(F wo PUBLICATIONS PTE LTDKEY SERIES ABOUT KEY SYMBOLS OVERVIEW POINTS ABOUT SCIENCE (CHEMISTRY) KEY*POINTS ‘Aims 10 propare students for the GCE ‘O’ Level Examino- tions, This book covers the syllabus for Science (Chemisty) oe Each chapter of the book consists of the following: Learning Objectives Leoring objectives of cach chapter based on the syllebus fare given in this section. Students should make sure thot they are able ta meci all the basic requirements of the objectives before they sit for the examinations. Useful Websites Some useful websites are listed for students’ reference ond further research, Those websites con holp students understand the concepis of the chapters better Overview OF The Topic This toble gives students a concept map of the topic. It shows studenis the structural links between the sub-areas of each topic. Key Points This port features concise revision notes to help studenis con- cenirate on more importont areas, All essential key points are, presented to help students 10 consolidate their knowledge learnt in closs. Stop & Think (Sample Questions With Worked Solutions} For each topic, questions have been consolidated to check : and evaluate studenis’ understanding. This ensures that doubts are better clarified before they proceed to the next section. ExomTips ExomTips in this book summarise oll of students’ common mistokes, weaknesses and misconceptions shown in post ex: eminations. Some important romindors for students cre olso listed in this section. Lee Sook Cheng (MSe., PGDE, BSc.)CONTENTS No. No, No. ne. No, No. No. No. 1 2 3 2 to | rast 160 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES | eee 5 THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER Pace 24 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING rage 33 STOICHIOMETRY AND THE MOLE CONCEPT pace 52 CHEMICAL REACTIONS pase 77 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS. ~~ THE PERIODIC TABLE pace 118 METALS Pace 133 AIR AND WATER | race 150 ORGANIC CHEMISTRYy EXPERIMENTAL (| TOPIC 1 TECHNIQUES LEARNING OBJECTIVES Candidates should be able to: 1.1 Experimental Design name appropriate epparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume, including burettes, pipettes, measuring cylindors ond gas syringes suggest suitable apparatus, given relevant information, for o variety of simple experiments, including the collection of gases and the measurement of rates of reaction 1.2 Methods of Purification and Ancilysis & describe methods of purification by the use of a suitable solvent, filiraion, crystallisation and disillotion {including the description but not use of fractional distillation — refer to the fractional distillation of crude oil and fermented liquor) suggest suitable methods of purification, given information about the substances involved describe paper chromatography and interpret chromatograms deduce, from the given melting poinis ond boiling points, the identities of substonces ond their purty 1.3 Identification of lons and Gases describe the use of aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia to identify the following fequeous cations: aluminium, ammonium, calcium, copper, iron{l}, iron{ll), leed{l) and zinc (formulae of complex ions ore not required) 8 describe tests 10 identify the following onions: carbonate (by the addition of dilute acid and subsequent use of limewater), chloride (by reaction of on aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous silver nitrate), iodide (by reaction of an aqueous solution with nifric acid and ‘aqueous leadfil} nitrate}, nitrate (by reduction with aluminium and aqueous sodium hydroxide to ammonia and subsequent use of litmus paper) and sulphate (by reaction of on aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous barium nitrate) 1 describe tests to identify the following gases: amrnonia (using damp red litmus paper), carbon dioxide (Using limewoter), chlorine (using damp litmus paper), hydrogen (using o burning splini), ‘oxygen {using a glowing splint) and sulphur dioxide (using acidified potassium dichromate(\I}) USEFUL WEBSITES hita://www.learn.co.uk/default.asp¢WCl=Unit&WCU=3757 hitp://wew.yesmnag.be.ca/projects/poper_chroma. html http://www. chernistrycoach.com/tutorials-9,htm#Chemistry%20 Laboratory hitp://chemistry.about. com/library/weekly/aa020603a.htm hitp://wow-kids.net.au/encyclopedia/?p=ch/Chemisty_ basic topics oo0000Not Experimental Techniques OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES © key areas 1.1 [EXPERIMENTAL] @ Measurenener “Time ine DESIGN + Temperature: | | [= Mass @ Courenon oF Gs Displacement of cir= downward delivery | 12 [METHOD OF 7 @ Sereanon | * Filrfion PURIFICATION | Teanacurs = Cigiallisation AND ANALYSIS ss . istillation * Fractional distillation = | * Paper chromatography _ B Camas oF * Melting point determination = | Pury * Boiling point determination 13 [IDENTIFICATION | Q Tes Aluminium aul OFIONSAND | Canons + Ammonium GASES = SSS * Calcium * Copperill) | | + Troll) | | 0) |e , [@ terre | @ Tests ror . | Attons | + Tedide + Nitiole * Sulphate @Tessron | * Ammonia Gases Carbon dioxide + Chierine '* Hydrogen | * Oxygen | + Sulphur dioxideNo Experimental Techniques &-+ EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN é (e) Time, Temperature and Mass (Fig 1) A Fig 1 shows the apparatus used to mi sure time, temperature and moss in the laboratory. fompero Fig 1 Apparatus for measuring ime, temperature ond moss (b) Volumes of Liquids and Gases (Fig 2) 4 Apporctus for measuring the volumes of liquids vary in accuracy. becker meosuring cylinderNo.1 Experimental Techniques in KE ROWS 12 The becker is used only for estimating volumes of liquids. F very accurate volumes are required, the burette, which measures up to O.1 cm’, is used £1) The pipette measures accurately fixed volumes of liquids, e.g. 10.0 em’, 25.0 cm’. is eccurate fo 1 decimal place. (1 A graduated gas syringe is used to measure the volumes of gases. (Fig 3) eee 905 syringe Fig 3 A gradusted gas syringe Exam Tie > Always include the units when recording data or carrying cut calculations, Aissing units will result in the loss of marks P Courction oF Gees Tae 1) [1 Two factors determine the method used to collect a gas: the density of the gas end the solubility cof the gos in wester, Method of Coll Type of Gases to be Collected Displacement of woter For gases that are insoluble in water, e.g. a hydrogen, oxygen. dalvey a tuba, —~ \ Ga | Displacement of cir upward delivery For gases that are less dense thon air, €.. hydrogen, ammoric. delivery ube os ior For goses that are denser than air, e.g. hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide. Table 1 Collection of gosesNod Experimental Techniques Exan Te TS Garton dloxide gas ts sometines collected by displacement of water. Carbon diovide Js sparnghy sole in sater to form corbomc acl. Thus, the volume of gas collected vil be less than expected because some carbon dioxide will dissolve into the water. STOP AND THINK Which piece of opporotus is used to measure exactly 22.5 cm? of a liquid? A 8 c D beaker burette measuring cylinder pipette Exam Tre TS? ‘The pipette can also measure volumes of liquids accurately up to one decimal place, but only m fixed volumes, eg. 10.0 cm®, 250cm [Ans: B] The burette can measure accurately volumes of liquids up 0 OL emt ‘The apparatus shown in the diagram below con be used to collect some goses. Which one of the following gases is most suitably collected by this method? A ommonia | STOP AND THINK | B chlorine 908 jor C hydrogen chloride Dongen E sulphur dioxide | LJ {beehive shelf | Exam Tre ‘Anmonia will dissolve in water to form on clkaline solition, and should be collected by displacement of air using upward delivery since ammonia is less dense thari air. Chlorine, hydrogen chloride and sulphur cioxide will all dissolve in water to form acidic selutions and should be collected by displocement of ir using downward delivery since they ore. al denser than air Tans: 0] Oxygen is the only insoluble gas in the list that con be collected by the dis placement of water,C10 Nod Experimental Techniques | ~" sence nIKEYe POR &+ METHOD OF PURIFICATION AND ANALYSIS (@) Filtration (Fig 4) (2 Used to separote out on insoluble solid from a liquid, e.g. separating sond from o sond ‘and water mixture. [1 Very fine pores in the filter paper ollow the liquid particles to flow through, but retain the lorge solid portcles. i solid ond liquid fiter nme fiter pope (residue) large particles of solid are tapped by the Sitter paper fiker paper with seal holes smell poricles of liquid pore through the fer paper fiteote Fig 4 Filtration (b) Crystallisation (Fig 5) {2 Used to separate out « pure solid from an impure solution, e.g. teparating coppert} sulp «crystals from impure copper{l] sulphate solution. The impurities will remain dissolved in solu STEP Isic to STEP 2 = a ae i ae The impure solid is | E i te i st aa eee STEPS STEP 4 =< fiker pape = The hot solution is allowed to cool The solid oppeers os pure erytals The cold solution is poured off to obtain the enpstols. The crystals may be dried by pressing them behwoon sheets of fiter popes. Fig 5 CrystallisationNoi Experimental Techniques Exam Tie TS a Crystaliisation must be differentiated from evaporation to dryness, In crystallisation, the solvent is only partially evaporated, leaving a small omount of solution in which the crystals form. Impurities are left behind in the solution when the erystals are filtered off, In evaporation to dryness, all the solvent is removed. The crystals formed may be impure STOP AND THINK Which method is most suitable for obicining a pure, dry sample of sodium chloride from @ mixture of solid sodium chloride and sand? ‘A Heot the mixture gently ond collect the substance which bolls of B Hect the mixture gently and collect the substance thet melts. ©. Shoke the mixture with water and distil off the liquid. D Shoke the mixture with water, fiter ond eveporote the ‘irate Exam Tre I> Tf the mixture in the question is solid ammonium chloride and sodium chloride, the method given in answer D cannot be used as both compounds are soluole in water ‘This mixture can be separated by sublimation, Hect the mixture gently until the solid ammanium chloride storts to sublime, Le. tum into a gas, Allow the vapour to come into contact with-e cold surface s0 that solid ammonium chloride can reform, leaving solid sodium chloride behind os the residue [Ans: D] Shaking with water will dissolve all the sodium chloride, The insoluble sand will be filtered off, leaving sodium chloride solution as the filtrate, Pure, dry sodium chloride can be obtoined by evaporation, (©) Simple Distillation (Fig 6) [Used to separate « pure liquid from a solution containing dissolved solids, e.g. separating pure woler from seawoter. SL The pure liquid obtained is called the distillate ‘hormomelor fos - se ai , seo water Secon ght belli, ‘water in eee (distillate) Fig 6 Simple distillation of seowoter| Caz ee Nod Experimental Techniques | placed at the mouth of the condenser to measure the temperature of the vepour enlering it. This temperoture is the boiling point of the distillate. 1) The groph on the right shows the change in temperature osthe seowoteris being heated in the flask. The temperature Tamp/"C will cemain constant at 100°C throughout the whole time 4 interval when pure water is being collected. Bum Te > Tima/min Cold water enters the condenser from the bottom Ye ensure that region is the coldest so that all the vapour entering the condenser will turn into. a lguld (d) Fractional Distillation (Fig 7) 5 Used to separate o pure liquid from @ solution of two or more liquids, e.g, ethane from a mixture of ethanol and water. {4 Fractional distillation separates ‘according to boiling points, The liquid with the lowest boiling Point will be disilled firs, followed by the liquid with the next lowest boiling point. As rough guide, the boiling points of the liquids 10 be separated should be at least 20°C ‘por theememetor—|} water out frectionating column cold : rane (estore) that * d bolng stones ae forsmooth fond water ie Fig 7 Fractional distillation of @ mixture of ethanol and woler13 Not Eominena Teves [1S — (U The groph on the right shows the ch cs the mature of ethanol ond woter is being heated in the flask. The temperature will zemoin ot 78°C when the fist disillote (ethoncl) is being collected. When all the aa ethanol has disiled over the temperature will ise ogcin 78 eee until # reeches 100°C. At this temperature, water will be a collected as the second distillate, si [& Fractional distillation Inge in ternperoture also used to separote @ the components of crude oll @ fermented liquor te obtoin cleoholic drinks of ¢ higher concentration (see topic 10) STOP AND THINK Which one of the following substonces may be separoted using o woter condenser? melting point/°C boiling point/°C A ammonia 78 -33 B butone 135 0.5 C. sulphur dioxide -73 10 D_ hydrogen chloride 15 -85 E pentane 130 +36 Exan Tre 13> The condenser in both the simple and fractional distillation apparatus pure vapour into liquid form. To determine if a gas will condense int boiling point is considered. The melting points given in the question serve os ‘and is redundant information (Ans: E] The temperature of a water condenser is about 25°C. Only pentane has < boiling point above this temperature. Thus, when pentane vopour enters t will condense iquid pentane as the distillate. (e) Paper Chromatography (Fig 8) (2) Substances ino mixture ore separoted eccording to their solubility in the some solvent, The more soluble component in the misture will tend to remain in the solvent ond trovel further up the chromatogram, while the less soluble component will separate out onto the paper. \. Procedure Lp drops of ink on the pencil line Fig 8 Poper chromatography io seporote out the components of black inkNo.1 Experimental Techniques © Use @ pencil to draw the stort line. ® Use the black ink sample to make a small dot on the start line, together with some other coloured ink to use as reference. © Fold the caper into o cylinder and place it into © becker containing the solvent, ensuring that the start line is above the solvent level. Cover the beaker while the chromatogram develops. @® Remove the chromatogram from the beaker just before the solvent reaches the top of the poper Exam Tre I> Condidates may be asked to explain why paper chromatography, (the start line must be drawn in pencil, If it is drawn in ink, the components in the ink will olse separate out together with the sample dots when the chromatogram is run. (i) the start line must be cbove the solvent level. Tf it goes below the solvent level, the sample dots will dissolve into the solvent in the beaker instead of travelling up the cchromat ogram paper. (iii) the beaker must be covered when the chromatogram is run to reduce evaporation of the solvent from the becker ond to prevent the solvent from evaporating off the paper as it moves up. in steps of an experiment are necessary. In |) Interpretation of results . a Dots that has travelled the same distance from the stort line in the same solvent belong the same substance. Hence the black ink contains four colour components - red, blue, g} and an unknown colour Exan Tee 5 : Paper chromatography has several advantages 2) 1 uses only a ‘small amount of ‘sample. Gi), Tt con be used to separate heat sensitive substances (ii) Tt can be used to test for the purty of the substence, A pure substance will give only one spot when a chromatogram is run. If it gives two or more spots, then the substance is impureSee Sines iencel hein KEY=POINTS Not Experimental Techniques STOP AND THINK Itwos suspected that o substance X contained one of the three substances P Ror S. Two chramotagrams of the four substances were obicined using different solvents. The diograms show the results. What does X contain? [ Le A P only aes * BR only | © Sonly D either P of R = | + E either R or $ . } ine [eek [ek s)x Gopon t Joven Exan Tee I> ° oc é Tr ig possible for different substances to travel the same distance in the same solvent jn paper chromatography, ie. have the some solubility in the some. solvent. Te confirm the identity of a substance, onother round of chromatography is carried out using a different solvent, If the spots still travel the same distance, then the spots must contain the same substance. We con also conclude from the diagrams that substance X is e pure substance since it only gives one dot in the cheamategram. [Ans: B] Diagram 1 indicates that X contains either R or S. When the solvent is changed the chromatogram obtained as shown in diagram 2 indicater that X contains either Por R. Since the some substances will trevel the same distance during chromatography even if different solvents are used, X contains only & (1 A pure substance hos o fixed melting point and o fixed boiling point (@) Determi ing the Melting Point of a Solid (Fig 9) © Asmall sample of the solid is placed into the melting point tube ond tied 10 thermometer ster ® The setup is ploced into © boiling tube containing water and heated slowly, The water is stirred to ensure even heating of the sample. ® Record the temperature when the solid stars to melt making =T, point f wUbe ® Record the temperature when the solid has fully melted = 7, ~woter ® Foro pure substance, T, = T, © An impure substance will melt over a range of peer temperatures {T, to T). Fig 9 Apparatus for measuring the meling point of o solid Exam Tre I> Temperature control is very important when conducting this experiment. If the tempera ture is increased suddenly, the small sample will melt very fast and T. and T, connet be determined, Also, if the melting point of the solid is suspected to be above 100, a liquid with a boiling point higher than 100° will have to be used in place of water16 No.1 Experimental Techniques ich {b) Determining the Boiling Point of a Liquid (Fig 10) © The epporatus is set up oF shown. © Anti-bumping granules ore added to ensure smooth boiling thermometer © Ifthe liquid to be tested is flammable, o woter bath pou in should be used instead of direct heating with @ Bunsen burner. © Record the temperoture when the liquid storis to boil act hid under © Fore pure substance, 7, is a fixed temperature, An ee impure substonce will boil over a range of tempera- see tures. gronl best Fig 10 Apparotus for measuring the boiling point of a liquid Exam Te When a substonce is impure, its melting point is depressed, ie. lower than the melt point of the pure substance, Its boiling point will be elevated, i.e. higher than the bal point of the pure substance, For example, when salt is added to water, its boiling Increases to cheve 100°C. STOP AND THINK student was given an unknown solid X to identify. He found its melting point to be 133' He looked up @ chemistry data book and found thot o compound called uree hod a melil point of 133°C, To find whether X is really urec, he mixed some pure ureo and X togett The melting tempercture of this mixture wos found to be 129 - 132°C. Whet can be dedue cbout solid x? A X is urea, BX is impure ureo. CX is not ure, DX must not be a pure compound, - Exam Tre 55> Another way 1 ais to use paper chromatography. Samples of X ancl pure lurea can be dissolved in ¢ suitable solvent and dotted onto o piece of chromatogram paper. The twe dots should travel the same distance when @ chromatogram is run is X is urea ans: C}_If X is urea, then when X is mixed with pure urea and heated, the mixture should melt ct 133°C. However, the mixture melted over a range of temperatures, indicat ing that X is actuclly on impurity and caused the melting point of pure urea 10 become depressed, Since X has a fixed melting point, it must be a pure compound, so the only conclusion is that X is not ureaNot Experimental Techniques alegre | ‘++ IDENTIFICATION OF IONS AND GASES Pius {) Toble 2 summarises the fests for cotions. & AQUEOUS CANONS [21 When testing for a cation using either equeous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia, two observations will help identify the cotion present: © the colour of the precipitate formed on adding a few deops of chemicol reagent; ® the solubility of the precipitote in excess chemical reagent Effect of aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) | White precipitate formed. Precpitate is Effect of aqueous ammonia (NH) White precipitate formed Cation Aluminium (AP*) soluble in excess oqueous sodium hydroxide to form 6 colourless solution. Procipitaie is insoluble in excess aqueous ommona. ‘Ammonium (NH,7) | No precipitate formed on adding No chemicel reaction aqueous sodium hydroxide. Ammonio | gas produced on warming the mixture Calum (Ca) White precipitate fomed. Precpitate is insoluble in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide No predpitete formed Coppertll) (Cu) Light blue precipitate formed, Precipitate is insoluble in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide. light blue precpitete formed. Precipitote is soluble in excess aqueous ammonie to form @ dark blue solution, | Tron (Fe?) Green precipitate formed. Precipitate is insoluble in excess oqueaus sodium hydroxide. Green precipitote f Precipitate is in