4 “The Significance of Territory ships have built into the whole structure more complementarity be- tween the cerritorial uniss and between the communities, reducing self-sufficiency in a narrow territorial frame to a last resort. ‘The Functions of Territory ‘To sum up) the space accessible to human activities may be de- scribed a8 continuous but partitioned, limited though expandin, diversified and organized. The reasons for accessibility and organi- zation, both willed by man and largely contolled by him, are rooted in the desire to provide as much opportunity 4s posible—to pursue “the good life” Hovever, organization also intends to regu Jate access and opportunity, avoiding the threat of situations that ray be contrary to the accepted interests of the community. Tn this respect it concurs with partitioning fn an overriding concern for security. Tf 2 cerritory is the model compartment of space resulting from partitioning, diversification, and organization, it may be described fs endowed with two main functions: to serve on the one hanct as fa shelter for security and on the other hand 2s a springboard for ‘opportunity. Both security and apportunity require an internal oF- ganization of the tersitory a well as a subsequent organization of te external relations. An element of conflict 3s built into the fanc- ins of the territory, and behind them looms a contradiction in the purposes of territorial sovereignty and of political independence: the search for security will often clash with the yearning for broader opportunity. ‘The former calls for relative isolation, the latter for some degree of interdependence with the outside ‘However, the question arises of satisfying the people in de ter- vitory, for the sake of whom ultimately the territory has been Drought into existence. Would they be content with che kind and amount of opportunity they might obeain within a very secure framework? No durable security can be assured for a dissatisfied and ided peopie, either in their domestic affairs or in their relations ‘with the outside, Professar Georges Scelle once wrote that the state, as a political entity, is traditionally constituted of three bodily components (elements carporels), the population, the territory, and the governmental organiration, bat that the territory could not be considered simply a corporeal, concrete clement of the body politic. Rather, “the concern for the preservation of habitat exists fis a passionate psychological reflex in all Inuman communities” SuEtat" fn tntvoducton a etude eu droit (Pat 1958), Ye es 18-89 vote p89) « The People and Their Territory 5 Whichever approach we attempt we seem to find the same con- fusing diagnosis: tevitory, although a very substantial, materia measurable, and conerete entity, is the product and indeed the ex. presion of the psychological features of human groups Its indeed 2 faychosomatic phenomenon of the cotnmmunicy, and as such 4s replete with inner conflicts and apparent contradictions. Teritorial sovereignty isan indspenable aibte of independent nations the serory the ery bs on with nao exsence rex, the “sare si” in whose defense ve czens wil be prepared to give ie lives. The concept is one of slE- preservation, but also one of preserving the community's way of if, the ight to self government reedom, and whatever opportunity a fee people is enttied to, if tervitory must coincide and coexist with a certain unity of jurisdic. tion, i is impregnated with the parposes ofthat legal function, ‘The concept leads 10 geography of ethies. To analyze territory better it becames necessary 10 examine its evolution in time and space,n Security versus Opportunity: The Road to National Sovereignty THE etymology of the word cervitory, if investigated in a host of dictions turns out to be 8 rather moot question, In the xm European languages the word comes certainly from the atin lettortum, and its ystemaie use recorded fom the ate Middle Ages in English, French, and German texts. Examples abound from the fifteenth century on,’ though much more ancient instances have been found, for example in Cicero? The concept certainly existed and was debated in the earliest known works on politics, particularly by Plato! The word was formed by adding {o terra (“earth” or “land” in Latin) the sullix torium, whic seems to have meant “belonging to” or “surrounding,” Perhaps one may venture for forium the hypothesis of the root tor, from which de- rived tower and cour, and which conveyed in Medieval English and in Old French the meaning of both “a wellrcunded building” and “a_position of strength. ; the Oxford English Dictionary for territory ‘would be “the land or district lying round 2 city or town and under its jurisdiction’; this definition, however, is listed as “obsolete” and followed by a second, more generally accepted and modern meaning: “the land or country belonging to or under the dominion of a ruler or state.” Examples given for this second usage date back to 14p4. One could infer that owadays the national organization of the land has supplanted ‘what used to be recognized as the prerogative of cities. Indeed, the early discussion of territorial questions related to Greek city-states, to Roman cities (certainly not to the Roman Empire, which bad pretentions to univetsality), then to the medieval Zatian cities, such as Florence, Pisa, Genoa, Milani, and Venice “This reflects once moze che evolution of the notion of sovereignty, whi tory is so intimately linked: citystates in ancient ‘aera in tome regions ding the Mile Ag hed terior + Rspecially as shown in the Oxford English Dictionary. 