seven each earkar forty each As with the ordinals, the sullix is attached only to the last clement of compounds: yirmi Giger "23 cach’; ik ytz ell ‘dokuzar ‘239 each’. With whole hundreds and thousands, how- fever, itis move usual nowadays to attach the distributive suffix tthe number preceding the yz or bin: ikiger ylz rather than ki ylzer for "200 each’; heger Bin rather than bes biner for ‘5020 each’ The to foreign borrowings milyon and milyar never take the distributive sufix: birer mailyon lira ‘a million lira each’; tsar milyar ‘sc thousand milion each’ “The distributive of yarum is irregular, tking the post-vocalic gar despite its final consonant: yarimgar “half cach". The ‘fix isnot attached to buguk but tothe preceding whole number yirmi yediger buguk ‘tventy-seven and a hall each’. iki kigi bbirer yal altagar ay hapis cezasina mahkiim edilmislerdir “wo penple have each been sentenced to one year and six month imprisonment” (one-each year, six~each month!); in figures, Ter yil6 sar ay. ‘A frequent idiomatic use of Direr is seen in: askerlerimiz, birer aslan gibi diismana saldirds ‘our suldiers attacked the enemy lke 20 many lin’ (li “ke one-each Fon, each one like ‘lion Like bir, birer may come between adjective and noun: ‘muharririn migahedeleri bu hususta canlt birer misal tegkil etmektedir "the author's observations constiute 90 many vivid examples in this connexion” (it vivid one-eoch example, cach one a vivid example)