aqueous amm Reddish brown precipitate formed Precipitate is insoluble in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide Iron(l) (Fe) Reddish brown precipitate formed Precipitate is insoluble in excess ‘aqueous om ‘Leadfl) (Pb) White precipitate formed, Predpitote is soluble in excess oquecus sodium hydroxide to form a colourless solutfon Zine (Zn) While precipitate fomed. Precipitcte is soluble in excess oqueous sodium hydroxide to form © colourless solution. White precipitete formed Precipitate is insoluble in excess equesus emmoric.. White precpitote formed, Precipitate is soluble in excess aqueous ammonia to forma colouriess solution, Table 2 Tests for Cotions {21 The cations rece! with the hydroxide ions present in aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous Gmmonic to form insoluble hydroxides. These insoluble hydroxides oppecr os precipiioles. Eg. Fe (aq) + 20H-(oq) > Fe(OH), fs) from NoOH or NHloa) _geeenprecistte Some of these precipitotes dissolve in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide or cqueous emmonia to form soluble complex sols. These appear as colourless solutions, or in the case of copper) ions in excess aqueous ammonia, a dark blue solution.Cay see oe ‘ Bel Nod Experimental Techniques , event I) and iron(ll) ions ore easily identified by the characteristic colour of rom toble 2, + Coppertl), i their precipitates. + Aluminium, lead(l) and zinc ions oll give the same observations when aqueous sodium hydroxide is used. However, only zinc ions will give o white precipitate soluble in excess i aqueous ommonia; aluminium ond leod ions do not solution containing Al, Pb or Zn? edd o few drape of ogueous ‘ommenis ond shake White precipitote formed edd excess aqueous emmoniz ' | Precipitate is insoluble in excess Precipitce is soluble in excess oquecus | equeous ommenia ommoni to form 6 colourless solution (Al™ oF Pb pres (En** confirmed) + To distinguish between cluminium and lecdll) ions, dilute hydrochloric acid or cquegus potassium iodide can be used: AX (oq) + 3Cr(oq) > AICI, (oq) from kychochlorc 06d celouteat slson Po leq) + 2Cr(eq) = > PCI, fs) tom bydachlore ocd hie preciote Similor results will be obtained if aqueous potassium iodide is used. Aluminium ions give a colourless solution of cluminium iodide while lead|l) ions will give a yellow precipi of leod{l) iodide. Exam Te S$ is no visible reoction cn adding aqueous sadium hydroxide to an unkt solution, continue the cation test by warming the mixture gently and test for ammonia: ‘the cation present may be the ammonium ion[Cav 5 Not Experimental Techniques sence hein MEY POINT LQ Toble 3 summarises the tests for onions. LUD The tests for the ammonium ion and the nitrate ion produce ammonia gas. Check through the procedure carefully fo see if oluminium powder is used ~ the ammonium ion test requires only aqueous sodium hydroxide, but the nitrate test requires both aqueous sodium hydroxide ond cluminium powder: Anion Test Test result Corbonate (CO* Add dilute acid, Effervescence. A cx edourless gos the precipitate in limencter is produced Gas is carbon dioxide. Chlovide (CH) ‘Acidity with dilute nitric ocd, then | White precipitote of silver chlonde lin solution] edd oqueous silver ritrte formed. | lodide (H Acidity with dilute nitric ocid, Yellow precipitate of leadiilj iodide fin solution} then add oqueous lead{l) nitrate. | formed 7 Nitrote (NO, ‘Add aqueous sodium hydroxide | Colourless, pungent gos produced {in solution} then cluminium foil; warm fumed moist red litmus saper blue. carefully Gas is ammoria Sulphate SO,*) | Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then | White precipitote of berium sulphate {in solution] add aqueous barium nitrate. formed | Tobie 3 Tests for Anions Exam Te TS When recording the observations after conducting tests for the carbonate and the nitrate fon, remember to include the smell and colour of the gas, the chemical test result for the gas as well as the name of the gas. Simply copying from the date sheet provided os ‘carbon dioxide precuced’ or ‘ammonia produced’ is insufficient and will lead to a loss of marks, Pracmnce {0} Toble 4 summarises the tests for gases {21 Carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide ond chlorine ore all acidic goses and will tum moist blue litmus peper red. Hence, the biue litmus paper test is not a conclusive test; it only indicates ‘he presence of an acidic gos. Its necessary to conduct confirmatory tests in order to conclude the presence of © particular gos. ©) Ammonia, chlorine and sulphur dioxide have characteristic smells and are thus. eosily identified, “1 When recording observations for goses, it is importont to record presence of effervescence, if ony colour ond smell of the gas chemicel test for the gos and test result e000 name of the gosr Colour and : aie Gas Simell at Gas: Test and Test Results ‘Ammonia (NH,) Colouress, Tums damp red litmus paper blue. pungent gos _ | ! Carbon dioxide (CO,) | Colourless, Turns moist blue litmus paper red. Forms white : escurless gos | precpitote in imewoter, | Chlorine (Cl,) | Yellowish green, | Bleaches meist red litmus popes Turns mols pungent gas blue litmus red, then bleached, Hydrogen (H,) Colourless, Edinguishes a lighted splint with @ pop sound. odourless gas Onger ©,) Colouress, Relights © glowing splint. odourless gas Sulphurdioxide 60,) | Golouress, Turns moist blue liimus paper red, Tums orange pungent gus acidified potassium dichromate(Vl) green, Toble 4 Tesis for Gases Exam Tre T-3> When testing for hydrogen gas, hold the lighted splint at the mouth of the teat tub When testing far oxygen gas, insert the glowing splint into the test tube, When cecor the colour change of ecidified potassiom dichremate(VE), always record us changing Fr ‘orehge To green, and not just acidified potassium dichromate(V) tumed sree STOP AND THINK Dilute hydrochloric acid was added to substance X. A gos wos produced thet turned lmewo ter milky. After the reaction stopped, an excess of aqueous sodium hydroxide wns odded te in solution and a blue precipitote formed. What was X? A cuco, B CuSO, | ¢ Reco, D Feso, Exan Te 52 een precipitate will be obtained with excess aqueous sodium ded to test for it. No ‘cating the presence of the CO,” ion Gre pie preciprtate abtained on adding excess aqueous sodium hydronic s « tes) tor the Cu lon. The blue: precipitate is copper(Tl) hydroxide.ae ae No.1 Experimental Techniques | "owns om ys STOP AND THINK ‘An aqueous solution containing the compound X wos added io ¢ series of solutions and the changes that took place noted. solution 5 obsewation iron) sulphate | brown preciitole ironfl) sulphote | greenprecpitote ae | sine sulghote white precipitate soluble in on excess of the solution of X magnesium sulphate | white precipitate copperiil) sulphate _| blue precipitate insoluble in an excess of the solution X What is the compound x? A aluminium hydroxide ammenio calcium hydroxide B C_borium hydroxide D E sodium hydroxide Ban Te IS ‘Aluminium hydroxide end barium hydroxide are ingoluble in water while calcium hydroxide iS only sparingly soluble in water, They wil not be able Yo provide the hydromide ions needed 10 precipitate out the insoluble hydroxides of the cations present’ in the test solution. {ansi E} Notice that all the solutions used to test X are sulphate compounds, Hence the tbservations obtained must be due to the cations present in the solutions. tions are usually aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueaus anmeria, However, X cannot be ammonia because copper(II) ions will give blue precipitate that ‘is soluble in excess aqueous ainmonia to form a dark blue solution, STOP AND THINK Which one of the following ions will give only © clear solution when heated with on excess of aqueous emmonia? A Al (ag) B Zn?* (aa) © Fe* (ag) D Fe?* (ag) E Pb (oq) Exam Tor T3> Al end PO" will form @ white precipitate thal i insoluble im excess aqueous ammonia, while Fe and Fe will form a green and a reddish brown precipitate, respectively that is insoluble in excess aqueous ammonia [Ans: 8] Only Zn’ will form a white precipitate that is soluble in excess aqueous ammonia to form a colourless solution= Ht Nod Experimental Techniques SAMPLE QUESTIONS Nome o process used {9 separate 0 mixture of {a} thie water-soluble dyes {b) water and an insoluble solid fc} two liquids with boiling points 78°C ond 100°C [d) water and a dissolved solt 25.0.em* sodium corbonate solution containing 5.3 g/dm’ was placed in a flask, A few drops of indicator vere added. A burette was filled with 0.1 mol/dm* hydrochloric acid, The ocid was titrated ‘egeinst the sodium corbonate solution in the flask. 25.0.cm? of acid were needed to react with the sodium carbonate. The resulting solution was evaporated vail a saturated solution was formed and then allowed to cool. The crystels formed were filtered off, washed and dried. (c). Give the name of the piece of apparatus used to measure 25.0. cm? of sodium carbonate solution, (b} Suggest how you can tell if © soturoted solution was formed. Describe how you would wosh and dry the crystals {d) Give details of a test you could use to show that the crystals contoined chloride ions. The following figure shows some of the properties of o blue, crystalline solid, hue, 3 ‘awhite crystalline ee ea ‘solid dissolve in water and |_Precipitate, M ‘add dilute nitric acid ‘and barium riteate solution dissolve in water and warm with sodium hydroxide solution 2 (928 N, that tums, ablue rod litmus blue precipitate, © nix with excess lute sulphuric acid blue aqueous | blue > solution [_"|_erystals, P evaporate slowly Identify the following fo) substonce M (b} substonce N [e) Substance (@)_ substance P(bh ¢ (d) b) ) (d) (b) fo {d) ee ec ted Se ee | No.1 Experimental Techniques | ~~ a SOLUTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS Poper chromatography Filtration Fractional disiilation Coystolisotion Exan Tr > ‘Answers should be as precise os possible, For i(c), the better answer is ‘fractional dis: tillation.. We con be referring to either simple distillation or fractional distillation when we just give the answer as ‘distillation’, Simple distillation is usect to separate out the liquid Yrom a solution containing dissolved solids (eg, woter from salt water), while fractioncl distillation is used 40 seperate out a liquid from a mixture of miscible liquids (e:g. ethane! from a ethano-water mixture) Pipette A soturated solution is obtained when o thin layer of erystals form os @ crust on the surface of the solution, The crystals can be washed with ¢ litle cold weter and then dried between layers of filter paper The crystals are first dissolved in disilled water to moke @ solution. Dilute nitric ecid followed by aqueous silver nitrate ore then added. If chloride ions are present, a white precipitate of silver chloride will be observed. Barium sulphate. Borium nitrate solution is used to test for sulphote ions. The white precipitote formed is barium sulphate. Ammonia. Ammonia is on alkaline gos that will tuen moist red litmus poper blue. Copper(l| hydroxide. Sodium hydroxide solution is used to test for cations. The blue precipitate formed is copper(ll) hydroxide Copper) sulphate. Copper|t) hydroxide or substance O is a base. It will react with dilute sulphuric acid in @ nevtralisation reaction to form o salt and water. The salt is copper) sulphate, which is objained by crystolisation.24 THE PARTICULATE TOPIC 2 NATURE OF MATTER ) LEARNING OBJECTIVES | Candidetes should be oble to: [4 describe the solid, liquid and terms of the kinelic particle iseous states of matter and explain their inter-conversion ry and the energy changes involved USEFUL WEBSITES 1D hip:/Awn.chamdkids.com/files/matter_intro.htm! 11 hilpi/feen.chemistrycoach.com/tutorials-9.him# Chemistry"%20Laboratory 1 htip://ww.emsb.qc.ca/lourenhill/science/kinetic.him! OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC | rue pavicuuaTe waruRe OF MArTER °F jo, cs of Matter [2.1 | THE THREE STATES OF MATTER | - Charecterscs of the Three § | + The Kinetic Theory 2.2 | CHANGES IN STATE "| = Melting and Freezing | + Beilin nd Condensation oration + SublimationNo.2 The Particulate Noture Of Metter &— THE THREE STATES OF MATTER s, Liguios ano Gases (a) Characteristics of the Three States of Matter £2 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass G2) All substonces can be classified into 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas, Table 1 below shows the characteristics of these 3 states of moter. Solids Liquids Gases Shape Fixed shape | No fixed shape. Takes the | No fixed shape. Takes the j | shape of the container shape of the container Volume Fixed volume | Fixed volume No fixed volume. Takes the volume of the container Compressibility | Incompressible | Very slightly compressible, | Very compressible negligible Table 1 Chorocteristics of the 3 states of matter (b) The Kinetic Theory [2 The Kinetic Theory wos proposed to explain the characteristics of the three stales of moter It states thal all matter is made up of extremely small particles thal ore in constant motion These particles can be atoms, ions or molecules Solid | Liquid Gas Diegrommeat representation Packing between | Particles are very dose Particles ore close | Paricles axe for apart in pavicles packed in an orderly pockedin a disorderly | ci disorderly orrangement f cxrangement arrangement i Forces of Very slrong for Strong forces of Weak forces of attraction ortraction cttraction between attraction besween | between particles between particles | particles parlicles ‘Movement of Particles con only vibrate | Particles can move and | Particles are in random patties nd rotate abou! fixed positions exchenge pariners throughout the liquid motion Table 2 Differences between the 3 states of matter in terms of the Kinetic Theory '41 Solids ond liquids ore incompressible because their particles are all close logether. However gases are compressible because the gus particles ore far eport from one cnother and can be forced to move closer by exerting pressure (Fig 1)Fig 1 Compressing « gas fagrams ta represent the porticles ina liquid, ofways draw them close ‘disorderly manner. Many students tend to draw the particles too fer ig 2 correct Fig 3. wrong Remember that liquids cre incompressible. The porticles in Fig 3 can be further cof pressed, hence it is more appropriate to use the diagram to represent a ges instead STOP AND THINK Which diagram shows the arrangement of particles inside o balloon filed wih a mixture ol | helium ond argon? is denser thon helium, B is wrong as the p of both gases are’ tn Continuous motion and will mix to eventually give a homogeneous mixture as shown in A. [Ans: A] Helium and argon are both monoatamic noble geses whose particles are spaced far ndomly im a container STOP AND THINK An inflated balloon will shrink if it is ploced in a refrigerator. What does the lower temperoture cause the gas particles in the belloon to do? A Move faster ond become closer together B Move foster ond become further opert | C Move slower and become closer together D_ Move slower and become further oport a ee27) No2 The Particulate Nature OF Matter | 77 Exam Tre I> OF the three states of matter, particles in gases have the highest amount of kinetic energy, followed by those in liquids and then solids [Ans: C] The gas particles inside the balloon will lose energy to the surroundings on cooling ‘ond become less energetic. Hence they will move slower and closer together. + CHANGES IN STATE [1 Changes in state are physical changes that occur when the particles of « substance absorb or lose energy. [52 As a substance is heated, it absorbs energy ond changes from a solid to a liquid ond finally toa gos. The kinetic energy possessed by is particles increases and they move more vigorously. [22 Fig 4 shows the changes in state thet can toke place. sublimation boiling or meting evoporation feeaing sider Energy possessed by the particles Fig 4 Chonges in state (@) Melting and Freezing {2 Melting takes place when the particles of o solid absorb enough energy fo overcome the forces holding them in fixed positions and move. They rearrange themselves to form ¢ liquid. temperature [C) 5 Rosas ae tat BO naling poi fe ae CAOPOO) —ofrvbrence fnabing is competed OCO e st point C t solid liquid 4 time: rom stort (min) Fig 5 Changes in temperature during metting “1 Section AB: The substance remains in solid state. The heat energy provided is absorbed by the solid particles and they vibrate harder about their fixed positions. ‘1 Section BC: A mixture of solid ond liquid will be observed ot this temperature which is called the melting point of the substance. At point C, the solid has turn completely into a liquid. '1 Section CD: The liquid porticles continue to absorb heat energy and their kinetic energy increases, causing the temperature of the liquid to rise.No2 The Particulate Nature Of Matter (Di In freezing, the reverse process takes place. At the freezing point, the liquid particles wil lose energy when they rearrange to form back the solid structure, This energy loss is equa! to the heat removed by cooling, hence the temperature will remcin constant. temperatyre (C) feeding is completed cot point ¥ austere |X i nelig srs at point . fine from stor min] Fig & Changes in temperature during freezing. 13 Section WX: The substance remains « liquid. As cooling takes place, the paricles loses kinet energy ond moves more slowly LLB Section XY: A mixture of liquid ond solid is observed os the liquid particles rearrange themgclve to form a solid structure, [22 Section YZ: The temperature of the solid drops os cooling continues. (2 The freezing point is olso the melting point for pure substance. (b) Boiling and Condensation [2 Boiling occurs when the perficles in « liquid absorb enough energy to overcome the fBrce holding them together and begin to move opart to form @ gos. temperature °C) boing stars ot point A boiling point of substonce| m E liquid i boling between liquid ne Fig 7 Changes in temperature during boiling Section OA: The substance remains in liquid state. The heat energy provided is absorbe by the liquid paricles and they move more energetically throughout the liquid Section AB: A mixture of liquid and gos will be observed ot this temperature which is calla the bailing point of the substance. At point B, the liquid hos tum completely into a gat Section BC: The gos particles will absorb energy and move further apart os they becom more energetic. The temperature of the gas, will rise. “1 Condensction is the reverse of boiling. The gos particles will lose energy when cooled on rearrange themselves back into o liquid structure.29 )oa@ OA Nod The Particulate Noture OF Matter | ~“" 7 sconceichenismkfy ROMS (©) Evaporation |B Boiling and evoporstion are both physical processes that change a liquid into « gas. The liquid absorbs heat energy during these changes in state. [1 Toble 3 shows the differences between these 2 processes. B. Evaporation ‘Occurs at boiling point Occurs ot any temperature below boiling point Occurs throughout the liquid | Occurs only ot the surdace of the liquid | Bubbles observed No bubbles observed | Occurs rapidly Occurs slowly Table 3 Differences between boiling and evaporation (d) Sublimation (2) Sublimation tokes place when a solid changes into o gos directly, without going through the liquid stote, (4 Examples of substances that undergo sublimotion include solid carbon dioxide (dry ice}, iodine erystols ond mothballs. STOP AND THINK A mixture of water and crushed ice wos heoted gradually, with constant flome and efficient stirring, Until the mixture boiled for o short time. if the temperature of the mixture was plotied against time (i), which graph would be obtoined? aes a wee ik 10 @ oe arn eS i's lence ies er > ‘to e o4 ° Ly. news tines Bean Te 5° Remember that the temperature is constant during eny change in state fer a pure ab stone, Answer A will be correct if the experiment started off with water of O°C TAns: ¢] The experiment started with a mixture of water and crushed ice, Since both solid and liquid states are present, melting must finish before any temperature rise will be observed, Hence, the temperuture at the start remains at zero for al the ice to meltNo.2 The Particulate Nature Of Metter nik -POMNT STOP AND THINK Which change, A, B, C or D, can involve both condensation ond freezing? ‘steam water ice. [Ans: C] Steam must first be condensed to form water, which then freezes to give ice, STOP AND THINK Three substances hove the following properties: substance 1 is brit substance 2 melts at 5°C and boils ot 150° substance 3 has @ high melting point of 800°C. Whet is the state of each substance ot room temperature and pressure? substance 1 substance 2 substance 3 A gos liquid solid 8 s gos solid € solid liquid solid D solid gos ges Exam Tre T= Number lines can be used to help determine the state of a substance at a given temp | ture, Using substonce 2 as an example, mark out the melting point and boiling point on) number line and divide it into 3 regions. At temperatures below the melting point, stance 2 is a solid; at temperatures between the melting point and the boiling point, | 4 