2 Du Cange, Glowarium mediae et infirmcedceitatis, See below, pp: 17-20 Security versus Opportunity y sovereignty, while the sovereignty of kings and princes rested on the allegiance of individuals or organized bodies, rather than on the possession of land ares. The essence of sovereignty was gradually wansferzed to the control of welldlefined territory, and in that process the late fifteenth century was an important moment, The sixteenth century, however, was the decisive time in European af fairs, when politics and legal doctrine began claiming territorial sovereignty as a prime attribuce of kingdoms or states, By the end of he eighteenth century the notion of national sovereignty over well- Aelimaited territory had come to the fore in political practice as well as in the theory of jurisprudence, What was started a very fong time ago by ancient city-states, accelerated by she great geographi- cal discoveries and the Reformation, came to fruition with the American and French revolutions. ‘The process was not, however, one of simple enclosure of the land. by individual political communities or of sheer land-grabbing by certain princes or republics, It was accompanied by complex soul- Searching by statesmen and philosophers as to where the public food was to be found, and where the best interest of their respec tive peoples lay. Ze rellected a moral debate as well as a practical nged to organize for prosperity, war, and peace, Plato's Search for Stability ‘The oldest analysis of the political significance of tertitorial char. acteristics is found in Plato's Laws, where the dialogue outlines how a new city-state ought 10 be planned. In the Republic Plato dis cussed his ideal of the polis from the moral and constitutional points of view; the approach in the Laws is much more geographical land sets che problems of the size, location, and ue of tertitory in terms that have never lost their vali ‘The first question to arise is where to locate the ew city, which, is to be planned, of course, on an islanct (4. 704-20). The polis itself and most of the poputation were to be settled inland, away from the seashore, to avoid insofar ax possible contact with the sea and with maritime and overseas influences. Al indispensable re- tions with the outside world would be dealt with by a smaff num- ber of specialized civil servants. What should be the size of the ter- ritory of such an tdeal potis? “The territory should be Targe enough for the maintenance of a certain number of men of modest ambition and no Jeeger. ‘The population should be suiiclent to defend then-( ry 8 The Significance of Tervitory selves against wrongs from societies on their borders, and to assist their neighbours when wronged to some purpose” (5. 787) ‘These two sentences are extremely suggestive. They sum up quite well the long debates that have unfolded about territorial disputes land the very concept of territorial needs during the twenty-four cen- tuaries that followed. The territory must be “large enough to main- tain” but ‘‘no larger.” Maintain according to what standards? Mod. ct standards certainly, as the population is described: “a certain number of men of modest ambition.” This is indeed the erux of the ratier: Plato believes that a city state ought (o be as self-sulficient as posible, and he eliminates as far as possible the maritime and foreign trade from the potential economic resources, for he wants the society to be virtuous and peacefit, so that it can enjoy stable good government. Such government would not be possible if am- bitious people, looking for more opportunity, engaged in maritime activities on a large scale, bringing the influences of foreign policy and foreign interests into daily domestic affairs, Every thinker, even Plato, must be read in the historical context of his time and coun- tuy. Plato was worried about the politics of Athens; he attributed the evil elements in it largely to the influence of seamen and trad- ‘ess who from the Piraeus constantly intervened in Athenian politi cal lif Athens had lost to Sparta in the Peloponnesian Wer; and Sparta was a rural, inland power, less mercantile, less rich, and more disciplined. “The Laws, as well as the Republic, is obviously influenced by Plato's admiration for Sparta, and by the general Spartan pattern of geographical and social orgazszation, Too -nuch of a theoretician to adhere just to one cantemporary model, however, Plato based bis reasoning on geaeral moral considerations. “The fact is,” says the ‘Athenian, “the object we are keeping in view in our present inves tigations into topography and legislation is the moral worth of a social system; we do not agree with the multitude that the most precious thing in life is bare preservation in existence; we hold, as 1 think we have said before, that it is better to become thoroughly ‘good and to remain so as long as existence lasts” (Lams, 4. 707). “Thus his precepts are not aimed at security only, but at virtue and happiness through “goodness.” To achieve this goal, however, Plato insists that opportunity be strictly frcited, firstly by screening the lure of overseas adventure, speculation, and profit, then see condly by restricting the extent of territory. In ancient times, and in- deed until the Industrial Revolution that began in western Europe in the eighteenth century, there could have been only two major sources of wealth: income from the land, and profits from trade. Security versus Opportunity 19 Sparta had based her economy on the produce of the land, Athens on maritime trade and business Plato is aware of the strict limitations on the resources a stable ‘community may obtain from a small, stabilized territory. The tech- nology of agricultural. production changed little and seldom in those days, and Plato assumes its stability. To make sure that his ideal polis, having reached a certain moral state of goodness, does not lose it, he wants to protect the stability and continuity of the economic base and of the political structure. Hence