liquid, ond at temperatures above the boiling poirt, it is gos. To determine the phy State of substance 2 at a given temperature (say, 25°C), locate this temperature’ on the number fine and see which region st falls into [Ans: C] Substance 1 must be @ solid, since the term ‘brittle’ means ‘easily broken int pieces’ and can only be used to describe a solid, At room temperature and pressure (taken 5 25°C and 1 atmospheric pressure), substance 2 is a liquid while substance 3 is a solic =e 25°C (room temperature) 5 160 {metting pointy (oling point) From the number line, substance 2 is 4 liquid at 25°C, = = =e =e ES31) eto Na2 The Fartcte Nenre OF Mare | STOP AND THINK The diagrams show the errangement of molecules in a substance ot @ pressure of 1 atm ond at two different temperatures. at -150°C at 100°C © 5 OG © Ono Which substence could the diagroms represent? Substance Melting Point/*C Boiling Point/*C A -183 -89 8 ~182 162 c -169 104 3 114 85 BanTrr > From first impression, it seems that number tines must be drawn 40 salve the question This process can be tedious. Always exomine the question carefully to. see if inary cnet tfermation provided to solve the problem quickly. MCQs are allocated only 15 minutes each and should not require long working steps 10 solve ldns: C) At -180°C, the substance is a liquid, At -100°C. the substance is a gas, This means that the boiling paint of er ‘the substence is between -150°C and 100% ‘ iNo2 The Particulate Nature OF Matter SAMPLE QUESTIONS The drawing in the first ox represents the porticles in a substance of o temperature below its melting point. Complete the other two boxes. substance below substance just ‘substance above melting point dove metting point boiling point 2. The following diegram represents chonges that can take place fo © sample of wate Each change is given a letter, me |, a [wer] og | sat Table 1 is often tested during examinations. When stating the relative change on the prafen or the electron, it is important te write +1 or -1, and not just + on ~ STOP AND THINK Which one of the following otoms has © nucleus which does not contain any neutrons? A oluminium D nitrogen 8 hydrogen E ongen C lead Exan Tie E> Notice from the above example that the number of neutrons is obtained from the Periodic Table using the top number minus the bottom number. However, this is not true for all cases. For example, chlorine in the Periodic Tabl is represented as “43¢I. This does not mean that the chlorine atom contains 355-17 = 18.5 neutrons! Chlorine contains 2 isotopes (see later in the chapter), and to account For these 2 isotopes, its mass number is a calculated average value of 355,[Ans: B] The number of neutrons in en atom can be easily calculated using the lami Fyeoeer| Toad iragen| oper Tnfomnation Fen) Ale FPeriodic Table | 84! INS P| mrassrumeer | 27 im |e protonnumber | 18 7/6 ruber of | 27-13 a7 [io neutrons al4 = G tesosscae : Electrons are crranged in electronic shells (or energy levels) around the sucleus. For the first 20 elements in the Pe the protons ond neutrons uste: together in the contre, forming the ruclaus; this is the heawy port of the com Maxi electrons that can | occupy the shell ‘ Sh 1 (nearest to Ld t the nucleus) 2 | ] | Stwsiosancertevey a mi ‘ fast around the nucleus, 2 8 oe at different levels from it When drawing electronic structures of otoms, use the symbol of the element to represent the nucleus. The electrons star filling up the shells from the first shell onwards before going on to the next shell Example 1: lithium, 3ui The lithium atom contains 3 electrons arranged in 2 shells. @) Example 2: Potassium, 2K The potossium atom contoins 19 electrons orranged in 4 shells, ©KEYS PONS No.3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding (2) Another way to show the structure of an atom is to write down the number of electrons in each shell. This is known as the electronic configuration of the atom. Atom Electronic Configuration Lithium 24 Potassium 2.88.1 {2 Electrons found in the outer shell of an atom ore also called valence electrons. These ore the electrons that participate in chemical bonding. STOP AND THINK The bar chart shows the period of elements from lithium to neon, Which property of these elemenis is shown on the chori? property al 24 7 = > Fa Ge 8 CN O F Ne element A. the number of electrons used in bonding B_ the number of orbits holding electrons C the nucleon (mass) number D_ the proton (atomic) number Exau Tie TS In the Penlodic Table, elements are arranged according to proton number. The horizontal rows are called periods, while the vertical columns are celled groups. A new period begins when the maximum number of electrons thet can go into an electronic shell is reached. Notice that the period number = number of shells in the element, i. for lithium, it is in period 2 and it contains 2 shells, while potassium hes 3 shells and is thus located in period 3, One can deduce that for an element lacated in period 5. for example, iodine, must have 5 shells, Note also that for groups of elements, the group number corresponds to the umber of electrons in the outer shell, Hence calcium, found in Group II, has 2 electrons in its outer shell Ans: D] Elements re arranged according to the number of protons in their atomsed [Cass No: Atomic: Structure ‘And! Chemica! Bonding | = mm each other. They have the same (£2 Mony elements contcin toms that are slightly different ft proton number but different mass numbers (i.e, same number of protons but dilferent number fof neutrons). These ctoms are known os isotopes of the element {42 Table 2 below shows the isctapes of some elements Element | Name of Isotope | Number of | Number of | Number of | Protons | Nevtrons Electrons | Hydragen | Protium, 1H 1 0 | 1 Devterivm, 3H 1 em 1 Tritium, 4H 1 2 1 Carbon12,%C 6 al Suu Corbon-13,8C é 7 6 Corbonet 4, 4C 6 8 6 Chlotine-35, | 7 | 18 7 Chlorine-37, 7 20 | Toble 2: Isotopes of some elements CHEMICAL BONDING @ hve ‘ {1 When ctoms combine together in a chemical reaction, we say that a bond is formed between the atoms during the reaction. A reactive atom will combine or form bonds with other atorns easily, while an unreactive atom will not. The reactivity of on atom depends on its electronic steucture, [2 Group 0 elements in the Periodie Table ote also known as inet gases. They are very stable ‘ond hardly form bonds with other elements. The full electronic structure of the first 3 noble gases is shown below: a @ Helium, He Neon, 22Ne Argon, {gAr [.) Notice that all the outer electronic shells (or valence shells) are completely filled. This type ‘of arrangement is very stable and makes the atoms inert. Atoms of other elements try to become stable like the noble goses. They share, gain or lose electrons in their valence shells so thot they can achiove stable electronic siructures, [2 There ere 2 types of chemical bonds that can be formed between 2 ofoms © lonic bonds — valence electrons are transferred from one atom to nother @ Covalent bonds — valence electrons are sharedC39) No3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding {@) Formation of Ions [2 Atoms can obtain « full outer shell and become stable wher they lose or gai Charged particles called ions are formed. * Formation of Positive fons Example 1: Lithium, 3 (( = ie anh in valence electrons. { Lithium fon, Ut 4 a pcie 3 electrons 3—1= 2 electrons Je 8 aces Notes Overall zero charge, i-e. neutral Overall 14 charge 2 The lithium ion now carries a 1+ charge because it has on extra proton. This is represented by enclosing the ion in brackets and writing its charge on the top right hand comer. Note that 1+ is written simply as +. The 1 is not written. We do not draw emply shells either. Example 2: Aluminium, eS ae lose 3 volence. 7 i : o fae eign ®) 4 Ne ( * Ee { Aluminium atom, Al Alum 13 protons. 13 protons \ 13 electrons 13-3=10 electrons 27-13=14 nevitons Overall zero charge, i.e. neutral “In general, when on atom loses n valence electrons to form o stable will cony n+ charge. Formation of Negative lons Example 3: Fluorine, 3F gain 1 valence electron { 3 © 9 protons 9 electrons 19-9=10 neutrons Overall zero charge, i.e. neutral (©) 14 neutrons Overall 3+ charge jon, the ion formed : rests FE 9 protons 9+1=10 electrons 10 neutrons Overall 1- chargeNo3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding | yver-roes | LL The fluoride ion now carries o 1~ chorge becouse it has | extra electron. Note thot the nomes of the non-metallic ctoms change to end with ‘ide’ after they become ions. Thus, + Fluorine ofom becomes fluoride ion Phosphorus fom becomes phosphide ion ‘Onygen atom becomes oxide ion Example 4: Sulphur otom, 3S : (i f ‘©; eae | Sulphur atom, $ Sulphur ion, S? 18 protons 16 protons 16 electrons 164218 electrons 32-16 =16 neutrons 16 neutrons Overall zero charge, i.e. neutral Overall 2~ charge 3 In general, when an atom gains m electrons to form a stable ion, the ion will cosry m charge STOP AND THINK Which one of the following ions has the same number of electrons. as 0 neon atom? Atomic Number lon A 1 hydrogen B W sodium te 7 chlorine D 19 potassium E 20 calcium: Exan Tre IS? inti ions aha a same number of valence electrons, For example, all the elements in Group 1 [|e have 1 valence electron each, This implies that eleméits in Group T will form [NA ens with 1+ charge since they need to lose only 1 valence electron each ta [K_| 2.8.81 | form stable structures, In. general ' Greup I elements form 1» ions Group IT elements form 2+ ions ‘Group TIE elements form 3+ ions This pattern applies also to negotively charged ions. Hence Group V elements form 3- ions Group VI elements form 2- ions + Group VEE elements form 1 ions ly form ions but reacts threugh covalent bonding [Ans: B] For atoms, the atomic number (proton number) is the same as the number of electrons. Sodium has the electronic configuration (2.8.1), and so will form Ne’ by losing 1 valence electron and have only 10 electrons, just like a neon atom whose configuration is (28)A ; Ned Aton Stricture And chenicelBecng 47 Sanerwonis (b) Formation of Ionic Bonds {2 Ionic bending occurs between metallic and non-metallic atoms. Valence electrons are transferred from the metellic atom to the non-metallic atom so that both atoms achieve a full outer shell and become stable, [2 Oppositely charged ions ore formed, The metol ion carries positive charge, whife the non- metallic ion carries negotive charge. These ions ottract each ether with strong electrostatic forces to form an ionic bond. Example 1: Sodium Chloride + The sodium atom transfers 1 volence electron to the chlorine alom so that both coms ‘achieve full outer shell was bey (© sodium election X chlorine electron Na: 2.8.1 ne ch 287 ® © Na" fon: 2.8 CTion: 28.8 * The formula of the compound formed is written as NaCl. lonic compounds are electrically eviral, ie. once the positive and negative ions combine, these charges ‘cancel’ each other out to give @ neutral compound. Exam Tre TS When drawing electrons from different atoms, use different symbols such as * or * and include a key to describe these symbols. These diagrams are sometimes colled ‘cross and lot’ diagrams. Tt is also important that the nucleus 1s clearly labeled with the symbol of the element, Example 2: Mognesium oxide The magnesium atom (2.8.2) transfers 2 valence electrons to the oxygen ator (2.4), eras @) } (®) oa SY, x magnesivm ion, Mg” ‘oxide ion, O” The formula of the compound formed is MgO.[42 } No Atamie Structure And Chemical Bonding |_— Example 3: Magnesium chloride The magnesium otom, (2.8.2) tonsfers one valence electron each to 2 chlorine cloms 2.8.7). (fy - . ; | {© ©))| Ke) =) | mognesivn ion, Ma chloride ion, Cl * miedo + The compound formed is made vp of one Mg” fon by and 2 Cl ions. Hence the formula is written as MgCl, ‘@ mognesivm eleciron - % chiorineeleeron Exan Tie 5 Tr i not necessary to draw ond show the moverne to another unless the question requires it, Most exam structure of the compound only. ence electrons from one atom stions will ask for the final $TOP AND THINK The elements X and Y form the compound X,Y. What is the correct electronic conliguration ofthe ators X and 2 tans: €] The campeind contains 2 4 electronic configuration of ‘one and 1 ¥? ion. This is worked ou atom of X ‘atom of ¥ from the formula, since 2 ions of Xt | needed to "cancel out” the charge. on ie a oa on of ¥. Since group I elements for Lee 22. 27 fons with +1 charge ond group VI"ele | ments forth ont with 2- charge, X mi L A rs be from group T with 1 valence eleq D 2D 26 tron, while ¥ must be from group | with 6 velence electrons. | sTOP AND THINK | What is the formula of the compound formed when element X of atomic number 12 combines | wth element ¥ of etomic number 17% A XY, D XY, B XY E XY foe | Exam Tie BS | “nolher Way To Work cut the charges on the ions 18 fo check the groups that % and Y | feng Toe Since Xi in group £E, Fr will form XS, while ¥, Being: in group VAT, will form Tans: AY. Element X (2.82) will frm X%* while element ¥ (28.7) will frm, ¥" Ths, Sot lated willcontein 1X ion and. 2 ¥° ion to be electrically neutral, so the formula 's ,No3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding (©) Structure of tonic Compounds [21 A solid ionic compound has giant fatiice structure. In this structure, positively and negatively charged ions are held in fixed positions by strong electrostatic forces of attraction Fig 1: Arrangement of ions in an ionic lattice (d) Physical Properties of lonic Compounds {2 High melting ond boiling points A lot of energy is required to overcome the sirong electrostatic forces of attraction holding the ions in the lattice. Meny ionic compounds exist os solids at room temperature. [A Conduct electricity when molten or when dissolved in woter lonic compounds, when molten or dissolved in woter, form mobile ions. These mobile ions ore able to move ond conduct electricity. [2 Soluble in water insoluble in organic solvents STOP AND THINK Substance X hos the following properties. What is X? 1. It conducts electricity when molten. 2. It has a high melting point. 3. It dissolves in on aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid A. copper 8 ethono! ©. iodine D sodium chloride Exam Te KS? ‘Many ionic compounds exist es solids at room temperature because they have very high melting and boiling points due to the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between ‘ons of oppesite charge, When heated, the ions in an ionic compound will absorb heat energy, vibrate harder ond overcome the forces helding them in fixed positions, In the liquid or molten state, the ions become mobile and con conduct electricity {Ansi D] Ethanol is liquid non-condactor while iodine sublimes, ie. there is no liquid of molten state for iodine. Copper does not react or dissolve in aqueous hydrochloric acid, burt sodium chloride con dissolve. in the water found in aqueous hydrochloric acid{a) Formation of Covalent Bonds [2 Covalent bonding usually takes place between non-metallic otoms. Valence electrons are shored between these atoms. Example 1: Hydrogen molecule, H, * Electronic configuration of H is 1 + The hydrogen atom needs 1 more electron in its outermost shell to become stable. This electron con be obtained by sharing 1 electron with another hydrogen atom so that both ‘aloms have complete outer shells. (6 >) (@) NG ) @-@ — @@) + This covalent bond con be represented by a dash, so the bonding between the 2H atoms con be written as H-H. Note that 1 covelent bond contains 2 valence electrons, ‘one from each atom. Example 2: Hydrogen chloride molecule, HC! + Volence electrons can olso be shored between different atoms. + Electronic configuration of H is 1 + Electronic configurotion of Cl is 2.8.7. @: © — &© “ogc ce hom, H chlorine atom, CI hydrogen chloride molecule, HCI + The covalent bond formed con be represented as H-CI. When drowing electronic structures of different atoms, it is a good idea to represent the electrons from different atoms with different symbols [x or *) A key will be needed to interpret these symbols. + Sometimes, instead of drawing full electronic structures, only outer electronic structures ore drawn: chlotine atom, Cl hydrogen chloride molecule, HCI Example 3: Oxygen molecule, O, + Electronic configuration of O is 2.6. * The oxygen atom needs 2 more electrons in its outermost shell fo become stable. These 2 electrons con be obtained by sharing 2 electrons with another oxygen ctom:C45) & No3 Atonle Strictre And Chemical Bending | 457 ©-@©- oxygen stom, enygan atom, O ‘oxygen molecule, O; * The 2 covalent bonds (or the double covalent bond) formed in the oxygen molecule can be written as O = O, Example 4; Water molecule, H,0 + Electronic configuration of H is 1 + Electronic configuration of O is 2.6 + The oxygen atom will form 2 covalent bonds, one with each hydrogen atom, to obtain a stoble structure. ©) ‘ ‘enygenotom,O stom, H——otom, H ) water molecule, HO kev * hydrogen elector % onygen electron Example 5: Vethone, CH, + Electronic configuration of Cis 2.4 + Electronic configuration of H is 1 The carbon otom will form 4 covalent bends, one with each hydrogen atom, to obtain 4 stoble structure. carbon atom, stom, H methane, CH, Example 6: Carbon dioxide, CO, * Electronic configuration of C is 2.4. * Electronic configuration of © is 2.6. * The corbon atom will form 2 double covalent bonds (i.e. 4 covalent bonds in tolal), fone with each oxygen atom, to obtain a stable structure. mt ©} (e}(e) a ‘oxygen ciom, © carbon otom, C oxygen atom, O carbon dioxide molecule, CO, sleckon gO) The carbon dioxide molecule can be writen os O = C = O,| 46 No3 Atomic Structure And Chemica! Bonding : Exan Tre I> ; a Examine the ebove examples carefully, ond you will notice a pattern - the numb ‘valent bonds formed by an atom is the rumber of electrons it needs to obtain o complete outer shell. For example, in its compounds. hydrogen ond chlorine will form 1 bond, oxygen will form 2 bends and carban will form 4 bonds. This pattern is useful fo helping predict the structure of a covalent compound. When drowing covalent structures, always dea the atom that needs to form the most number of bonds in the centre, then add on the rest of the atoms (see Examples 5 and (b) Structure of Simple Covalent Compounds Covalent compounds exist as simple moleculr structures. The molecules of the compound ore held together by weak intermolecular forces that are easily broken by heating. ® ge oe Fig 2: Arrangement of molecules in a simple moleculor structure (c) Physical Properties of Covalent Compounds Low melting and boiling points The intermoleculor bonds holding the molecules together ore weok ond easily overcome, Many covalent compounds exist as liquids or gases at room iemperoture. Do not conduct electricity in ony state Covelent substances are made up of neutral molecules that are unable to conduct electricity. | Soluble in orgenic solvents, insoluble in water E.g. of organic solvents: trichlormethane (CHCI, Exan Tre T> ethonol,, petrol wmpourd, only the weak intermolecular Forces ore When meiting or boiling a covalent broken, not the covalent bonds inside the molecules. Covalent bonds are strong bonds and will require a lot of energy to break. If the covalent bonds im the molecules are bro then decomposition has taken place and not melting, STOP AND THINK The diogram below represents the structure of ¢ molecule. Whi pounds could have the structure shown? A ommonie ich one of the following com- B colcium chloride C copper oxide D lead) chloride E water4 No.3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Gonding 9 | Eu Tir ISS Tonic compounds do not exist as mofecul is wrong to describe sodium chloride as being de up of molecules of NaCl, NaCl is referred 40 as the unit of sodium chloride, and it shows the ratio of sodium ions to chloride ions. Hence, « unit of calcium chloride is CoC | ind the ratio of calcium ions to chloride ions is 1:2 fans: E] Since the question states that the structure shown is a molecule, the compound must be covalent, i.e. non-metal atoms combine with non-metal atoms. Ammonia has the formula NH,, while 8, C and D are all ionic compounds (metal atoms combine. with non- metallic atoms). Hence the enswer is water, whose formula is H,¢ | STOP AND THINK | The table shows the proton (stomic) number of three elements. Which statement cbout X,Y ond Z is correct? element Proton (atomic) number x 3 | vi 9 Zz 10 X and Y con combine together to form an ionic compound XY, X ond Z can combine together to form an ionic compound XZ, Y and Z con combine together to form @ covalent compound YZ. Y is an clkali metel, Z is a hologen Pero To determine the type of bonding present in a compound, use the general rule ~ tonic | compounds are formed when metallic and non-metallic atoms combine, while covalent com mone | pounds are formed when non-metallic atoms combine. Ans: A] The electronic configurations of the 3 elements are: X (2:1), ¥ (2:7) and Z (2.8) Z is @ noble gas and will not form compounds, X is @ Group T metal and will combine with ¥..a Group VET non-metal to form an ionic compound &+ STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Pec 1 Elements ere made up of only one kind of atoms. The diagrams in Fig 3 show examples of elements existing os ctoms as well as molecules, oO] [ee ° QP OG e {o} ® @ Fig 3: Diagrams showing {s) 2 monoatomic gaseous element made up of atoms, e.g. helium; {b) on geseous element made up of diatomic molecules, e.g. hydrogen gas; ond (€) a solid element, e.g. ironCas) Geo es No3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Sonding | ~~~ = [A compound is made up of twa or more types of atoms chemicelly combined together. The diagrams in Fig 4 show examples of some compounds. oe @) © Fig 4: Diograms showing molecules of o compound made of 2 types of elements, e.g, (o} hydrogen chloride, HCI, and (b) water, 1,0 [21 A mixture is made up of two or more elements or compounds physically combined together. ) The components con be separated easily from one onother using methods such os filtration, © magnet, etc. wa : ) Table 3 summorises the differences between © mixture and @ compound, Mixture Compound ‘Composition | No fixed composition. | Fixed composition. The percentage of | ecch element ino compound is always same Properties | A mixture does net have is own ‘A compound hes its own set of properties but retcin those properties | croperies, different from the properties ofthe substances it is made up of. | of the elements it is made up of | E.g. Saltwater is mixture of salt E.g. Water is a liquid at room cond water. It is liquid, like water; temperature, but the elements hydrogen | ond is salty like pure salt and ongen are gases. ‘Melting ond | Melis and boils over a range of Fixed melting and boiling point. Boiling Points. | temperotures Preparation | No chemical reaciion tokes place | A chemical reaction takes place when o when @ mixture is formed. ‘compound is formed, sometimes with the emission of heat and/or light. Soparotion | Easily sepercied using physical Connot be separated using physical meons. Chemical means such os electrolysis ore needed, means such as distillation. BunTer TH Elements and compounds are pure substances and will have fixed melting and boiling points. (On the other hend, mixtures will melt or boil over a range of temperatures STOP AND THINK | Which ofthe following las tre elements? | A. argon, magnesium, phosphorus DD mognesium, bronze, hydrogen B_ brass, phosphorus, potassium E petrol, alcohol, woter C chlorine, oir, nitrogen Exan Tie TS> Bross and bronze ore alioys. An allay is a mixture containing @ metal and another element. Ans: A] Brass and bronze are mixttures of elements, cir is a mixture of elements and compounds, ond petrol is a mixture of compounds. Alcohol and water ere pure compounds,4 A No3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding | SAMPLE QUESTIONS nswer this question. jse the dota sheet to help you a : acai vi ae caleiym ion hes on eledcel chorge. Explain how, 7 © Ooo it i formed from on atom. this fon becomes charges @ calcium ion fi) Give, using dlagrem, the electronic structure of @ colcium atom and ‘ | pos {b} An isotope of calcium hos mass number of 40. Another isotope of calcium has o mass Au! Gf 44. Whot does the nucleus of each isotope contain? noms of benlium and magnesium ore represented, respectively, by the symbols: we Ne {a} What do the following numbers tell you about these atoms? (i) 4 (inthe symbol for berylium} fi) 24 (in the symbol for magnesium} (6) (i) What is the electronic structure of an otom of magnesium? {ii) In which group of the Periodic Table is magnesium placed? (c)_ How do the electronic structures of beryllium and magnesium indicate that they are both in the some Group of the Periodic Table? The drowings represent the pariicles in six different substances of room temperature and pressure, ic E FE Ce PS o ood ° Complete the fable to show which one of the drawings A te F best represents each of the following substances. You may use each letter once, more than once or not at all. substance | eve. hems IKEY201NTS Nes Atomic Siichine And Ghenial Boing SOLUTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS {i} When the calcium ctom undergoes reaction, i loses 2 valence electrons fo form the cal- cium ion. This ion will cary a 2+ charge since the number of protons remain the same; ‘only the number of electrons are affected. ~ rr | Atom jon of protons 20 No. of neutrons 20 | No. of electrons 18 ti) 2+ calcium atom calcium ion For the isotope with moss number 40: No. of protons = 20 No. of neutrons = 40 — 20 = 20 For the isotope with mass number 44: No. of protons = 20 No. of neutrons 44 — 20 = 24 fi) It is the proton or atomic number of the element. Beryllium has 4 protons. {i It is the mass or nucleon number of the element. Magnesium has 24 protons and neutrons. a Ps Sg ((\\ NC fi) Group Il The siructure of beryllium is 2.2, while the structure of magnesium is 2.8.2. Both elements have 2 velence electrons, which indicate thet they will be located in Group ll of the Periodic Table.(Gry ome Ne3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding | ~~“ Scenics subsionce | copper gos aemiture | hydrogen water (Gogrom A-F A E F E Cc Exam Tx TS” Tt is important to be able to identify the substances represented in diagrams such as those given in the question. A is a solid element because the particles are clase packed, arid there are only one type of ctom, Bis also an element, but in liquid formt, ¢ and D ‘ore pure compounds containing two types of atoms, E is a pure gaseous element that exists as diatomic molecules, Finally, F is a mixture of two elements. {o} The formula is SiC, ©) QO ~~ @) . © Clelectrons X Sielectrons (b). Sodium chloride is an ionic compound with high boiling point, It is on electrical conductor when molten or when cissolvel! in water Silicon tetrachloride is a covalent compound with low boiling point. It does not conduct electricity in all states Exam Tre [> The silicon atom needs another 4 valence electrons ta become steble while the chlorine atoms need 1 valence electron each. Hence the silicon atom will form 4 covalent bonds, while the chlorine atoms will form 1 covalent bond each, When drawing this structure place the silicon atom in the centre since it forms the most number of bonds, and then ‘add in the chlorine atoms,STOICHIOMETRY AND TOPIC 4 THE MOLE CONCEPT LEARNING OBJECTIVES Condidotes should be cble to: 4.1 Formulae and Equations WZ stote the symbols of the elements and formulee of the compounds mentioned in the syllabus @_ deduce the formulae of simple compounds from the relative numbers of atoms present and vice versa deduce the formulae of ionic compounds from the charges on the fons present ond vice verso interpret chemical equotions with state symbols @ construct chemical equotions, with state symbols, incl 4.2 Stoichiometric Calculations define relative atomic mass, A define relative molecular mass, M, © colculate stoichiometric reacting mosses ond volumes of gases {one mole of gos occupies 24 dm? at room temperature and pressure}; colculations involving the ideo of limiting reactants may be set (questions on gos lows and the calculations of gaseous volumes af diferent femperotures ond pressures will not be set) © cpply the concept of solution concentration (in mol/dm? or g/dm?) fo process the results of volumetric experiments and to solve simple groblems (simple guidance will be provided where unfamilior reactions are involved) USEFUL WEBSITES http://Avww.creative-chemistry.org.uk/acse/documents/Module8/N-m08-11 .odtf http://wew.marsdenshs.qld.edu.au/subjects/science/junior_science/chem/elemenis.him| hitp://www-krysstal.com/reactions. htm! hitp://www.corlton.paschools.pa.sk.ca/chemical/molemass/defoult.htm htto://www-bbe.co.uk/scotland/education/bitesize/standard/chemistry/celculations/indlex.shirn hitp:/Awwwtowson.edu/~ladon/empiric.himl hito:/fwww.creative-chemistry.org.uk/gese/documents/Module7/N-m07-10.pdf hitp://ww.cchs.co.uk/subjects/science/chemistry/‘gcse/resources/ionic/ionic.him hip://ww.angelo.edu/facully/kboudrea/general/fermules_nomencloture/ Formulas_Nomenclature.htm hitp://chemed, chem.purdue.edu/gencher/probsolu/stoichiometry/index.htm! Oo go0000000Not Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC STOICHIOMETRY AND THE MOLE CONCEPT boy areas 4.1 [FORMULAEAND | @ Ceemea * Chemical formulae of elements EQUATIONS Foran > Chemical formulae of fonie compounds * Chemical formulae of eovelent compounds 0. Gewou * Consrveting balanced chemical equations relienan with state symbols * Constructing tonic equations 4.2 | STOICHIOMETRIC | § Reume Ss ee CALCINATION | Mises * Relative molecular mose 8% Mass oF ant even nt a Courouio B THe Moe + Introduction Concert + Molar mass * Determining the number of moles of a substance + Determining the emgirical and moleculer formulae of ¢ compound * Caleulating the masses and volumes of goses + Colavlations involving chemical equations * Calculations involving concentrations of solutionsNo4 Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept |» Chenncar Forint (a) Chemical Formulae for Elements FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS (tsa ere we {L) Metals exist os atoms. The chemical formula for a metol is its symbol, e.g, the formule for sodivm is. No. CD Most non-motos, wth the exception ef a aable gutes, exist os molecules, ts chemical formula vill show both the symbol os well os the number of atoms that make up the molecule. For exomple, the formula for hydrogen is H., where the subscript ‘2° shows that the molecule is made up of two hydrogen toms joined together. [2 Noble gasas exist as otoms. The chemical fommule for a noble gas is thus its symbol. For example, the formule for neon is Ne. [El Table 1 below shows the chemical formuloe of some common elements. Motailic Element | Chemical Formula | Non-MetallicElement Chemical Formula | Thagresum | MgSsC*dTsC( (ts ee S| | zine aa caygen a [les Si sree XN, lead Pb carbo! c mengenese Mn TT He mercury Hig Ae Table 1: Chemicel formulae of some common elements Exam Tae E> Sulphur exists as S, and phosphorus exists as P,. However, for reasons not explained here, when the formulae’ of these elements are used in chemical equations, they are simply represented as S and P respectively, (8) Chemical Formulae of tonic Compounds (2 The formulce of both the positive ion and the negative ion must be determined before the chemical formula of the ionic compound con be written S41 Table 2 below lists some commen monoatomie ions with fixed charges. lon Symbol | Comments fon | Symbol | Comments hydrogen [OH | hydride H iz Titi ieee: Auoride F ae — an J elements leHarde cy | Group Vil form 1+ ions ‘elements form polessium bromide Br iiss iodide F | Group Il elements oxide OF Group VI bum eee jem ions sulphide | _s= _| slements form oluminium AP Goup Ill elements titride N Pi form 3+ ion ove. phosphide P 3 ions Table 2: Uist of common moncotomic ions with fixed charges55) Of Otel No.4 Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept | ~~" Selene CharsanyEYPOINTS 12 Some metals can form positive ions with different charges, depending on the compound that they are found in. Table 3 below lists some common monoatomic ions with variable charges. Name Symbol Name ‘Symbol copper | mercury 5 copperi) i [ mercury ' iron) lead) ironttll) | lead) tini{l) [ ‘cobalill) r fin) cobalifl) ( dromivmlll rickel(l) t | chromivmilll} | nickel(Y) [ mangeneselli) | Failver() ‘ manganese(iV) | _ *zinelll) Table 3: List of common monoatamic ions with variable chorges Ail Note that all these ions cre formed from transition mefals. The charges that they cary ore written in brackets after their names and oll the charges are positive. © Sometimes the charges on silver and zinc ions are not specified. Assume then that the silver ion is Ag’, and the zine ion is Zn’? Exam Tr TS> Ty is importont that the roman numerals are specified when writing the chemical fermule for compound cortaining « transition metal, For example, if you are asked to write the formula for iron oxide, you can interpret as either iron(II) oxide [FeO] or iran(EIZ) oxide [Fe,0,] The two compounds ere net the seme even though the some elements are found in them, The use of roman numerals helps reduce ambiguity when writing chemical formulce. 2 Some negotive ions exis in groups with an overall charge, Examples of such fons are shown in Toble 4. When writing chemical formulae involving such ions, never take opart the ion ~ take it os o whole group. . Name Symbol Name Symbal — ( itite NOS hydroxide | or | ritrote NO, carbonate co? sulphite __ 80, Iydrogencarbonate HCO, 2 | sulphete 507 hydrogensulphate HSO,- “mangenate (ll) MnO, dichromate(\l} ,07 a phosphate _ POS ethonoate cH.COO | { = ammonium NH Toble 4: list of some common polyatomic ions {2 Whiting chemical formulae for ionic compounds: always remember that cn ionic compound is electrically neutral, i.e. total positive charge = total negative charge. Example 1: sodium chloride lons present are the sodium ion, Na’ and the chloride ion, Cl-. Since the sodium ion carries 1+ chorge and the chloride ion carries a 1- charge, the charges ‘cancel’ each other out ‘and the compound will contain 1 Na‘ end 1 Ch, ie. the formula is NaCl —————— (tC56) Not Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept islet ‘chee ie car } fetal I= charge Example 2: Potassium oxide Jons present are the potassium ion, K* and the oxide ion, O . Since the potassium ion corries 14 charge and: the oxide ion carries a 2- charge, 2 potassium ions are needed so that the charges ‘cancel’ each other out. The compound will contain 2 K' and 1 OF, ie. the formula is K,O. folal 2+ charge! { iso } totol 2— charge Example 3: Magnesium nitride lons present ore the mognesium fem, Mg** ond the nitride ion, N*. Since the magnesium ion carries 2+ charge ond the slide ion corres 3— chorge, 3 potassium ions and 2 nitride ions cre needed so thet the eherges ‘cancel’ each other out. The compound will contain 3 Mg? ond 2. N*, ice. the formula is Mg,N, ~ [Mo ne] toiol 6+ charge Mai NP} total 6~ charge Ma" J Example 4: Col lons present cre the calcium ion, Co® ond the sulphote ion, SO,*. Since the caleium ion carries 2+ charge and the sulphate ion carries 2- charge, the charges will ‘cancel’ each other out ond the compound will contain 1 Ca and 1 SO,?, ie. the formula is CaSO, m sulphete total 2+ charge {= $02" | told =-charge Example 5: lron{i) nitrote lons present are the ironfll] ion, Fe®* and the nitrate ion, NO, Since the ironll) ton corries 2+ charge and the nitrate ion carries 1- charge, 2 niteale ions are needed so that the charges will ‘cancel’ each other out, The compound will contain 1 Fe? and 2.NO,,, i. the formula is Fe(NO]], 21 NOS total 2+ charge 1" 3 } total 2— charge NO; Exam Tie I> It is not necessary to write brackets around an ion when mere than one of it is needed in the formula, Tn exomple 3, the formule is written es Mg,N., not (Mg),(N),.. However, when more than one anion group is needed, as in example 5, brackets must be used to Indicate how many of such groups are present, Hence the formula is Fe(NO,), and not FeNO,, Another technique commonly taught is to ‘cross’ the charges on ions to obtcin the formule: Mage <> MaCl, ete ths tei, aah ell sto concept ns: Renenber ale when ising this technique to reduce the subscripts to the lowest terms, Otherwise the formula cbtened will be wrong,C57 No Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept | STOP AND THINK What is the formula of uranium(VI) oxide? A UO 8 U0, € U0, Exam Tie TS If the ‘cross charges’ method has been used here, a possible the student to leave the onsw D UO, E UO, 0s U,O,, Alirays remember (©) Chemical formulae of Covalent Compounds reless mistake will be for heck the subscripts after writing the formula out using this method ta see if they can be reduced te the lowest terms. In this case, the formula should be reduced to UO, [Ansi-E] The ions present are Us and O°. Hence the formula will contain tons i order for the charges to ‘cancel each other out 1 U and 3 0 {2 Many exceptions exist to the rules for writing the chemical formulae of covalent compounds, moking them dificult 10 remember. Some general rules * Group Ml elements also exist os Many goses are made up of digtomic molecules, i.e. H,, O,, N,, ete fomic molecules, i.e. Cl,, Br,, Fy, ete Table 5 lists some coifimag#covolent compounds in the syllabus and their formeloe, Compound | Formula ‘Compound eaibon monoxide | om nitric acid abonaeude nel CON |’ leieivieucd | eulphor diese 50, | | “ydiocilode wad sulphur tiowide 50, methane =a NH, || _[/esones [siaegenciends | oC ethanele acid ‘CHCOOH silicon dioxide LES, ethanol CHOH Table 5: List of common covalent compounds [Note that when HCI is in gaseous form, itis called hydrogen chloride gas; when itis dissolved in water, it forms o solution called hydrochloric acid é NICAL EQUATIONS (2) Constructing Balanced Chemical Equations with State Symbols © State symbols ore written in an equation to identity the chysical sicte of the reactants ond products of o chemicol reaction. There ore 4 stale symbols: solid Physical State liquid oF molten gasor vapour aqueous (dissolved in water) {aa} "State Symbol i &) ss || No Stoichiametry And The Mole Concept {2 Note that the ‘liquid’ stote and the ‘aqueous’ siate is not the some, The ‘liquid’ stote of co substance is pure. For a solid substance, the liquid state is obtcined by heating the substonce until it melts, whereas the ‘aqueous’ state of a substance is obtained by di sssolving it in water. 2 Waiting @ bolonced chemical equation with stote symbols © The word equation must first be given or worked out: Eg. sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid — sodium chloride + water ® Rewrite each substance using chemical formulae: NaOH + H,SO, —> No,SO, + H,O @ A bolonced chemical equation has the some number of each type of atoms before and citer the reaction. In this case, the number of Na and H atoms are not the some on both sides of the equation NoOH + H,SO, —> NaSO, + H,0 Left Hand Side ight Hand Side * 1 No, 5 0,3H,1S 2Na,50,2H.1§ 'D most be placed in front of NeOH os well as in front of H,O jin order to bolance the equation: 2NoOH + HSO, > NaSO, + 2H,0 Left Hand Side it Hand Side 2No,60,4H,15 2No, 60, 4H, 1S ® State symbols can be added lost to the chemical equation: 2NaOH (ag) + H,SO, (oa) + Ne,SO, (ea) + 24,0 () Exam Tie > Beginners often find it difficult to bolance chemical equations, especialy the more com plicated ones. A few rules to bear in mind: Tea equation cannot be balanced, it may be wrong. Either the formula of one or more cof the substances involved is/are’ written wrongly or there may be missing/extra, sub- sstences in the equation. Never change the chemical formula of compounds when balancing equations. You can enly ‘add numbers in front of the chemical formula. For example, 2NaOH ond No.OH Fas different meanings, 2NeOH means you have 2 units of NaOH (= 2No, 2 © and 2 H), while NaOH means you have 2 Ne, 1 @ and 1 H. STOP AND THINK ‘The equotion shows @ chemical reaction between sodium and water. The equation is not balanced. What ere the values of x and y@ xNa + yH,O > 2NaOH +H, coo i oneNo.4 Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept Exan Tre I> No score is given if you cannot give a balanced equation, even though the formulae of the compounds in your equation are correct, State symbols are not necessary in your balanced chemical equation unless the question requires it Tans: D] The equction is balanced as the number of sodium, oxygen and hydrogen ctoms fare the some on beth sides of the equation, (b) Constructing Ionic Equations £22 Ionic equations show only the ions involved in o chemical reaction. lons not taking part in the reaction (spectator ions) ore ‘cancelled’ out in the construction of cn ionic equation. Example: copper{ll) carbonate + hydrochloric acid > copper) chloride + corbon diode + woter © Construct the balonced chemical equation: CuCO, + 2HCI > CuCl, + CO, + HO ® Split only soluble ienic compounds into its fons. Insoluble ionic compounds, elements and covalent compounds remain unchanged. (See topic 6 for solubility mules of commord compound) CuCO, + 2H! + 2h + Cut 4 2Cr + CO, + H,0 @ Cancel out the spectelor ions. These ore the ions that appear in both the left and «ight side of the equation. CoCO, + 2H + 2CF > Cu + Ber + CO, + HO © Revrrite the equotion without she spectotor ions. This is the ionie equation for the meaction. CoCO, + 2H! > Cu + CO, + HO {2 Compounds that ore sparingly soluble or very sparingly soluble can be considered es insoluble when writing ionic equations involving them, Exau Te 5 When constructing ionic equations, the. number of each particle oad the total charge must be the same on both sides of the equation. For example. Cl, = 28r = Cl + Br, is not a bolanced ionic equation since the total charge on the LHS i 2- while the total charge on ‘the RHS is only I-. The balanced ionic equation will be Cl, + 2Be > 2CI' + Br, where the total charge on both sides of the equation is 2, § STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS SG Rearve wrses (a) Relative Atomic Mass of an Element FA The relative otornic mass of an element is the average mass of is otoms expressed on o scale which the carbon-12 com hos a mass of exactly 12.000 units. Figure 1 shows the reletive atomic moss scale with the masses of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and magnesium.No Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept vom KEV POINTS 7a a a of CSO e) fet) tt ee ee FTES EF aT eS aE TE TT 10190 BED , Relative atomic moss scole Coron 12 ithe stoodard Fig 1: The relotive otomic mass scole LU The hydrogen atom is only 1/12 the mass of a corben-12 atom. Since the corbon-12 atom has @ mass of 12 on this scale, the hydrogen atom will have @ relative moss of 1. Similarly, the magnesium atom has twice the moss of the carbon-12 atom. If will thus have ¢ relative mass of 24 units. [2 All neturally occurring elements ore mixtures of isotopes. The relative masses of all the different isotopes present must be token into account to give a “weighted average” moss for an atom of the element, This is the relative atomic mass of the element. Example 1; 4 ncturally occurring somple of chlorine contains 75% chlorine-35 and 25% chlorine-37 atoms. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine. Weighted average mass of o chlorine atom = (75% x 35) + (25% x 37) = 35.5 Thus, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5, ie. an average atom of chlorine will have @ relative mass of 35.5 2 The symbol for relative atomic mass is A. The relative atomic mass is o ratio and therefore hos no uni Bean Tr 3 ‘There i a clear distinction between mass number and relative atomic mass: the mass (or nucleon umber) of an atom is. the number of protons and neutrons in the rucleus of the atom. It is ALWAYS a whole number. The relative atomic mass of on element is the average mass of its ctoms compared to the mass of a C-12 atom {b) Relative Molecular Mass 2 The relative molecular mess of an element or compound is the average mass of its molecules, relative 10 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 otom. £2 The symbol for relative molecular mass is M, 12 Mis colculated by adding together the A, of each atom in the formula. tt has no units. Example 2: Colculcte the relative molecular mass of chloroform, CHCl, } M(CHCL) g AIC) + ATH) + 3x AC) = 12+ 143x355 = 119.5 Example 3: Colculate the relative molecular moss of copper sulphate crystals, CuSO,.5H,0. | (CvSO,.5H,O) = A (Co) + AS) + 9X A(O) + 10K A (H) 64 + 32 49x16 + 10x17 = 2506 ecm] No Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept nea homanyiKEV+AOINTS, Exan Tre I> Strictly speaking, the term ‘relative molecular mass’ can only be used for substances that exist as molecules, i.e, covalent compounds and some elements, For substances that de not exist as molecules, ie. ionic compounds, the term ‘relative formula mass’ is more correct Fortunately, no distinction is made in the ‘O' level examination ond the term ‘relative molecular mass’ is used for cll types of compounds TAGE MASS. OF é fA The percentage by mass of on element present ino compound is fixed. This percentage con be calculated using the formula % Mass of element in compound = Mass of element in compound 'M, of compound _ No. ef atoms « A, of element 7 M, of compound «100 100 Example 4: Colculote the percentage by mass of oxygen in carbon dioxide, CO, 2x16 % 0 in CO, = ENE 100% = 727% Exan Te SSP Ef the calculations are correct, the total percentages of all the elemeniy BREgent i compound should add up to 100%. Hence in example 4, if the % mase of carbon present in carbon dioxide is needed, it is caleulated simply as’ 1 273%, Example 5: Colculote the percentage by mass of water in sodium carbonate cnstols, Na,CO,.10H,0 a {2 1418) 100% % H,0 in No,CO,,10H,O “2x 2341243x16-e10xfaxia1g *!O* = 62.9% 1 The percentage by mass can clso be used to calculate the mass of cn element in a given sample, The formula is ‘Mass of element in sample = % of element in compound sample mass _ Mass of element in compound amy i dome xs pie mass Example 6: Calculate the mass of copper in 32. of copper(l) sulphate = Mess of Cu in CuSO, & Mass of Cu ™, of CuSO, 32g im 64 542824 an16 “279 =12.89? yoroma Nod Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept | =" Scencal hematite STOP AND THINK It fs now known thet one form of carbon hes molecules of formule Cy. Whot is the relative moleculor moss, M, of these molecules? A 12 Cc 360 8 60 a DB 720 Exan Tx? TS The formula C,, indicates that the molecule contains 60 carbon atoms bonded together. Hence the relative molecular mass of C,, is 60 * A,(C) = 720. Jans: D] M, of ¢,, = 60» 32 = 720 STOP AND THINK What is he meximum moss of chromium, Cr, that can be extracted from 76 g of chromivmfliloxide, C,0,2 A 489 © 104g B 52 D 1529 Exam Te TS> ‘An assumption thot the chramium(TTT) oxide somple is 100% pure is made in order ta cimplete the calculation In practice, it x= possible to obtain less thon 52g of chromium if the chromium(III} oxide sample iS impure 2xA,Cr) wi ABBE sess (ane: 8] Mess of chromiom = Hpfenoyr769* Bepawadsr 769 929 (@) Introduction (2) The usit used in Chemistry to count particles (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.) is the mole. [2 One mole = 6 x 10® particles, The number 6 x 10% is called the Avogadro Constant. Fig 2 shows how the mole is used in counting particles. | mole af carbon atom | mole of woter molecules eonjains 6210 sodhum atoms 62107" H,O mote Fig 2: Using the mole to count atoms, molecules and ions (11 The shor form for the mole is mol.No.4 Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept (b) Molar Mass [1 The molar mass of @ substonce is the mass of one mol (= 6 < 10} of the’ substance. © The molar moss of an element made up of atoms is ils A, in grams. For example, the molar moss of oluminium is 27g, and the molar mass of argon is 40g. {2 The molar mass of @ compound or on element made up of molecules is is M, in grams For example, the molar mass of sodium chloride (NaC!) is 23 + 35.5 = 58.5, and the molar mass of hydrogen (H,} is 2x1 = 2g (©) Determining the Number of Moles of a Substance {2 The number of moles of a substance can be obiained using the formula Number of moles =__™6ss of substance _ molar mass of substance Example 7: How many moles of atoms ore there in 109 of calcium atoms? Example 8: How many moles are present in 32.g of sulphur dioxide, SO, 82 No. of moles of sulphur dioxide = Jayexte = BS 1 Use a formula triangle to help remember formulae. the A A number of moles is needed, cover the term ‘no. of moles’ ie fo obtain the equation, ay (2 The formula can ke manipulated to give the mass of @ [aes substance, given the number of moles present, The formula is Mass = Number of moles x Molar mass This formula con be obtained from the formula by covering the term ‘moss’ in the formula triangle. Example 9: What is the mass of 0.1. mol of carbon dioxide molecules? Molar mass of CO, = 12 +2%16 = 44g Mass = 01X44 = 44g Example 10: 0.25 mol of on clement X weighs 9.75 g. What is x2 Remember molar mass is the moss of one mol of the substonce. Since 0.25 mol of X weighs 9.75 g, 1 mol of X will weigh 9.75/0.25 = 39 g. From the Periodic Table, X must be potassium. STOP AND THINK The formula of coppertl) oxide is Cu,O. How many grams of oxygen ore combined with 64 g of copper in this compound? A 8 8g C 389 22g D 649 }No.4 Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept Exan Tee BP The ratio for the above question is ol fained from the chemical formula itself. 2 Cu atoms fof Cu,0. This means if we have 2 « (6 « 10) Cu combine with 1.0 atom to form ¢ uni toms, they will combine with 6 « 10 © atoms. In other words, since 1 mol = 6 * 2 mol of Cu atoms will combine with 1 mol of O atoms. [ans: Al NB. f 64/64 = 1. From the formula, 2 mol of Cu atoms will combine with s Hence 05 mol af O atoms will combine with 1 mol of Cu STOP AND THINK What is the retio of the number of molecules in 71 g of chlorine to the number ‘of molecules in 2 g of hydrogen? Am © 2 B 71:2 Dost Exam Te 1S> nthe above question, it is nat necessary to cal ber of molecules of chlorine nd hydrogen. 1 mol'= 6 x 208, 80 1) m wlecules 1s 6 » 10" chlorine molecules 4 hydrogen molecules 15 gen molecules. This will give ‘Ans: B] No. of moles of chlorine molecules T= 1 No. of moles of hydrogen molecul a2 = 1 Hence the ratio (d) Determining the Empirical and Molecular Formulae of a Compound The empirical formule shows the lowest ratio of the different atoms in a compound. Remember that the formula of @ compound shows the ratio of each type of ofom in the compound. For example, if the formule is Na,O, this means that 2 No atoms combine with 1 © atom to form the compound. If we count using the mol instead, the formula will show that 2 mol of No ctoms combine with 1 mol of © atom to form the compound. [51 Using this ideo, the calcvlotion to find the empirical formula involves finding the mel ratio of each type of ctom in the compound. Example 11; Whet is the empiricel formule of © compound with composition of 80% copper and 20% sulphur? | cu Ss tess (g) 80 20 [TMlor moss fa) 3 2 80 20 No. of mol —=125 sy = 0625 i: ed 32 Ml ratio. ee] DBRS 4 | 0625 0625 The empi is Cus.Nod Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept | nereroin Example 12:30 g of silicon oxide contains 14 g of silicon, Find the formula of the compound. Mass of © in compound = 30 - 14 = 16g [ $i ° Mass (a) 14 16 [Woler mass (a) =a 16 14 16 No. of mol sy 205 sal No. of or 0. 6 0.5 1 ratio $5 oy aie? otras | 35 05 The empiricel formule is SiO,. Exan Tre TS In most cases, the mol ratio obtained in the last step contains whole numbers er nearly whole numbers such as 1.96 which can be easily rounded off to a whole number. However. if the ratio cbtained contains numbers such as 2.5, do net round it off but use @ multiple instead. For example, if the ratio is 1:25, then the ratio 2:5 should be used in the empirical formula instead of 1:3 {2 The molecular formule shows the actual number of each kind of atom in o compound. It is © multiple of the empirical formula. Molecular formula = (Empirical formula), where n = 1, 2, 3 {1 To find the volue of n, we meke use of the equation Relative molecular mass = n x relative empirical formula mass Example 13: The empirical formula of a compound is C,H,O, Its relative molecular moss is 88. Find the molecular formula. let the molecular formule be (C,H,O), moleculor moss x empirical formula mass 88 =nx(2x12+4x1+16) 88 Pra 2 The motecular formula is (C,H.O}, = C.H,0, Exam Tie 15> When calculating the molecular formula, after finding the velue of n, do not leave the formula as (C,H,0), but multiply out the numbers to give the formula CH,O, Example 14:A compound of carbon and sulphur has composition of 15.8% carbon ond 84.2% sulphur {e) Find the empirical formula. {b) The relofive molecular mass of the compaund is 76. Find the moleculer formula,Cc Mass (6) 158 [ B42 MLSE) 12 32 No. of mel 158 ayag ‘ 12 1.32 263 ff ra 132.) | 28 igone ee 132 132 The empirical formule is CS,, {b) Let the moleculer formule be (CS,ly molecular mass = nx empirical formula moss 76=nx(12+ 2x32) 7 oe 76 The moleculor formule is (CS,), = CS, Exam Tre t is possible for the vale of n te be 1, In this case, the empirical for molecular formula of the compound STOP AND THINK “p la ig also the ‘A compound X contains 50% sulphur ond 50% oxygen, by mass. What is the formula of compound x A SO B SO, Evan Tee > Since the relative molecular mass of compound X wos not given, one can assume that the empieical farmula is also the molecular formula of compound X and select B as the answer [Ans: B] The empirice! formule is SO, s ° Wess @) 50 Ed Molor nase (@) | __32 % No. of mol Barsees na25 5 15628 3.125 Mel ratio eee 156257 15626 {e) Calculating the Masses and Volumes of Gases [.1 One mole of ony gas hos a volume of 24 dm? (24 000 em?) at room temperature (25°C) end standard ofmospheric pressure (1 cim). This volume is called the molar volume of 2 gos.i No Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept | Ld The volume of gases is measured using either the dm? or cm, 1 dm® = 1000 cm® {4 To calculate the number of moles of gas at room temperature and pressure (r.p}, we use the formula volume of gas in em? at r. 24 000 cm® Number of moles of gas = volume of gas in cm? at r.t.) 24 dm? or Number of moles of gas = Example 15: How many moles ore there in 0.08.dm* of hydrogen gos ot chip? 18 x 1000 24000 = 0.003 No. of moles Example 16:1n on experiment, when hydrochloric ecid wos reacted with calcium carbonate at room temperature and pressure, 48 cm’ af carbon dioxide gos was produced. Calculate the number of carbon dioxide molecules evolved. 48 ecules = 0002 No, of moles of CO, molecules = ao No. of CO, molecules = 0.002 x 6 x 10% = 1.20 x 10” A formula triangle can also be used to remember this formula: (L) The formula triangle can be manipulated to calculate the volume of « gos, given the number of moles, Volume of gas (in dm®) = Number of moles x 24 dm? Example 17: Coleviote the volume of 0.016 g of methane, CH,, under room conditions. 0016 No. of mol of CH, = 0016 __ WT TBeaet 000 Volume of CH, = 0.001 x24 = 0.024 dm? Example 18: Colculate the mass of 1.5 dm? of corbon monoxide, CO, under room conditions, 15 No, of mol of CO= 3. Co = F-00625 Mass of CO.= 0.0625 x (12 +16) = 1.759 Exam Top TS? Gases expand and contract upon heating end cooling. When calculating the volumes of gases, bear in mind that the volume of one mole of ges is 24 dm? only at 25°C, If the temperature is lowered to 0°C, the volume of the gos will decrease, At this temperature, ‘one mole of gas will occupy only 22.4 dn’ |[ No.4 Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept | STOP AND THINK The number of particles in one mole of gas is x. What is the number of chlorine molecules in 35.59 of gaseous chlorine? A 05x D 35.5% Box E 71.0e x C m® Exam Tre > Tn this question, < gas is required fans: Al No. Since 1 mol of gas contains x pe hlorine molecules (f) Calculations Involving Chemical Equations Calculations from chemical equations involve five main steps, although not all the steps are required in each set of colculations The steps are: ste? ® Write © balanced chemical equation for the reaction and define the problem to be solved by writing down the information that is given in the question. stt?@ Calculate the no. of moles of the substance whose mass is given. s°@ Write down the relevant mole ratio from the chemical equation. st? @ Calculote the no. of moles of the substance to be found st? ® Colculote the required mass or volume. Example 19: Calculate the mass of water produced when 4.0 g of methane is completely burt in oxygen sign, | CHa t20y CO, +2440 The bolonced equation | {1 i mess of methone 40 No. of mel of methane | —mosimethone _, —“ _ meolor mass of methane 12+4x1 025 a Mal rotio : 2 incl CH, No. of mol of woter y | 3 025=050 no. of moles x molar mass of HO. | Mass of water =0.50x(16+2x1) =9.05[oe No.# Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept | Seger Exam Tr TS The crucial step in these calculations is the determination of the mol ratio from the balanced equation, Tn example 19, the balanced equation is CH, + 20, CO, » 2H,O, One con interpret the equation es 1 molecule of CH, reacts with 2 molecules of O, to produce 1 molecule of CO, and 2 molecules of 1,0. Ef we count using the mel instead (remember ‘the mol is just the mumber 6 « 10°), we can interpret the equatien as 1 mol of CH, reacts with 2 mol of O, to produce 1 mol of CO, and 2 mol of H,O. Many mol ratios con be written for this equation, depending on what Two substances we choose. Tf we want the mol ratio between CH, and O,, then mol CH,: mot O, = 1:2, The mal ratio between Q, and CO, is 2:1; However, only the mol ratio between the substance given and the substance to ine found is useful, By defining the problem in step 1, we will ( Know which mol ratio is needed to help solve the problem Example 20: Calculcle the moss of the solid product obtained when 16.8 g of sodium hydrogencarbonate is heated strongly until there is no further change. The “equation for the reaction is 2NCHCO, {5} > Na,CO, (s) + CO, (6) + H,0 (o) 2NcHCO,{s) > NogCO,(s) + CO;(a) + H,Olg) The bolonced equation | Tg'5 i 168 168 No. of mol of NaH = COs | gaaiai2s3x16 mol Na,CO, _ 1. mal NaHCO, 2 mel Na,CO. mol NaHCO, ~ 2 Mol ratio = mol Na;CO, =:xmel NeHCO, No. of mol of Ne,CO, a J | =5x02=01 Mass of Na,CO, Ole (2x 23+1243x16)=0.1x106= 1065 2 & STOP AND THINK Limestone decomposes when heated as shown in the equation. Which mass of limestone is needed ‘ to produce B4 kg of calcium oxide? CaCO, + CoO + CO, . A 150 kg C1000 kg B 840 kg D 1800 kg Exam Tie 43> Be careful of the units used in the question. The meler mass is in grams. Hence, when calculating the number of moles of @ substance, the mass of the substance must also be in grams,s cee a Ans: A) [— a 0, + CaO + 60, he belanced equation | “0621 > C20 = COs 4000 _ 84000 ‘ 54000 1500 | Nevafeel sta) | aire a I ral C200 | = ‘ieee molGaO 1 MelGOCOs 1 mol CaCO, =1+™mol C0 No. of malaf coco, | melcad “I 4 | 11500 = 1500 | i Mase of CoCO, 1500 « (40 +12 +3 16) = 150000 g = 150 kg STOP AND THINK Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid os shown, What is the volume of hydrogen produc at rip. when 0.12 9 of magnesium reacts? Mg + 2HCI > MgCl, + H, A 56 em? C240 em? |B 120 em® D480 cm? | Pam The colculation steps in this problem are similar to those in previous. examples last step where volume instead of mass was required. The formula to use to volume is volume = number of moles » 24 din! | tans: 8] ;— eae Mg + 2Hcl-> MgCl, = H, The balanced equation h +H, cx By i | ‘O12 lo. of mal 2 - 0.00: | No. oF mol of Mg 22 = o.c050 sol H, el ratio me ta | wet ‘mol Mg - mol Hy No. of molofH, | mel Ma Volume ef H, | 0.0080«24= 048 dm? =120 en £2 Sometimes the question requires the student to identify the limiting reactant as past of ¥ solution to the calculation. The limiting reactant is the reactant thal, once used up, will cou the recetion to stop.[Cra Nod Stoichiometry And The Male- Concept | ~ZE— Example 21: 5.6 g of iron bums in 6.4 g of sulphur to form ironffl) sulphide. {o) Colculete and find out which reactont is the limiting reactant 6) Colculoie the mass of ironfll) sulphide formed ater the reaction. {6} Colculote the mess of the excess reacton! that is left after the reaction. 56 (0) No. of mol of Fe = Zz = 0.1 fmol of § = $4 ~ 02 No. of mol of $= 35 = Fe + $ > FeS From equation, 1 mol of Fe reacts with 1 mol of S. This means 0.1 mol of Fe will reoct with 0.1 mol of 5. Hence the limiting reactont is Fe. (b) 0.1 mol of Fe will produce 0.1 mol of FeS Mass of FeS = 0.1 x (56 + 32) = 88g (@) S is the excess reactont in this reaction. 0.1 mol of § will react with Fe, leaving (0.2 = 0.1 = 0.1) mol of S behind. Moss of excess S = 0.1 x 32 = 32g Exam Tre T> In part (6) of example 21, the mass of product was calculating using the number of moles ‘of Pe, the limiting reactant. Remember that once the limiting reactant is used up, no more reaction tokes place. The amount of product formed will depend on how much limiting reactant was present in the reaction. STOP AND THINK The equation for the buming of hydrogen is shown. One mole of hydrogen wos burned with fone mole of oxygen. What wos present offer the reaction? 2H, (6) + O, (9) > 2H,0 (a) 1 mol of steam only 1 mol of steam + 0.5 mol of omgen gas 1 mol of steom + 0.5 mol of hydrogen gas 2 one > mol of steam only Eun 5 . Another twist To the question will be te ask for The number of moles of gaa remaining ‘after the reaction was left to stand for some time. Tf the reaction myxture was left to cool, the steam formed will condense to give water droplets, The gos left will be 0.5 mol of oxygen only ans: B] From the equation, 2 mol of hydrogen reacts with 1 mol of oxygen to produce 2mol of steam, Tf only 1 mol of hydrogen was burnt, it will react with 0.5 mol of oxygen to prociuce i mol of steam, At the end of the reaction, all the hydrogen will be used up and 0.5 mol of oxygen will be left os excess together with t mol of steam as the product——————————————————eE ee eee [CG2yavne | Nod Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept | ~2=—~ —ScenefchensanheY= OHS} (g) Calculations involving Concentrations of Solutions 1 The concentration of « solution is the omaunt of a solute dissolved in « unit volume of the solution, 2 The concentration of @ solution is given in cher g/dm? or mol/ebm! 2 To calevlate concentration, the following formulae con be used: : = ass of solute (g) Concentration (g/ dm") = a sq eaiien amy no. of moles of solute eo rate *)= or Concentration (mol / dim’) = Tne of solution (dm°) Exan Tie 5 ing 5.09 of sodium chioride in 10cm’ of water is not the same as dissolving 5:0 9 ium chloride in a little water and then topping up to 100 cm’. All matter tokes up ace, and if 5.0 g of sodium chloride is dissolved in 100 cm! of water, the volume of the final Solution will be slightly more than 100 cm Example 22: A solution of glucose contains 0.45 g of glucose in 75 em® of solution, What is the concentration of the glucose solution in g/dm’? Concentrofion = =? $= 60.9/dm* Example 23; Whol is the concentration in mol/dm? of a solution of sodium hydroxide if it contains 3.5.g of sodium hydroxide in 100 cm? of salution? moss 3535 molar mass 23+16+1 40 20875 mol “Too 1000 No, of moles of NoOH = 0.0875 Concentration = 0.875 mol/ dm? dm? LD Sometimes, it is necessary to convert from mol/dm? to g/dm?. The following formula is used _ concentration (g/dm*) molar mass Concentration (mol /dm*) Concentration (g/dm*) = concentr yn (mol/dm*) x molar mass Example 24: 4.5 g of anhydrous sodium corbonate (No,CO,) was dissolved in distilled water end made up to SOO ern’. Express the concentration of this solution in terms of (a) g/dm? end (b) mol/dm. 459 500 45 000 {b) Molor mass of No,CO, = 2X 23+ 12 +3% 16 = 106g (a) Concentration = =9.0 g/ dm! aca concentration (g/m?) _ 1086 0.085 mol / dm? Concentration in mol/dm? =No Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept Exam Tie oS nla triangle can be used here as well If the mass of ue ahha Us eansrod then the toatl ea ‘Mass = concentration (in g/dm’) = volume of solution (in dm") ‘Always remember ta convert volume of solutions from em! to dm? when performing calcviations, 1000 cm? = 1 dm? no. of mel ‘cone OUR of selutio Example 25: The cllute sulphuric acid used in school laboratories usually hos @ concentrotion ‘of 2 mol/dm*. What is the moss of H,SO, in 250 cm? of this ecid? No. of moles = Concentration (mol/dm') x volume (dm*) = Amol, 250 ys am Yooo®™ ~ Mass of HSO, = 0.5 x (2x 143244 x 14 =05 x 98 = 499 5 STOP AND THINK Which solution of sodium chloride has the greatest concentration? A 0.10 mol NeC! in 0.10 dm? of solution 8 0.10 mel NaC! in 1.00 dm? of solution C 0.01 mel NaC! in 100 cm? of solution D_ 0.01 mol NaCI in 1000 cm? of solution Ans: A] A quick calculation will show that the concentration is 1 mol/dm? in A, O10 mol/ dm? in B and C, 0.01 mol/dm? in DCa ye Nod Steichiometry And The Mole Concept | == SAMPLE QUESTIONS Fertilisers often contain the compounds with the following formulae: INH),HPO, NH,NO, KCl “Nome the compourtd with the formula KCl. nuff} Colculate the relotive moleculor moss (M) of (NH,J,HPO, A Colculote the percentage by mass of nilrogen in ommonium ritrate, NH.NO,. 