two conditions: the fist is qualitative, as the people must be of "modest ambition”; the second is quantitative, as the population should be “sufficient to defend themselves against wrongs” but not allowed to increase niuch, If the population increased, the balance between needs and re- sources in the limited territory would be upset, and a political change might lead to diverse moves toward the broadening of the scope of opportunity, For such situations, Plato's answer is either population contol to avoid an increase in numbers or the emi Bration of the surplus population to a new place, which ought to Sted ecoring Yo the same puter, the popular Ban kept away from the seashore, The ideal settlement and political organi- zation suggested in the Laws assumes firstly an unlimiced supply of ‘empty islands to be settled, and secondly a people so content with its condition and so aware of its goodness and happines that no change would be attempted. Like any system of laws, Plato's aims at achieving moral standards and the happiness that comes as their reward. Although secucity, as he insists, is not the only purpose, itis an essential component of the heppiness and stability he seeks. Opportunity is stuictly rationed {a order to avoid stirring up ambitions that could develop into red, The Platonic scheme of partitioning geographical space has had a Jasting impact on political and social thought. Its compartments would be inward-looking quadrangles with a somewhat monastic character, and more like those of 2 Chartreuse than those of dhe ex. pansionist abbeys of the Order of Cluny or of the Templar olan ‘The wopians and socliss of the nineteenth century of ered designs of «ttitioning from Fourier’s phalanstére Brever Howie genciay ustration can be found of this kind of philos- the policies of Japan during the period of the jon_(jmid-seventeenth to mid-nineteenth centuries) Japan locked herself in her archipelago, forbade entrance t0 for:20 The Significance of Territory cigners, and reduced external relations to a trickle maintained through the small trading posts allowed to the Dutch and the Chinese in the harbor of Nagasaki. For evo hundred years Japan led a secluded life almost in vitro, controlling its population to avoid the pressures of demographic growth. In the 1850s outside in- tervention opened up Japan and set it on a new course, catching up ‘with the cimes, endeavoring 10 take the largest possible share of suddenly expanded opportunity. This course Jed Japan into World War I and to bitter defeat. In the shifts of a national policy from seclusion along « Placomtic pattern to an ambitious exploitation of maximum opportunity, few examples in history are as spectacular as the story of Japan in re- cent centuries. Its lessons, however, are not convincing, Were the Japanese people happier in die period of the Tokugawa isolation ‘than during the Meiji era of modernization and expansion? Or were they happier im che years following 1959 when, after the hardest time of reconstruction, the nation set out on a policy of rapid eco. nomic development and commercial exzansion, though giving up military power under the American umbrella? No definitive answer ‘cam be given to this sort of question. The Japanese story only dem- onstrates that stability and isolation do not guarantee security for 1m indefinite period. Altogether Japan was probably quite lucky to hhave enjoyed successfully tivo centuries of deliberate seclusion. After 1850 the globe was approaching an organization into a complete, finite system of imerconnected parts. The North Atlantic powers ‘were fast expanding, the network of their respective commercial and naval domains. The marginal position of Japan provided no ade- quate defense against the intervention of a stronger foreign power, armed wich the overwhelming weapots of a much more advanced technology. 2y examining the case in history which seems to have best illus. trated territorial policies shaped along a philosophy similar to that argued in Plato's Laws, one is led to doubt that any simple rule can provide a guarantee of security. Cutting off a territory and the community inhabiting it from the mainstream of the world docs not save it from external interference in the fong run, The compart sents of the partitioned system remain interdependent. Change in ‘other compartments that participate more actively in the mnain- stream of evolution i bound to proceed faster than in the secluded. part. The batance established when the seclusion began will not last indefinitely. Internal stability does not necessarily provide a community with the means for defense against the threats eaused by the expansion of other powers. Security versus Opporcunity a Aristotle and the Lure of Opportunity While its logic recurs constantly in a certain thread of politi th cree as St ado la ancient Greece. In fact Plato's own best pupil, Aristotle, started a very different trend. In his Potiics (especially in Nook U2) be dis- cesses at length Plato's ideas and the Laws in. particular but wit out paying much attention to the territorial question, Aristotle is tore interested in the constitutional and social organization of the State, In Book VII he eames to the relaionship of people with ter sitery: ot among the materials required by che statesman ik population: il comider what shold be the amber snd arses Orie eens fd then what sould he the sue and charaur Of the comer ae eran in at a sate in onder to apy ght oe even if they ate righ, dey have no idea what ra ne and ohare sate. For they jue of the sae of the ey by the nan ok aoa fabian, whereas they ought to tegard ne helt newer aye Rowe. ley then, the bat ini othe popu of Cea the legen nomber which sues forthe purpose oie ad taken in at a single view, . LE as, Ma be ene prince lappy