2. (0) Define relative atomic mass. {&) Tungsten metal, W, is monufoclured by redueing lungsten() oxide, WO,, with carbon WO, + 3C + 3cO + W Calculate {the moss of carbon needed to reduce 116 g of tungsten) oxide, {i) the maximum moss of tungsten that can be formed. 3. a). Whot is meant by molor gos volume and whot isis value for carbon monoxide at room temperature ‘ond pressure? {b) Hydrogen gas burns in oxygen gos to form water, Colculaie ff) the volume (i) the mass cof oxygen needed fo burn 24 din? of hydcogen, all volumes being measured af room temperature ‘ond pressure. 4. When the gas hydrogen sul ide, H,S, is mixed with on excess of oxygen and allowed to react, sulphur dioxide and water vapour are formed, {o) Balance this chemical equation. HS + 0, > SO, + H,0 {b) {An excess of oxygen is mixed with 100 em? of hydrogen sulphide and the mixture is buent ‘All volumes are measured at 100°C. Whet volume of sulphur dioxide and water vapour core formed? Vhen the products of the reaction are colled to room temperoture, the volume decreases! by approximately 100 cm?, Explain this decrease ia volume. 5. Urea, {NHJ,CO, is formed by reacting together ammonia NH, and carbon dioxide, CO, 2NH, [g) + CO, (a) > (NH,),CO() + 4,0 0) {o) (i) How mony hydrogen otoms ore present in one molecule of ureo? {i Is the vreo represented in the chemical equation « gas, a liquid or a solid? (b) What moss of urea can be formed from 68 tonnes of ammonia? Refer to the Periodic Table for relative ctomic masses ff ‘A solution of 250 cm? of ethonol in water contoined 23 g of ethanol, C,H,OH. Calculate the concentration of the ethanol ia g/den® and mol/dee.Lo fa wi 2. 6) 3. fo) ib) pier SOLUTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS Ned Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept potassium chloride M=2x 1449x1431 44x 16 = 132 2x14 28 Ne 9 pron oh 2xl444xle3x16 a 80 ines The relative otomic moss is the moss of an atom of an element compared fo 1/12gof the mass of an atom of carbon-12. bs ey WO, +3C » 3CO+W Wé6g 2 Ne te 1844+3x16 232 The baler iced equstion No. of mol of WO; os | mol C Mol ratio : imal WO, mal C No. of mol of C oo Mass of C 15x12=18g molW 1 1 iy) eet 1W = Foe OeraiWOg Tee Os 1 =ax05= 7 os Mass of W = 0.5 x 184 = 92g The moler gas volume is the volume occupied by 1 mole of any gas ct given tempercture and pressure. The value for carbon dioxide ot ct.p. is 24 dm, (2H, (g) + ©, {9} > 2H,0 (g) Since ll the reactants and products are gases, the mol ratio con be written os the volume ratio. xvolH, = 12dm? Volume of oxygen needed is 12 dm’. 12 {i No. of mol of ongen = 25 = 0.5 Moss of oxygen gas = 0.5 x (2 x 16) Exan Tx I> The mol ratio can be converted to a volume ratio IF the substances involved in the mal ratio are gases, 1616 EO Nod Stoichiometry And The Mole Concept | : 4 +30, + 250, + 2H,0 {G) @)Sisce all the reactants and products ore gases, volume ratio is used, wASO, 12 2 ; W502 2 5 woiS0, = 2x vl HS = 100 em wlH;S 2 2 vol HO _2 2 3 val HO = 2x vol HS = 100 en wis 2 ia: (i) When the products ore cooled to room temperature, the water vapour will condense. The resulting gos will conicin only sulphur dioxide, which has 0 volume of 100 cm! 5. fo) ) 4 Gi) solid (0) | 2NHyig} + COp(g) > (NHy}xCOfs) + H,Ol) 68 fonnes 2 | The bolanced equation 000.000 _ 68.000 000 No. of mol of NHy os = 4000 000 Vase 7 ous mol (NHp}pCO _ 1 mol NH = mol (NHp}sCO = 3 xmol NH, No. of mol of (NH3},CO J = 3 #090 000 = 2.000 000 2.000 000x (2x 1444x1+12+16)= 2.000 000 x 60 Mass of [NH,},CO = 120 000.000 g =120 tonnes Exam Tre TS 1 fonne = 1000000 9 or 1x 10° g, i 23 6. Concentration of ethenol solution in g/dm? = BOs =92 1000, Molar mess of ethanol = 2% 1246x1416 = 469 F2ghdme _ 469 Concentration of ethansl solution in mol/dm? = Exam Te To? ‘Alternatively, #0 find the concentration in mol/dey 23 No. of mol of ethanol = 23 a0? Concentration of ethanol solution =CHEMICAL REACTIONS LEARNING OBJECTIVES Candidates should be oble to: 5.1 Speed of Reaction describe the effect of concentration, pressure, particle size and temperoture on the speeds of reactions ond exploin these effects in terms of collisions between reacling particles interpret dota obtcined from experiments concerned with speed of reaction 5.2 Redox Reactions define oxidation and reduction (redox) in terms of oxygen/hydrogen gain/loss define redox in ferms of electron transfer ond changes in oxidation state RE describe the use of aqueous potassium iodide ond ocidified potessium dichromate(VI) in testing for oxidising ond reducing agents from resulting colour changes 5.3 Energy Changes @_ describe the meaning of enthalpy change in terms of exothermic { AH negative] ond endothermic (AH positive) reactions @ describe bond breaking as an endothermic process and bond making as an exothermic process USEFUL WEBSITES hitp:#/ew.chemguide.co.uk/physical/basicratesmenu.htmli#top hitp://www.chemistry.co.nz/redox begin. him bps er chemisty.ce.na/chemequa.him htips//oww.chem v.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/oxidalion numbers him { hitp://www.ausetute.com.ou/oxistate.htm| hitp:#/wew.chemguide.co.uk/inorgonic/redoxmenv.himl#top . ( hitp://wow.alka-seltzer:com/os/experiment/student_experiment] him { hip: //chemistry.cbout.com/es/generalchemistry/a/aa051903a.him hitp://chemistey.cbout.comllibrary/woekly/s10919030.him hip://onww.science-groove.org/SSA/ContesiO1/chemicalbond. him hip: //waw.emeb.q¢.ca/lovrenhi Dooo000o00000Cia ) cee No Chemical Recctions OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS 8 hoy oreos 5.1 | SPEED OF @ brooucnon i | REACTION @ Measurnic me Seeso oF a Resection @ Tue Coussion Treowy B Factors arrecniG THE + Portiche size _| Speen oF « Reaction EConcathalion | + Pressure + Temperature 5.2 | REDOX ® breooucnon REACTIONS @ Loss/Gan oF Onvcan/Hyorocet & recton Gany/Loss ae Concent Oracn Assigning oxidation numbers Novas Datermining oxidation and reduction ing oxidation numbers @ Tessron lefining oxidising ond reducing egen's (Gupisntc/Reoucns Agents Use of aqueous potassium iodide to test for oxidising agents ; | | * Use of acidified potassium | dichromate(l) to test for reducing agents 5.3 | ENERGY & brecpucion CHANGES & Exotnennic Reactions @ Evcomenac Reacnons @ Bray Comice @ Bono Breas ano Bono Foruanion |i é é NoB Chemical Reactions SPEED OF REACTION The speed of a chemical reaction refers fo how fast reactants ere used up or how fast products ore formed in a reaction. {12 Different chemical recctions have different speeds. Examples: Recction of potassium metal with woter ~ very fost Rusting of cn iron noil in the presence of cir and water ~ slow, fokes @ few days Gold reacting with oxygen in the air - no reaction, speed of reaction of gold with ongen is zero, suRse THE SrEED OF A ReAcn [A The speed of a reaction is defined os change in amount of reactant or product time [2 We con measure the speed of a reaction by measuring either how quickly a product is obtained or how quickly a reactont is used up, Example 1: Calcium carbonate (limestone or morble) reacts with dilute hydrochloric ecid to produce cerbon dioxide gos. CaCO, (5) + 2HCI faq) + CoCl, (aq) + CO, {o} + H,0 () We can measure the speed of this reaction by measuring the volume of carbon dioxide gas (producl] formed over time, or the decrease in mass of the system due to the loss of carbon dioxide over time, speed of reaction = [AD Measuring the speed of a reaction by meosuring the volume of gos produced: © A graducted gos syringe is used to measure the volume of carbon dioxide gas formed cover fime (Fig 1). top Funnel to odd the oqueous reactant, o.g. HCI solid reactant, ea. CeCO, ‘rodvoted gos syringe Fig 1: Apparatus set-up for measuring the volume of gos formed in o reaction © The totol volume of corbon dioxide gos given off ot one-minuie intervals is recorded: Time / min oli f2[3[4[slé Total volume of CO, /em? | 0 [ 24 [34 | 38 | 40 | 40 | 40‘TC 80 No5 Chemical Reactions | ~ "0 © A graph of total volume of carbon dioxide against time is plotted (Fig 2): volume of CO,/em® 40 30. _ 20 10 0 sima/min 1 2 ees 6 . Fig 2: Graph of volume of carbon dioxide ogcinst time ® The grodient ot various points of the curve is calculated. Gapleny =. “lurieioheorbion eigedeilormedt ime = speed of reaction The greater the gradient, the foster the reaction. Fig 3 shows how the speed of the reaction changes over time. volume of {Grodient = 0, rection has stopped COs/em’ 40 Zs Ss ——~ Gradient is smaller, reaction is slowing down — Large radiant neor tor. recction is very fost timermin teed a ae Fig 3: Chonge in speed of reaction over time Ban Te 5 ‘The reaction is complete once the gradient of the curve becomes zero, Th the above example, the reaction is completed in 35 minutes. It is incorrect ta say that since the reaction is completed in 3.5 minutes, the reaction is helf completed at 3.5/2 = 175 minutes. This is because the rate of recction changes with time - it is faster at the beginning, becomes: slower as the reaction proceeds and finally stops. To determine the time when the reaction is half completed, we need to look at how long if takes for half the amount of product to be formed. In this case, it takes approxi mately one minute’ for 20 cm! of carbon dioxide gas to form. This time is less than 1.75 minutes, (0) Measuring the speed of « reaction by measuring the decrease in mass of system due fo loss of product: ® A moss balance is used to follow the loss in moss of the system (Fig 4 Fig 4: Apparatus setup for meosuring loss in mass of system ‘hydrochloric acid marble chine top pon clacrronic bolonceats CD) No Chemical Reactions 2 ® The mass readings will drop over time os the carbon dioxide gas formed escapes, The mass readings are taken ct one-minute intervals ond then plotted against time (Fig 5) ross of system fo) 4 = time (ein) Fig 5: Graph of mass of system against time @ The gradient of this graph ot various points of the curve will also give the speed of reaction. The reaction is the fastest at the star becouse the gradient of the graph is the lorgest. The volue of the gradient decreases with time ond finally becomes zero. This means the! @s the reaction proceeds, the reaction slows down and finally comes to & stop. Exam Tee I> 4 wad of cotton wool is used as a stepper instead of « rubber bung in Fig 4. The coffen woo! will allow the escape of carbon dioxide gos inta the atmosphere and prevent the solution inside the cenical flask from sproying out. Tf a rubber bung is used, the presaune inside the flask will build up because carbon dioxide gas cammot escape. There vill ciso be ho change in mass reading, Eventually the rubber bung will ‘pop’ out of the flask when the gas pressure is too great. STOP AND THINK A student performs a series of experiments using catalysts. For each experiment he uses the same | A ‘amounts of reactonis ond the same arnount of cotalyst, He plots the graph below from the results Using only this information, which statement is correct? The catalyst alters both the rote of the reaction and the products formed, a |B The catalyst has no effect on the ones rote of the reaction. e | C The catalyst produces more product from the some omount of reactant. oe D_ The reaction is foster when the catalyst pieces are small Exan Tie 35° A catalyst isa substance that can be added to reaction to make it proceed fasten. Tt des not take pert in the reaction and remains chemically unchanged a the end. There fore, only small amounts of catalyst are needed for c reaction because they can be recycled {Ans: 0] The gradient of the graph for the experiment using smaller catalyst pieces is Steeper than that for the other experiment, Note that both’ gave the same anourt of Product; This implies that the reaction is faster using smaller catalyst pieces but the same ‘amount of product will be formed82 No Chemical Reactions |= Ssenceit hom Ot Tutor 2 For © reaciion to occur between 2 particles, © the reacting poricles must collide with each other, ond © they must collide with « certain minimum energy known os the octvation energy. Ctherwise, the porticles will just bounce apart after colliding with each other without ony change. A collision that results in the formation of produet molecules is called on effective collision In general, any factor that increases the number of effective collisions will increase the reaction speed. The speed of o reaction con be altered by 4 foctors porticle size of reactont ~ smoller particle reactants, faster recctions concentration of reactont — more concentrated reactonts, foster reactions pressure of reactant {for goseous reactions only) — higher pressure, faster reactions ee0ee temperoiure — higher temperatures, foster reactions (a) Particle Size Smaller particles hove © greater totol surface area compared with larger parricles of the some mass (Fig 6). There is more surface area for reaction between the reactants, ond the number of effective collisions leading 10 recction increases. This increases the speed of reaction. big piece of cold small pieces Ssmel surace oreo Forge surface or Fig 6: Comparing the total surface area of @ big piece of solid ond smaller pieces of the same’ solidNo5 Chemical Reactions Example 2: Reaction between () marble chips ond (i) powdered calcium carbonete with diluie hydrochloric: acid . CoCO, {s) + 2HCI (oq) > CoCl, (og) + CO, (9) + H,O 1) + Ifthe volume of carbon dioxide gos collected was ploted over time, the following graphs (Fig. 7) will be obtained: volume of iP) powdered cle cotsncte gasien® i) merble chips time/min Fig 7: Grophs showing the volume of gos collected ogainst jime for the reaction of {})_merble chips and (ii) powdered calcium carbonate with dilute hydrochloric acid + The grophs show thot the reaction using powdered calcium carbonate occurs et a greater speed compored fo the reaction using marble chips. The gradient of the cure obicined using powdered calcium carbonate is steeper thon thet obtained using marble chips for the duration of the reaction. Exam Tre TS When comparing reactions, it is important that all other veriables ore held constant except for the factor thet is under study. In this example, the concentration and volume of the acid, the temperature of the surroundings and even the rate of stirring must be held constant while the 2 experiments are conducted so that any difference in results must be due to the difference in particle size of calcium carbonate. 11 In cool mines and flour mills, workers are not ellowed to carry naked lights such os condles or lighted torches because of the fear of explosions. Explosions occur because of the presence of fine particles of flour and coal dust, which bums very eosily when mixed with ir ond ignited (b) Concentration 10 A less concentrated solution has less number of reactant molecules (Fig 8). The frequency of effective collisions decreases, and the speed of reaction goes down. molecules in 0 lose concentrated solution Fig 8 Number of molecules in solutions of different concentrationsee jeaom S| Example 3: Two experiments ore conducted to determine the effect of concentration of reactants on the speed of a reaction. NaS Chemicel Reactions 50 cm diute 25 gn dite hrydrechiorie oid hydlachovie ecid + 25.em’ weser ‘Siem mognesiom ribbon 5 cm mognesivin ‘obo ‘booker 8 The results of these experiments are shown below. Beaker A 8 Time taken for mognesiumta desolve @) | 39 78 {i} Compare the hydrochloric acid in beakers A ond B. Which isthe more concentrated acid? Ans: The acid in beaker A is twice as concentrated os the acid in beaker B. i) How would you use the results objained to explain the relationship between concentration and reaction speed? ‘Ans: The reaction in beaker B took twice as long to complete ~ his indicates that reaction speed is decreased when concentration of one of the reactonis is decreased. fil) Assurning that cll the mognesium is used up, sketch @ graph tosshow how the graph of volume of hydrogen gas collected would vary with time for the reaciions in the 2 beokers. Ans: ssoMeet sore concentoted HCI, faster rection ze Hi, gos /em? Vien conceit boeerincon time/min Exam Tie K5> The hydrochloric acid in beaker A is twice os concentrated in beaker B. If there are x moles of hydrochloric acid in 50cm’ of it in becker A, then there is anly 05x moles of ‘pydrochloric acid in 25 cm! of it in becker B. Concentration of acid in beaker A is ~SSS = 20x mol/dm? , while dm? Concentration of cid in beaker B is = 10x mol/ den? The volume of hydrogen gas collected in bath experiments will be the same because ‘magnesium is the limiting reactant. Since the mass of magnesium ritbon used is the some the: reaction will stop once all the magnesium ribbon is used up.No Chemical Reactions STOP AND THINK ‘Aqueous hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form woter and oxygen: 2H,0, > 2H,O + O, Two experiments were carried out to measure the rate of production of oxygen from aqueous hydrogen peroxide. Experiment Solution used 1 100 cm? of 1.0 mol/dm? H,0, gs 300 em? of 0.2 mol/dm? H,0, Which graph best shows the results obtained? “ A é i 8 g 8 2 i 3 3 3 3 ote Exam Tze > ‘Aqueous hycrogen peroxide is unstable at room temperature and will decompose slowly on standing. Tt is also a redox reagent thot will turn cqueous acidified potassium dichromate(VI) from orange to green. When aqueous hydrogen peroxide is used during practicals and there ls effervescence produced, always test for oxygen gas using « glowing splint, [Ansi A] The graphs have to be onalysed in 2 sections - the gradient of the curve, which, gives the reaction rate, and the final volume of product obtained, Experiment 1 will have” @ faster reaction rate because.a higher concentration of hydrogen peroxide is used, Hence the gradient of the curve will be greater. Experiment 1 will also have more products formed because it contains 0.1 dm’ * 1 mol/dm’ = 0,1 mole of hydrogen peroxide, while Experiment 2 contains only 0.3 dm’ x 02 mol/dm’ = 0.06 mole of hydrogen peroxide (©) Pressure {1 The higher the pressure, the greater the speed of reaction {2 Chonging the pressure affects reactions involving gates only because solids and liquids are incompressible {1 At high pressures, the reactont particles are pushed closer together in a smaller volume (fig 9}. This increases the frequency of effective collisions and the speed of reaction increases. @ o? a @ cig faias eae Fig 9 Molecules of goses al different pressures preseurs Example 4: The Hober process used to manufacture ammonia gas vses a high pressure of 200 aim to increase the rote of production of ommonia gas 3H, (a) + N, {g) == 2NH, (a) ete gt ee SiSCas oa ow (d) Temperature [2 Increasing the temperature increases reaction speed (2 When the temperature is increased, the reactant porticles absorb heat energy and become more energetic (Fig 10). The frequency of effective collisions increases and the speed of reaction ~ time ee see sc a ow temperature without a reaction olisions ot produce. reaction iGher famparotore more often Fig 10: Behaviour of reactant particles ot low ond high temperatures £2 Applications © Food preservation: Low temperatures slows down the chemical reactions that cause food to decay. ® Industrial manufacture: The Contact Process use a high temperature of 450 °C to increase yield of sulphuric acid | STOP AND THINK The thermometer shows the temperature at the start of the reaction in each beaker. In which becker is the reaction the fastest? A 8 e D | 3 mol/dm? HCE 2 mol/am? HCL 2 mol /dm? HCI 1 moliden? HCLThe conditions stated for the experiment in beaker A cllow fer the most number of effective collisions between the calcium carbonate and hydrechlenie ecid particles, leading to the fastest reaction rate, The second fastest reaction will occur in beaker & [ans: A] Marble powder has greater total surface cres, cnd the concentration and tem- Perature of hydrochloric acid is also the highest in A. &+ REDOX REACTIONS Sven {1 Redox reactions are reactions that involve both oxidation and reduction: (41 Osidation reactions involve ® goin of oxygen © loss of hydrogen @ loss of electrons @® goin in oxidation number or oxidation state {2 Reduction reactions are the opposite of oxidation reactions. Reduction reactions involve © lose of oxygen © gain of hydrogen © gain of electrons ® less in oxidation umber or oxidation state (2 Oxidetion ond reduction reactions occur simultaneously If one reactont is oxidised, then the other recctant must be reduced. @ L055/Gan oF Ow ©) When o substance gains oxygen during o chemical reaction, it is oxidised. Hf it loses oxygen, the substance is reduced. Example 1: H, (9) + CuO(s) + Cu) + H,0 (9) H, is oxidised to H,O becouse it hos gained oxygen CUO is suid to be reduced to Cu because it hos lost oxygen. Example 2: Fe,0, (3) + 3CO(g] + 2Fe(s) + 3CO, (g) * CO is oxidised 19 CO, because it hos goined oxygen. Fe,O, is reduced to Fe because it has lost oxygen. “11 When a substance loses hydrogen during o chemical reection, itis oxidised. Ifit gains hydrogen, subsiance is reduced, Example 3: H,5(@) + Cl,(g) + 2HCI(g) + S(s) HS is oxidised to S because it has lost hydrogen. Cl, is reduced to HCI because it has gained hydrogen, Example 4: Cl, (6) + N.H,(g) —> N, {g) + 2HCI(@) NH, is oxidised to N, because it has lost hydrogen. Cl, is reduced 10 HCI because it has goined hydrogen.Exam Tre I> ‘The definitions using limited te reactions involving oxygen and hydragen atoms, The most vers far is the one using oxidation numbers. ‘oxygen and hydeagen are the easiest to use. However, their use is definition by (2 When o substance loses electrons in a chemical reaction, itis oxidised. If if gains electrons, the substance is reduced. {2 To use this definition, the ionic equation must be known. Bolenced ionic equations involving elecirons can be written to show the oxidation and reduction processes, These ionie equations ‘are known os holf equotions. Example 5: Magnesium reacting with dilute hydrochloric acid Mg (3) + 2H" (eq) > Mg? loa + H, (9) Mg hes lost 2 electrons to form Mg’. Mg is said to be oxidised to Mg” Mg + Mg’? + 2e- 2H* has gained 2 electrons to form H,. H* is seid to be reduced to H,. IH + 2e > Hy Example 6: Ci, (g) + 28r (eq) > 2CI (oq) + Br, 28r has lost 2 electrons to form Br,. Br is said to be oxidised to Br, 2Br > Br, + 20 Cl, hes gained 2 electrons to form 2Cl. Cl, is said to be reduced to Cl Cl, + 20 + 2C1 [2 Note from the examples 5 and 6 that the electrons are simply transferred from one reactant to cnother. If one substance loses one electron, the other substance must toke in the electron during the reaction, STOP AND THINK Which statement describes the conversion of o magnesium atom, Mg, 16 ¢ magnesium ion, Mg?*? A The change is reduction, becouse there is @ gain of electrons B The change is reduction, becouse there is o loss of electrons C The change is oxidation, because there is @ gain of electrons. 1D The chonge is oxidation, because there is @ loss of electrons. Exan Te I> Ail metals undergo oxidation when Phey lose valence electron ta form stable positive (ons Ans: D] The magnesium atom loses 2 volence electrons to form the magnesium ion, Mg Mg — Mg* + 2e By definition, loss of electrons it oxidation, Mg is oxidised to. Mg”Cae yee No Chemical Recctions Dy NuMBek (@) Assigning Oxidation Numbers or Oxidation stotes {Q Oxidation numbers are assigned according to the rules below: © Elements have zero oxidetion number, ® Assume all compounds.are ionic and assign the chorge the ‘ions’ corry as their oxidation umber, ® or a ‘sign must be written in front of the oxidation number, unless it is zero. {41 Table 1 below lists the oxidetion states of elements in some common substances. Substance Oxidation state hydrogen, oaygen, zing, iron 0, since all the substance: sodium chloride,NeQh Na: #1; Cl: -1 | magnesium fluoride, MgF, Mg: +27 = | HO Hi: +1; O:-2 a | carbon dioxide, CO, 2 potassium manganate(Vi, KMnO, [Ki +1 ;O:-2) Mn: +7 = || potassium dichromate(Vi), K,Cr,0, K: 41,0: -2; Cr +6 potessium iodide, Kl [aT GET | Table 1: Oxidation states of elements in some common substances Exam Tie T3> In determining the oxidation state of manganese in potassium manganate(VEE), we have To ‘assume that potassium and oxygen has oxidation numbers +1 and -2 respectively If we let the oxidation state of manganese be y, we can set up an equation where a +y + 4x (2) E (from potassium) (fret manganese) (from 4 oxygen) _ (overall charge of campeund) Solving the equation for y will give us a value of +7, The oxidation state of chromium in potassium dichromate(VE) can be found using the same method If we let the oxidation state of one chromium be z, then the equation is 2 Gt 2 7x (2) 9 fassium) (from 2 chromium) (fom 7 oxygen) (overall Solving for 2 will give @ value of +6 (b) Determining Oxidation and Reduction using Oxidation Numbers “An increase in oxidation number or oxidation stote during 0 reaction is oxidation. & decrease in oxidation number or oxidotion stale is a reduction, Example 7: 2Mg(s) + O, 9) > 2MgO (6 Mg is oxidised as the oxidation state of magnesium hos increased from 0 to +2, ©, is reduced os the oxidation state of oxygen has decreased from 0 to Eo)(90 No Chemical Reactions | Example 8: Cr,O, + 2A) > ALO, + 2Cr Gr,0, is reduced os the oxidation state of chromium has decreased from +3 00. Al is oxidised os the oxidation state of aluminium has increased from 0 to Exan Tie I> Note thot in example 6, the definition using oxygen & Er because it has lost oxygen. Since oxidation and edu means that Al must be oxidised to Al,0, by goining oxygen 0 be used. Cr,0, is reduced to ion occurs simultaneously, this STOP AND THINK Which underlined substance is reduced? A Ag” + Ck -» AgCl C Hp > 2H! + 20 BC + CO, + 2c0 D Ny + 3H, > 2NH, Exam Te TS> Not all chemical reactions involve oxidation and reduction. Reaction A is not a redox veaction because the oxidation numbers of bath Ag and Ci have not chenged after the reaction. In reaction 8, C is oxidised because it has gained oxygen to form CO, and in reaction C, H, is oxidised because it has lost electrons to form 2H [Ans: D] “In'reaction D, the oxidation stete of nitrogen has decreased from 0 (in N,) te 3 (in NH,), N, is reduced to NH, (a) Defining Oxidising and Reducing Agents 2 Oxidising ogents ore substances that help oxidation toke place. In the process, they become reduced. Similarly, reducing agents are substances that help reduction take place. In the process, they become oxidised. Example 9: CuS + 4H,0, > CuSO, + 41,0 CUS is oxidised 10 CuSO, as it has gained oxygen, and H,O, is reduced fo H,O because it hos lost oxygen. Since HO, causes CuS to become oxidised (by lasing oxygen to it), itis the oxidising agent. On the other hand, CuS is the reducing agent since it causes H,O, 10 become reduced (by removing oxygen from it} Example 10: 2Fe?' + Cl, > 2Fe + 2C1 Fe® is oxidised to Fe since the oxidation number of iron hes increased from +2 10 +3. It is thus the reducing agent for the reaction. Cl, is reduced to Cl since the oxidation number of chlorine has decreased from 0 to =1. It is thus the oxidising agent for the reaction,No.5 Chemical Reactions STOP AND THINK The reaction between bromine ond iodide ions is shown in the equation. What happens during this reaction? Br, + QP > 2Br +1, A Bromine molecules are ‘the oxidising agent B Bromine molecules are oxidised in bromide ions. C lodide ions are reduced to iodine molecules D_ lodide fons gain electrons, ExanTrr The oxidation state of iodine has increased from -1 (in T) to 0 (in T,), 20 the iodide ions have been oxidised to iodine molecules and we coll the iodide ions the reducing ogent for the reaction [ans A] The oxidation number of bromine has decreased from 0 (in &r,) to -1 (in Br), 50 Br, molecules are reduced to Br ions, Br, molecules ore also the oxidising agent for the reaction {b) Use of Aqueous Potassium lodide to Test for Oxi ing Agents (2 Aqueous potassium iodide, Kl, is a reducing ogent. It contains iodide ions that are easily oxidized 10 iodine molecules: 2 es + Qe colourless reddish brown When aqueous potassium iodide reacts with on oxidising agent, it will tum from colourless to reddish brown. Exan Tre I> Todine is not very soluble in water. If excess iodine is present in solution. it will appear fas block precipitate in a reddish brawn solution on standing (0) Use of Acidified Potassium hromate(VI) to Test for Reducing Agents {2 Aciified potassium dichromate(Vt) solution, K,Cr,O,, is an oxidising agent. It contains Cr,0,? ions thet are eosily reduced to Cr ions. cr,07 ce orange green When acidified potassium dichromate(Vl} solution reacis with reducing agent, it will turn from orange to green. 2 Suphur dioxide, SO,, is a reducing agent and its presence is detected by the use of acidified potassium dichromate(Vl) solution. Exam Tie TS Acidified potassium manganate(VIN), MnO, con be Used th place of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) es @ test for reducing agents, It contains manganate(VIL) ions that are reduced to mangonese(ZZ) ions during a redex reaction MnO, > Mn purple colourless The purple mangenate(V2T) ions are decolouriséd, ie, they turn from purple to colourless,92 J SEO No5 Chemical Reactions z STOP AND THINK | Solution tums acidified potassium dichromate(Vl) from orange to green, What must solution X contain? A An alkali An oxidising agent B An ammonium salt DA reducing agent ) Exam Tre > ) Tf two oxidising agents are mixed tagether, no reaction will take place since oxidation and action must occur simultaneously. This is algo true if two reducing agents are mixed the : | ‘ans: 5], Solution X must contain a reducing agent &+ ENERGY CHANGES @ bsKopven When chemical reactions take place, energy is either taken in or given out from the surroundings in the form of heat and/or light. We describe reactions 8 either exothermic or endothermic, depending on whether energy is absorbed or given out. An exothermic reaction is one during which heat is given out, causing @ temperature rise in the surroundings, Examples + When sodium carbonate is dissolved in a beaker of water, the temperature of the solution rises from 28°C to 40°C. + When methane is burnt, heat energy is evolved and the temperature of the surroundings rises. + When ocids react with alkalis, neutrolisotion tokes place with the evolution of heat. The temperature of the solution formed rises. 1c REACTION 22 An endothermic reaction is one where heot is token in, causing 0 temperature drop in the surroundings. Examples * When ammonium chloride is dissolved in a beaker of water, the femperature of the solution drops from 28°C to 22°C. Heot energy must be supplied during the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate. Light energy must be absorbed before photosynthesis by plants can take place,[C93 oe No5 Chemical Reactions se STOP AND THINK Which of the following statements about endothermic reactions ore correct? 1. Energy is released to the surroundings | 2. Energy is absorbed from the surroundings: 3. The temperature of the surroundings rises. 4. The temperature of the surroundings falls 1 and 2 C land 4 | B 2and3 D 2ond 4 Exam Tre TS When trying 49 decide if @ reaction is exothermic or endothermic, clveys eenaider the temperature change in the surroundings. Tf «reaction is exothermic, heat engngy wil Be given out to the surroundings ond the surrounding temperature will rise while the total energy content of the reactants will drop. Similarly, if a reaction is endethemme, hea? ‘energy will be absorbed from the surroundings and cause the surrounding Yempenetune #2 drop, while the totel energy content of the reactants will rise [ans: DJ. Since heat is absorbed from the surroundings, the temperature of the suman ings will fall. @ Entry Cuan [21 Energy level diagrams (Fig 11 ond 12} con be drown to show the changes in energy content of the reactants and products involved in reactions. Entholpy values or H valves ore used in energy diagrams. Hycsam 7 t0tal energy content of the reactants Hace = total energy content of the products AH = change in energy during reaction = H.o.. = Ho energy Oe ee veacieris AH © Hyases “Hasson = paste AH isthe amount of energy given out tothe surroundings Hyeten products d rcs of renction Fig 11: Energy level diogram for exothermic reactions Li) For exothermic reactions, the enthalpy change is negative, i.e. AH = negotive, This amount ‘of energy is given out fo the surroundings during reaction.04) Xt Oo ine No.5 Chemical Reactions energy/id products BH = Hye ~ Hames AH isthe omount o from the surroundings reoston's progress of reaction Fig 12: Energy level diagram for endothermic reactions La For endothermic reactions, the enthalpy change is positive, i.e. AH = positive. This amount cof energy is absorbed from the. surroundings. during. reaction. P Bown Bee ! ‘ In@ chemical reaction, bonds between reactants must be broken so that the atoms con rearrange themselves to form products. Heat energy must be token in by the reactants for bond breaking. Hence, bond breaking must be endothermic. Example: H-H > H+H AH = postive Energy is needed to break the covalent bond between the two hydrogen atoms in the hydrogen molecule. 1.1) Alfer oll the bonds in the recctonis ore broken, the otoms will form new bonds to give the products of the reaction. Heat energy will be released when these new bonds are formed. Bond making is thus exothermic Example: O +0 + 0-0 AH = negative Energy is released when the two oxygen atoms form a double covelent bond, STOP AND THINK Which process is endothermic? The reections in A, B and ‘A The formation of e hydrogen-chlorine bond. sins ol cathe bee B The formation of rust. tions, C. The formation of water from ice, [Ans: Cl Heat energy must D_ The formation of water from oxygen end hydrogen. be supplied to melt the ice STOP AND THINK Three equations ore given. Exam Tir T= Enuation® | estas y2tt Equation 2 isan exothermic Equation 2: 2H +O 4 HO reaction as the hydrogen ond Equotion 3: HCL > H+ Cl oxygen atoms wil farm water, a Which equations represent endothermic processes? Soules A 1 and 2 [Ans: 8} Heat eneray must be 8 land 3 supplied break the covalent @ onns bonds in HH end Hcl D 3 only[Cos > No Chemiect Reactions | ~"” SAMPLE QUESTIONS 1. Three samples of calcium carbonate are placed in flasks for on investigation, In flask E is 5 g of calcium corbonate — large lumes. In flask F is 5 9 of colcium corbonate - medium sized lumps. In flask G is 5 g of calcium corbonate — small lumps. @ same volume, cn excess, of dilute hydrochloric acid is odded to each flask. The flasks are placed on three electronic balances. A data logger is used to plot the loss of mass of the'lasks ‘and their contents agcinst time. The results are shown below. flasks and contenis electronic balances Gatalogger ‘screen {oss in mass mig ° 02 04 06 os 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 time us (0) {i) Why do the three flasks and their contents lose mass? (ii) How do the rates of reection chenge with time? (] In which flosk is the reaction fastest at time t = 20 3? $ {c) (i) After how long does the reaction in flask G stop? li) Why does this reaction stop? {d) (Sketch on the figure the curve you would expect if 5 g of powdered calcium carbonate is used instead of 5 g of lumps of calcium corbonate. Lobel this curve H. (fl) Use the poricle theory to explain why the size of the lumps of calcium corbonote affects the rate of reaction. {e) Whot nome is given to © recction in which hect is given out?[Ge No.5 Chemical Reactions | "7 scenceiCham 2. The metol lithium reacts with cir and water . {o) Suggest how lithium should be stored (b) A student reacted lithiom with water using the apporatus os shown 100 om? graduated glass tube ; eatin ae wire support | water five glass trough The student measured the volume of gos ot intervals of 30 seconds. The resus are shown below [_time/s 0 | 30 | 60 | 90 [120 [150 0 | 74 [| 86 | 96 | fe the vertical axis to plot volume, [Netume/er® | _o | 40 Plot © graph of these results on the grid below. Us {q) Tick @ box to show when the rate of reaction was. grectest attime/s 5 [35 | | 5 [125] [precten ote of eton {d) How con the student find the time taken for the reaction 10 stop? fe) The temperature of the water increased during the reoction. How would you classy the reaction? @ {i} Nome the gos liberated in this reaction, [i) Describe a test to confirm the presence of this gos. {g) (Universo! indicator is added to the solution in the trough colour will you see? (i) Whot ions, present in this solution, cause this. change? ot the end of the experiment. What3. Thre box. No.5 Chemical Reactions | tone oP of the reactions below involve both oxidation and reduction Tick these in the appropriate CaCO, (5) > CaO (5) + CO, (9) | N, (9) + 3H, (9) > 2NH, (a) ei Znis) + Cu?* (aq) —> Zn? (aq) + Cus} Oo NH,Cl {3} —> —NH,{(g) + HCH (g) o Sis) + Ong) > $0, (9) oO H,0 )) > HO i 2NaQH (aq) + CuSO, (oq) > — Cu(OH), (s} + Ne,SO, (oa) [im Oxidetion can be described os removal of electrons: Look ot the reactions below and state whether the substance underlined hos been onidised, reduced or has been neither oxidised nor reduced, (i) 2K fs) + Br,(g) > 2K*Br (5) {i 2A (s) + Mg? le) + 3Mg?* f—) + Al (6) (iii) H* (oq) + OFF (aq) > H,0 (I) When magnesium metal is added 10-0 solution of lead) nirate a redox recction tokes place. Grey crystals lead and a colourless solution containing magnesium ions ore formed. (i) Write the simplest ionic equation for the redox reaction, {i Whet is the oxidising ogent in the reaction?[Cos yee own | No Chemical Reactions science Chara SOLUTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS 1. (e} (i) The reaction between calcium corbonete and dilute hydrochloric acid produces carbon dioxide gas, which escopes into the surroundings. (il) The reaction rate is the fostest ot the beginning. As the reaction proceeds, the reaclion rate decreoses until the reaction stops. (b) Flask G (1 i) The reaction stops offer 130 seconds {i) All the colcium carboncte has been used up. (2) (9) toss in mass mg ° 02 4 os 08 10 12 14 18 18 20 22 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 time us (i) With smaller lumps of colcium corbonate, the fotol surface area ingreases, cllowing for more effective collisions between the calcium carbonote ond the hydrochloric acid molecules to occur This increases the speed of reaction. {e) Exothermic reaction. Exan Tr? TS When a graph is given, the student is expected questions that follow. Hence it is not sufficient for the student to give an answer te (ail) as ‘speed of reaction decreases: The student is expected to divide the greph into sections tand explain the changes in the curve accordingly to extract data from it to answer the 2. {0} Lithium con be stored under ci b}volume/em? 109] 80 60} RR re eet eR oS ne ee i RT a 40) 24] timelscs) 99 Ne chenielecins[ at time/s 5 | 35 | 65 | 95 | 125 [Brectestrate ofreaction | 7 {d) The time token for the reaction to stop is the time period from the stort of the experiment to the time when there is no more effervescence and the volume af hydrogen gos collected remains constont. e) fi] (3) 3 a) (6) Exothermic reaction, ) () Hydrogen ges It will couse o lighted splint to extinguish with « pop sound. (A blue solution will be formed. (i) Hydroxide ions. Exam Tie TS iithium, @ very reactive metal, belongs to Group T in the Periodic To reacts with water fo produce an clkaline fithium hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas 2Li + 2H,0 > 2LI0H + H, Universal indicetor will tum blue or vielet in the presence of « strong alkcline solitign, and red in the presence of ¢ strong acid such af dilute hydrachlonic acid CoCO, (5) + CO) + CO, () aq N, (sg) + 3H, (9) > 2NH, (g) mw Zn(s) + Cu® (oq) + Ist (aq) + Cols) NH,Cl (s) > NH, (g) + HCI (a) = S§) + O, (9) > S80, (3) #0 () + 1,0) o 2NoOH (oa) + CuSO, (eq) > — CulOH, (5) + No,SO, {oa} oO Exau Tee 5° ( (a) N,(@) + 3H, (@) 5 2NH, (a) N, is reduced 1 NH, since the oxidation state of nitrogen has decreased from 0 to 3 H, is oxidised to NH, since the oxidation state of hydrogen has increased fram 0 to + Zn(s) + Cu (aq) > Zn (04) + cule) Zn is oxidised to Zn’ since the oxidation state of zinc hes imareesed from 0 to +2. ‘ Gu* is reduced to Cu since the oxidation state of capper hae decrensed from +2 to 0 Si) + 0,6) + 50,6) 5 is oxidised to SO, since it has gained oxygen Thus O, must be reduced since oxidation and red tion must occur together Oxidised Euite ces Reduced it bether Th GX), K fas lest one lectron to form KOA oxidised. In (a)Qi}, Al has gained 3. electrons to form Me = PRY > Mit + Pb Al: it is reduced There is no change in oxidation to) state for HY in (edi) taken place. Pot is the oxidising ogent. rence no redox reaction has In (OM), PoE hes goined electrons 0 form Pb, It is reduced in the reaction and is thus the oxidising agent.Bm ( TOPIC 6 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES Candidates should be able to: 6.1 Characteristic Properties of Acids and Bases describe the mesnings of the terms acid and alka in terms of the ions they contain or produce in aqueous solution and their effects on Universal Indicator paper |. describe how to test hydrogen ion concentration and hence relative acidity using Universal indicator paper and the pH scale & describe the characteristic properties of acids as in reacts with metals, bases ond carbonates © describe the importance of controlling the pH in soils and how excess acidity can be trested vsing calcium hydroxide @_ describe the choracteristic properties of bases as in reactions with acids and with ammenium salts % clossify oxides os acidic, basic or amphoteric, based on metallic/non-metallic character 6.2 Preparation of Salts © describe the techniques used in the preparation, separation and purification of salts as examples of some of the techniques specified in section 1.2 — methods for preporotion should include precipitation and titration, together with reactions of acids with metals, insoluble bases ond insoluble carbonates & suggest « method of preparing a given salt from suitable starting materials, given appropriate information USEFUL WEBSITES hitp://wwwachemisiry.co.nz/acids_ond_bases.him hiip://Awww.quia.com/din/chem/ hip://wuw.chem4kids.com/files/recct_acidbase him! hiips/ wan rysstel.com/acidbose. html http://www.bbe.co, .uk/scetiand/education/bitesize//standard/chemistry/acids/index. shtml http://wew-sciencebyiones.com/acids_bases solts.him hitp://rww.schosl-for-champions.com/science/chemealts.htm http://www. engelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/demos.htm nooaooo0aqNa Adie ases and sats | 12 Gor) oe" OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS ®~ key oreos 6.1 | CHARACTERISTIC | § Acos = Predutiion of H Tex PROPERTIES OF i= Pisce aoe ae ‘ACIDS AND. | + Physical properties of acids BASES | © Reaction of acids with metals | * Reaction of acids with boses * Reaction of acids with cotbor Bases | + Bases and alkalis | Physicol properties of alkalis Reaction of bases with ammonium salts BH spHscole * Effect of acids ond alkalis on universal indicator paper | ‘-Gonighek pH in dareullive @ Onves * Classification of oxides 4 + Propeies of different types of oxides 6.2 | PREPARATION OF | @ Sclubility Rules | SALTS @ Prerasaion or | * Precipitation Insouste SatTs @ Prerarstion of | * Action of acid on an insoluble Sows Sats metal/bose/carbencte TitrationNob Acids, Bases And Salts oe CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES (a) Production of H* Tons 1) Acids are substances that will dissolve in woter ond undergo ionisation to form hydrogen ions. The table below shows some common ecids found in the laboratory and the ions they contoin. Name of Hydrochloric ocid, HCI Sulphuric ecid, H,SO, Nitric acid, HNO, Toble 1: Common Acids LLL The properties ond reactions of on acid oté due to the presence of hydrogen ions, H", Acids hove acidic properties only when they ore dissolved in water Exan Tre LS Note thet HCl in gaseous form is called hydrogen chloride. Tf it is dissolved in water, it will undergo ionisation to form « solution called hydrochloric acid. (b) Phys LAD Acids have @ sour tosie. For example, vinegar and lemon are both sour because they contain ethonoic acid and citric acid respectively | Properties of Acids (2 Acids change the colour of indicators. For example, blue litmus paper turns red when dipped in cid, Acids have pH values less than 7 (©) Reaction of Acids with Metals (2 Acids react with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series to give salts and hydrogen gos Example 1: Hydrochloric acid + magnesium —> magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas 2HCI (aq) + Mg (e) —> MgCl, (oa) + H, (3) a LL We cea fest for hydrogen gas using o lighted splint, The mm flome extinguishes with a ‘pop’ sound. pbs lighted wooden wi Exan Tee 35° / i= at the top of the: list, while the less reactive metals =F ccidic solution hon-metcl) is inserted into the list as a reference point & metal7 (a) Read 103) cee LL Nos Acids, Bases And Salts hay KEY PO ith Bases = (L) Acids react with bases fo give salts and water only. Bases are usually metal oxides or metal hydroxides. Example 2: Acid with Metal Oxide Hydrochloric ocid + zine oxide — zinc chloride + water 2HCI (oq) + ZnO [s) + ZnCl, + 4,0 Example 3: Acid with Metcl Hydroxide Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide — sodium chloride + water HCI (ag) + NoOH (ag) > NaCl (eq) + H,O (oq) (2) This recction is also called neutralisation, (e) Reaction of is Carbonates (2 Acids react with carbonates to give salts, carbon dioxide gas and water. (1 We can test for carbon dioxide gos Example 4: Colcium corbonate + hydrochloric acid > calcium chloride + corbon dioxide + water CaCO, (6) + 2HCI (aq) > CaCl, (oq) + CG, (a) + 1,0) using limewater (calcium hydroxide solution). Carbon dioxide causes the liemewater to turn cholky. calcium carbonate + dilute hydrochloric ocd heat STOP AND THINK Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute nitric acid ond dilute sulphuric oid all react with ‘A aqueous barium chloride to give o precipitate. B copper to give hydrogen C aqueous silver nitrate to give a precipitate 1D aqueous sodium carbonate to give carbon dioxide, E aqueous sodium hydroxide to give hydrogen. Exam Tx T3> In A, only sulphuric acid wil react with barium ehleride ta give @ white precipitate of barium chloride. Th 8, copper is below hydrogen im the reactivity series, and so will not recct with ony of the three ccids to give hydrogen gas. In C, hydrochloric acid is the only acid that will react with silver nitrate to gve a white precipitate of silver chloride, Dis wrong because acids will react with bases to give salt ond water only {Ansib] All three ccids will react with sodium carbonate to give carbon dioxide gos and water, The salts formed are sodium chioride (with hydrechlaric acid), sodium nitrate (with nitric acid) and sodium sulphate (with sulphuric acid)No Acids, Bases And Solts rit MEY=POM STOP AND THINK Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with copper(l] oxide and with copper() carbonate. In which ways are these two reactions clike? A. A gos is’ produced. Va B An insoluble sol. i precipitated. C Sulphuric acid reacts as an oxidising agent. / Water is «product. Exam Tre > ‘Acid-base and ocid-carbonate reactions are not redox reactions, In the question above. ‘there is no change in oxidation state for any of the elements involved in both reactions Ans: D] Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with copper(II) oxide to farm aqueous copper(II) | sulphate and water, When it reacts with copper(FT) carbonate, aquecus copper(II) sulphate, | carbon dioxide and woter are formed. Pye (@) Bases and Alkalis [LA base is 0 substence that receis with an acid to give @ solt and water only Example 5: Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide —» sodium chloride 4 water HC! faq) + NeOH (aq) > NoCl (eq) + H,0 (eq) [1 Bases ore usually metol oxides or metal hydroxides. Many bases ore insoluble in water. Bases that can dissolve in water form solutions called olkalis. Table 2 below lists some common boses and alkalis, Insoluble bases Soluble bases. [Nome | Fommula Nome Foumula | magnesium oxide MgO [sodiumhydoxde | NaOH | copperll) oxide GO calcium hydroxide GOH), | lead) oxide | —~PLO ammonium hydroxide ~ NH,OH (or aqueous ammonia} | Table 2: Common bases and alkalis [2 Hydroxide ions, OH, are produced when bases dissolve in waler to form alkalis. Example 6: Sodium hydroxide, NcOH NaOH (aq) > Na* (aq) + OH (oq) 1 The bility of alkalis 10 neutralise acids is due to the presence of these hydroxide ions.No.6 Acids, Bases And Salts | STOP AND THINK What is # cid? A HY + OH > HO D Not + HNO, + NoNO, + HY B HNO, + OH > H,O"+ NO. E NoOH +H! - No“ + HO C Na’ + NO, > NeNO, Exam Te TS ionic equation for the neutralisation of aqueous sodium hydroxide with dilute nitric i Students must be able to recognise the ionic equation: H+ OH -» H,0 for eeid-elkali neutralisation, [Ans: AI The ionic equation shows only the ions involved in the reaction. In neutralisation water is formed from the H" ions that are responsible for acidic reactions ond the OF fons that are responsible far alkali reactions. (b) Physicel Properties of Alketlis (i Alkolis feel slippery. [2 Edible olkolis have o bitter teste. | Alkalis change the colour of indicators. For example, red litmus poper will tum blue when dipped into an alkoline solution, {2 The pH of alkaline solutions is greater than 7. (©) Reaction of Bases with Ammonium Salts [1 Alkelis react with ammonium salts 10 produce salts, ammonia gas and water. Example 7: Sodium hydroxide + emmonium chloride —> sodium chloride + ammonia + water NaOH (ag) + NHCl lag) > NaCl (oq) + NH, fa) + H,0 0) | The ammonia gos evolved is pungent, colourless ond turns damp red litmus paper blue. STOP AND THINK A sample ofammonium sulphate is warmed with aqueous sodium hydroxide, The gos produced A ignites with a ‘pop’, 8 relights glowing splint. C tums damp red litmus paper blue. D tums limewater cloudy, Exam Toe IS? { Students must differentiate between the ammonium lon test and the nitrate test, In both Tests, ammonia ges is produced. However, in the ammonium ion test, only aquecus sodium hydroxide is added before warming: the nitrate test requires one to add sodium hydroxide ‘AND aluminium feil before warming to give ammonia gas. Ans: ¢] Ammonium salts react with alkalis on worming to produce ammonia gas, Ammonia ges is an alkaline gos that will tum damp red litmus paper blue, 3Nos Acids, Bases And Salts eu (@) pH Scale (Z) pH meesures how acidic or how olkeline © solution in water is. It is o measure of the concentration of H* ions present in the solution. wer 2 bas 6fKe 9 0 2 19 4 Ai thon howe Aro ‘Akane slurs have less thon 7 eee pH mare than 7 Li) The plt secle ronges from 0 to 14, [.) A pH value of 7 indicates that the solution is neutral, ie. the number of H” and OH’ ions in the solution are the some. [2 A pH volue of less than 7 indicates that the solution is acidic. The solution has a greoter concentration of H’ ions thon OH" ions. 2 A pH value of more than 7 indicotes that the solution is olkaline. The solution has a lower concentration of H* ions than OH: ions Exan Te E> “An aqueous elution will clways have both Ht and OH: ions present irregardless of its pH value. This is because water itself undergoes ionisation te give H* and OH (b) Effect of Acids and Alkalis on Universal Indicator paper {2 We ean ute Universal Indicator to measure the pH of a solution. Fig 1 below shows the colour change in the Universal Indicator with pH. ph [OTT S1é6lz7 [elertz Td | red ‘orange yellow T sreen-blve Blue violet green Fig 1: Colour change in Universal Indicator with pH (2 The Universal Indicator is nat very accurate in determining the pH of o solution. It is also noi possible to measure the pH of coloured solutions because the colour change in the indicator cannot be seen, For. accurate measurements, @ pH meter is used, Exan Tee ES When we measure pH, we are measuring the concentration of H+ ions in aqueous solution It is not possible to measure the pH of an insoluble substance. STOP AND THINK The colour of Universal Indicator in each of the four solutions is shown in the table. Which solution is likely to be an acid of pH 2-32 Solution Colour of Universal Indicator | A blue | B green Cc red o violetjxexromrs| | Exam Tre I> ee | The range of colours in different sol © universal indicator approximates | the rainbow colours - red, orange, yellow. green, blue. indigo ond violet, Taking pH 7 | (neutral) to be green, colours to the left of green in the reinbow indicate acidic solutions, while colours to the right indicate olkaline solutions [ans ¢ than 7, Solution B-has pH 7, while solutions A at are alkaline, ie; their pl is greater (©) Control of pH in agriculture {2 Most plants need a soil pH of 6.5 to 7.5 to grow well. If he ground is too acidic, slaked lime [solid calcium hydroxide) can be added to neutralise the eed. This process is called liming the soil 4 Sloked lime is chosen becouse © It is cheap ond easily ovailoble. @ Slaked lime is sparingly soluble in water. Once the ocid is neutralised, the excess bose will remain os solid in the soil. It will not dissolve in water to make the sail too alkoline. Exan Tre I> The soil is often teo acidic because of acid rain Other possible chemicals thet con be used to neutralise excess acid are ealeium carbonate limestone) and calcium oxide (lime). STOP AND THINK |n on accident at a factory, some nitric acid was spilt. Which subsionce, when added in ex. cess, would. neutralise the acid without leaving an olkaline solution? A aqueous ammonio C calcium carbonate 8 aqueous sodium hydroxide water Exam Tee 55° Bott oqueous ammonia and aqueous sodium hydroxide ore alkalis thet will nevtralise nitric acid, However, the person spraying the solution (e. sodium hydrexive sclution) will not know when enough alkali hos been added to neutralise the eid since the products of neuiralisation appears as a colourless solution (sodium nitrate ahd water), Excess cl will cause the ground to become alkaline {Ans: ¢] Colcium carbonate is insoluble in water, When all the nitric acid is neutralised, the excess calcium carbonate will remain in solid form on the ground to be swept oncy, (a) Classification of oxides {2 Orides are formed when substances bum in oxygen gas. Oxides hove acidic, basic or omphoteric character, depending on which type of oxide they belong to. (21 Toble 3 lists 3 types of oxides.No.6 Acids, Bases And Salts | ty Type of Oxides Examples Acidic oxide nitrogen dioxide, NO, sulphur dioxide, SO, corbon dioxide, CO, Basic oxide: sodium oxide, No,O magnesium oxide, MgO calcium oxide, CoO ‘Auphoteric oxide | zinc oxide, ZnO : ‘luminium oxide, ALO, lead{Il) oxide, PbO Toble 3: Types of oxides (b) Properties of different types of oxides LLB Acidic oxides are usually oxides of non-metals. They form acids when dissolved in woler Example 8: Corbon dioxide + water > carbonic acid CO, + H,O > H,CO, Exan Te? I> Naturd rain hase pH slightly lower thon 7. Carbon dioxide in the ir will dissolve in rainwater to produce a weakly acidic solution of carbonic acid. [2 Basic oxides are oxides of metals. They react with ocids to produce salt ond water only Example 9: Copper(ll) oxide + sulphuric acid > copper(l) sulphate + woter CuO + HSO, > CuSO, + HO Neutralisation takes place. Basic oxides that dissolve in water form solutions called alkalis. {21 Some oxides of metals behave os acidic or basic oxides. When they react with acids, they behave as bosic oxides; when they react with alkalis, they behave as acidic oxides. These oxides are known os amphoteric oxides. Example 10: Aluminium oxide + hydrochloric ocid + cluminium chloride + wales ALO, + 6HCI > 2AICl, + HO In this cose, cluminium oxide is acting os o base. 2 ‘Aluminium oxide + sodium hydroxide —> sodium cluminate + water In this case, aluminium oxide is acting as an acid, Exam Tre > There is a fourth I oxides, They do not dissolve in water to form acids nor do they react with bases to form salts. Examples of such oxides ore carben monoxide ond water. STOP AND THINK Which element forms an acidic oxide? A. oluminium phosphorus B_ magnesium D sodium SS EE ee ne See ey ee Se eee ee eneNo Acids, Bases And Salts | Evan Toe 35S ‘As a general rule, metals form basic oxides, except for aluminium, lead and zine, which form amphoteric oxides. [Ans: C] Generally, nor-metals combine with oxygen to form atidic oxides, The oxide of Phosphorus is acidic and will dissolve in water to form an acidic solution &+ PREPARATION OF SALTS The method chosen to prepare a salt depends on is solubility. {0 Teble 4 below lists the solubilities of some classes of compounds. Note thot oll sodium, potassium, ammonium and nitrate compounds are soluble. Solubility of Compounds Solubility ee Al sluble except fr eaibonctes of edo, potstum ond pare al Jnsdluble except for oxides of sodium, potessium and | ‘All soluble except for sulphates of calcium (speringly soluble), Svieheiar lead, borium and silver Chlorides All soluble except for chlorides of silver and lead All insoluble except for hydroxides of sodium, potassium, Hydconides ammonium, calcium [sparingly soluble} oi magnesium (very | sparingly scluble) Toble 4: Solubility of salts (2. The selection of salt preperation method is summarised in Fig 2 below. Precipitation is carried out if on insoluble salt is required. If a soluble salt is needed, it is prepared by either the ction of an acid on a metal/metal oxide/carbonate or by titration, Sol Insoluble Soluble solv poloesinn | Neonat Frecpitotion Troton {0-9 PBC, PbSO,, (e.g. NoCl, KSO,,NH.C) CaSO, Aa} | Action of acid on metal oxisle ‘Action of acid on metal corbonate ‘Adlon of acid on metal (not for Cu sols) (ea. CuSO, MgCl, CoINOsh) Fig 2: Selecting the correct preparation method[110 No.6 Acids, Bases And Salts | scone 5) The preperation of lecd(l) iodide is used to illusicate the procedure, ser ® Choose 2 storting solutions. One must contain the positive ion of the insoluble sal, the other must contain the negofive ion. Mix the solutions to precipitate out the salt PoINO,), (aq) + 2Nal (oq) —> Pbl, (s) + 2NaNO, (a) sr ® Filter and wash the precipitate with distilled water. Dry between pieces of filer paper The ionic equation for this reaction is Pb? {oq) + 2I-(o) —> Pbl, (3) (2 Other solis prepored using precipi- totion include silver chloride, barium sulphate and lead chloride, Exam Tie S57 The reactants involved in @ pre lead riots sodium iodide cipitation reaction must be in solution LM solos solution form because the ions must be able to move and in teract with one another when the reactants are mixed to Na” fe gether. When the ions in the anal NO ees insoluble salt encounter each precipitte of, ‘are specictor other, they will attract each lead iodide one other to form a solid that will « sink to the bottom of the con: tainer and be collected es the precipitate, To endure that the seactants chosen ane soluble in water, the easiest choice is to select sodium and nitrate compounds which are all soluble, For example, if siligggchloride is the salt required, then we can choose to mix sodium chloride solution and silver nitrate solution together to form the salt. Tf barium sulphate is needed, then borym nitrate solution and sodium sulphate solution can be used. : - STOP AND THINK Leadill) sulphate is insoluble in water, What should be added to dilute sulphuric acid fo pre- pare lead(ll) sulphate? ° | A. lead metol powdered lead) carbonote powdered lecdill) chloride aqueous lead|ll) nitrate powdered lecd|\) oxide | Exam Toe I Lead, lead(ZE) carbonate and lead(TT) exide cannot be used to prepare lead(IE) sulphate because they ore cll insoluble in water. When sulphuric acid is added to any one. of these solid reactants, the reaction will stop once they ore coated with @ layer of insoluble lead(E1) sulphate, leading to very poor yields of the sat: [Ans: B} Solid lead(II) sulphate ond nitric acid will be produced in this reaction mooe ee ee ere eeeLute SATs @ Premssn0% oF § (@) Action of Acid on an Insoluble Metal/Base/Carbonate {2 This method is used for preparation of soluble solis when a suitable insoluble starting material con be found. This storing moterial can be a metal, ¢ metal oxide or a corbenale. {2 The preperation of copper{ll) sulphate is used to illustote the procedure. Fig 3 illustrates the whole process, Starting materials: copper) oxide ond dilute sulphuric ocid CuO (5) + H,SO, (oq) > CuSO, (ea) + 4,0 (1) ster © Worm dilute sulphuric acid in a becker but do not boil. The acid is warmed to increase the speed of reaction between the reactants. st @® Add copper) oxide powder to the acid with string until no more con reach. This ensures that all the acid has been used stt?@ The mixture contains copperil) sulphate solution and excess copper|ll) oxide. Filter to remove copper(|i) oxide. st @ The fitrate is heated in on evaporating dish until ¢ thin crust of crystals forms fon the surface of the liquid, It is then left to coal for more crystals to form. str@ The crystals are then filtered ond dried beeen filter paper before collection. oat suiphote copper ‘ord water ; residue (excess | SUBMIS — copper oxide) | S76 epee) cope | omen nice ‘itrate (copper = aisle sulphate ead wie) eecporction —cnptalsation Steps 7 and 2 Step 3 Step 4 8 Fig 3: Preparing a Exam Te T3> @ metal carbenet is used to prepare a salt using this methed. there will be efferves soluble salt by action of acid on a metol/base/metal carbonate. cence of carbon dioxide gas as the metal carbonate is added te the acid in Step 2. When there is no more effervescence, all the acid has been used up and we may proceed to Step 3.