to tet af these tery one would age in prating the teary wiles & eas To ‘uci ad tat at be he tetany which allpntecng ed ans a things and to want nothing is silieny. Thane ad eee as be sacl ss may ene the inhabitant to lve st one toegeeeat Moerally inthe enoynent of eure [tga by Aristotle's pri les seem to agree with Plato's on the desirahil- iy eae at otter el esate ee atly on the ways in which self-sufficiency and safety tne ech, ‘The reference cote “enjoyment of leisure” nan cebonda a “good life” which is at obvious variance with the “modest am- bition” of the more puritanical Plato. Aristotle proceeds vo da, the general charactetisics of the territory, whiah ie wishes "ghee vf aceess to the enemy and easy of egress 10 the inhabitants,” an ideal that may be rather dificult 10 achieve in geography. He also ‘wants the position of the city itself “well situated in regard both to sea and Tand,” and in a eomeniendly central location, Then he we zee: eis Of the relation to the sea and here clearly ‘Whether 4 communication with the sea is benelictad a ea 58 beneficial co a weltordered OF not is a question which ha offen been asked. It is argued thay ’wtNy aa The Significance of Territory a i tn ie id i fe eae es eee Elaborating on the market funetion, Aristotle comes 10 sogyest that, though largescale trade could make the place “a market for the world,” a state may limic any harm that this function may en- tail by estabisliing the emporium outside city walls and enacting Jaws to preserve the desired networks of communication and forms of government. He even believes that a “moderate naval force « ‘commensurate with the scale of her enterprises” is advantageous to ity (1527). * LLL ta te Pott is need an esenal document the history of political thought. Here Aristotle lays the ground for the trilogy of elements constituting a state: the population, the terr- tory, and the unity of the system of goverment, That trilogy is still quoted in most basic cexts on the state in law and politics. In de- seribing what characteristics the state should have for good order and government, Aristotle opens the debate with Plato, stresses the relationship between people and territory as well as che need to co- ordinate security with opportunity, He does nor stress the conflict of these as Plato did andl as much ensuing political philosophy would do, is interesting to the geographer and to the planner to observe the importance assigned in the debate to the eity’s relation to the sea and to the meaning of the centrality of the city in the state. Be cause he wants mace resources, more opportunity for the enjoyment of life, Aristotle approves the use of the major conveniences that ‘may be available. Sea navigation and maritime commerce are not to be neglected: in fact, they are to be fully used by the Aristotelian state, whose self-sufficiency is achieved through fareign trade as well as local production. The state organizes its territory to be a regular and full participant in the international system and does not seek seclusion or isolation from it. . Regarding the organization of space, Aristotie’s doctrine is more in agreement with the traditional Greek view than citystates developed in locations that were inhospitable and had Security vereus Opportunity 33 very Fimited local resources. Their inhabitaas had to earn their living by their wits, for their lend did not yield enough products, A very remarkable case in this category was Delos, a powerful cen. ter chat rese on a stall and desolate island in the middle of the Aegean Sea, ‘The Homeric hymn to Delian Apollo tells the story quite well: Leto, wife of Zeus, searched for a place on earth to give birth to Apollo: So far roamed Teto in travail with the god who shoots afar, to see if any land would bye willing to make a dwelling for her son. But they greatly twembled and feared, and none, not even the richest of them dated receive Phoebus, until queenly Leto set foot on Delos... ‘There a difficule negotiation ensued. Leto pointed out that by pro- viding a sanctuary for Apollo they will make themselves safe and rich, although they “will never be rich in oxen and sheep, nor bear vintage nor Yet produce plants abundantly . . . for truly your own soil is not rich.” Delos knew it was small and poor; the Delians rejoiced at Leto’s proposal but consented only after she swore that Apotfo would not scorn them or do them any harm, Apollo was horn in Delos; the island then blossomed with golden flowers and Vecame a great meeting place for men “with swift ships and great wealth.” Delos was in Hellenistic and Roman times one of the major mar- ‘kets and maritime centers of the eastern Mediterranean, The loce non such a small and rugged island of a powerfi! city and sea- Port was surprising, It still appears today as a marvel to the visitor Who looks at the island bristling with the monumental remnants of buildings, temples, villas, warchouses, and hostcle—a sort of smnall Hellenistic Manhattan. Such unlikely development of the imall tervitory was made posible first by the sectuary function, which made it safe and an active center of pilgrimage, and later by 8 clever policy of alliances, shifting from the Tonian League to Athens, t0 Samos, and again to Athens, thea to Egypt, and finally to Rome. In the first century me, involved in the maritime stregte between Rome and Athens, Delos was devastated and soon lost both Its emporium and sanctuary functions. ‘The island was abandoned fier the second centary 4.0. Te story is perhaps the most remark- ble example of a tiny and illshaped territory blooming with ex: Aruordinary prosperity for hundreds of years, to become only monument to its own past. ‘The Homeric Hymns, White, Londo, s0r4 * 0 P, Roussel, Delos (Pat, 1985)» "To Delian Apollos" I 45-go. Trans. Hy G, Evelyn: