A.C. Network Analysis Introduction ; ; c. circuit differs from a dc, citeuit in two important respects, First, in a dc. circuit, we ac. : have eresstoness only whereas in an a. cizeit, in addition tore ave tres ance (R), inductance (L) and acitance (C) also play the part. Therefore, in an ac. circuit, we have to deal with impedances capacita als instead of esistances as in ad. circuit, Secondly, ina d.c. circuit, voltages or currents can be added instead of resistances a or subtracted arithematically, However, **alternating voltages and currents are phasors so that the addition or subtraction of alternating voltages or currents requires the use of phasor algebra, The techniques and theorems used to solve d.c. network problems in chapter 3 of this book can also be anplied w ac, networks provided if we keep in mind that in an a.c. circuit, we have impedances instead of resistances and that alternating voltages or currents can be added or subtracted by the use of phasor algebra. In this chapter, we shall discuss the various techniques and network th solve a.c. network problems. eorems to 17.1. A.C. Network Analysis The technique: and theorems employed to solve d.c. network <- network problems keeping in view the following points (9 In an acc. network, we have impedances (R, L and C in varying proportions) instead of resistances only as in a dic. circuit, problems can also be applied to (4) The alternating voltages and currents are of alternating voltages or currents, w In solving a.c. networks, the phasi carefully considered, Where two stated in polar form. Where they re Phasors. Therefore, for the addition or subtraction ‘¢ have to use phasor algebra, (ay ¢ angles of all impedances, voltages and curre quantities are are to be gular form. Because of the vice-versa, there dc. network. \) i to be multiplied or divided, they should added or subtracted, they must be ssity of converting polar to re: much more work involved in analysing ana.c. netw ctangular form ork than for a similar Zz _ cory 122-20°V 60“ wi) «a Fig. 171 Nie inductance (1) and capacitance (C) ate relevant only in ag viride, ne voltage oF current chat a ans sinusoidal voltage oc sutrent untess atatel otherwise, Reuse Siwsordal voltage or curtent can be tepresented by a planes Scanned with CamScannera Basic Electrical Engineering (i) Although alternating voltages are continuously reversing polarity, + and — terminals mus, be identified at each voltage source. This is necessary because ifa voltage source isconnected in reverse, the phase angle of the source output is changed by 180°. This point is illustrate in Fig. 17.1. Fig. 17.1(0 shows a circuit that has two voltage sources; *E, = 6£0°V and E, = 12 2-20 y, Since both E, and E, have **identical polarities (+ and -), the phase angle of Eyis—20° wrt, E\.In Fig, 17.1.(i), the source E, is now connected in reverse. The reversal of the output of E, has added further 180° to the phase of E, w.r.. E, ie. the phase angle of E; is now — 200° wart, By. Ibis for this reason that the terminals of all a.c. sources in a circuit diagram must have a polarity identification, 17.2. Kirchhoff’s Laws for A.C. Circuits - Kirchhoff’s laws for d.c. circuits can also be applied to a.c. circuits with a slight modific: ation. In dec. circuits, we take algebraic sum of voltages and currents whereas in a.c. circuits, we take phasor sum of voltages and currents, 1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL). Kirchhoff’ as under: 852 's current law for a.c. circuits may be stated The phasor sum of the currents entering 4 point in an a.c. circuit is equal to the phasor sum of the currents leaving that point. The term ‘phasor sum’ is used because we are dealing with alternating currents. This lawis based on the principle of conservation of charge. 2. Kirehhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). Kirchhoff’: ' voltage law for a.c.circuits may be stated as under: In any closed electric elreuit, the phasor sum of voltage drops plus the phasor sum of voltage rises is zero, By convention, a voltage rise is sign. Remember that passing throug! while passing through it from Biven a positive sign and a voltage drop is assigned a negative h a source or impedance from + to — ~to + indicates a voltage rise. Example 17.1, Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, determine the circuit current in Fig. 17.2. 108 0.014 indicates a voltage drop, 100 sin 100t Fig, 17.2 = 10020° volts. Let / be the phasor current in the circuit. circuit in Fig. 17.2, we have, V-IR-1jX,+ W7Xo=0 or j. j V=U(R+)X,-jX2) * Note that instantaneous altemati ‘ ating voltages and currents a ollage or a phasor current is epresented by E (or V) and "Tree Both , and £ are seteasing in the positive direction from 2 Prop in apa — Zam = Hj X yu +X. a Solution: The phasor voltage 7 Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to th resented by ¢ (oF v) and i respectively. However, a phasor spectively, ETO, Scanned with CamScannerjc. Network Analysis, 853 or R+ jol: -Z| Here ol = (100) x (0.01) = @C ~ (100)x1x19 10 V=1(10+j1-}10)=1[10-9) V 100720" 10-79 ~ 13.52=49° = 744 42°A Therefore, the circuit current jis i= 7.4 sin (100 ¢+ 42°) Ans. Examplel7.2. Using Kirchhoff's laws, find current in the capacitor in Fig. 17.3. or I h Z= 109 p Zy=-j4Q 8;-—+—_wyw—> ——e o h-h rio A 5 saz, & A)aov A . F * 7 Fig. 17.3 Solution. We shall apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the loops ABCFA and CDEFC. The loop equations are obtained by setting the voltage drops equal to the voltage rises Loop ABCFA : NZ +(-1) ZB Loop CDEFC : (= 1) Zt hZ, + Ey =0 Rearranging these equations and collecting terms so that they can be solved by Cramer's rule, we have, 1, (Z)+Z)+hCZ)=2 and 1, (2) * LZ + 2) =- E> Since we are required to find the current in the cépacitor, it is necessary to find /,. By Cramer's ule, Z+Z. Ey : = (2) +22\(Z2 +Z3)-23 2+; EZ -EyZy + FZ Z\Z_+Z\Z,+Zy2Zy 12 L0V; B= 6.20°V; 2,=10Z0°A; Z=829IN; Br4Z- 9a E,Z, = 6 20° x 10 20° = 60 20” > = 6 ZO? x § 290° = 48 290° EyZ, = 12 20° x 8 290° = 96 290° ZZ, = 802909; Z,Z,=402-90?; _ZyZ,=32.20° Now E, Scanned with CamScanner< 8 54 Basic Electrical Enginesrn, ” -6020°-48290°+96290° _ = 60+ /48 te = 30290°+ 402-90 +3220" ~ 32+ j40 = Z6BALIAI34* Oe ggeg 51,22251.34° Tutorial Problems 1, Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, determine the current in Fig. 17.4. [= 2 sin (1000 ¢+ 76°) 4) 122 2mH } | 100 sin 1000 ¢ 202 174 Fig. 17.5 Using Kirchhoff's laws, determine current in 10 © resistor in Fig. 17.5. [(1.4 +/3.8)A] 17.3. A.C. Mesh Current Analysis The procedure for the analysis of a.c. networks is exactly the same as that for d.c. networks except that impedances, voltages and currents are expressed as complex numbers. Remember that mesh current method consists of the following steps : (0 Each mesh is assigned a separate mesh current. The same direction must be chosen forall the mesh currents in a circuit. A usual convention is to make all the mesh currents clockwise currents, (ii) When two mesh currents are flowing through the same circuit element, the net current in that circuit element is found in a manner identical to that used for d.c. mesh analysis. (iii) Kirchhoff's voltage law for a.c. circuits is applied to write equation for each mesh in terms of mesh currents. Remember, while writing mesh equations, voltage rise is assigned positive sign and voltage drop negative sign. (iv) When the analysis is complete, those branch currents that come out as positive quantities are (instantaneously) in the same direction as that selected for the mesh currents. The branch currents that have negative signs have an additional 180° phase shift in relation to the mesh currents Example 17.3. Use mesh analysis to find current through Z, in Fig. 17.6. 2, = 1002250 Ze 190280°0 + DN a (Ayreev 6LO°Vv 2; 1202-30°2 = @« Mesh! : . 7 Mesh 2 4 ty + Fig. 17.6 ell Scanned with CamScannerenor ‘Analysis 4 1 sions Thre are {Wo meshes and mesh currents bea i sone | 1 and 2, we have, are J, and J». Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage ra we yesh He ~(h-h)Z,~1,2,- a jesh 2 pearanzing tose equations and collecting tems so that they canbe solved by C ramer’s rule, 16 a NZ+2) + hCZ) = &, Also Ea NCA)th@r2) = 1 E\(Zy + 23) (“Ea -Z3) Ey-MZ,~ (yh) 2,= i (2, +23 )(2q +25) - (25-25) = Gt NCB) “2 \E) (2, + Z3)(2z + 23) (23-25) E\Z3- Ey, - En2s = Y\Zy +2123 + Zy23 Current through Z, is (E,Zy + E,23 — Ey23)~(Ey2s ~ EaZ ~ BaZ3) h-h= ZiZp + ZiZ3 +223 E\Z, +E © ZZ + 223+ 223 _ *1080260° +120025° = #1800085" + 120002 —5° + 21600230° (540+. j 935) + (1195 + /105) j “10 574 f17.9)-+10°(11.95~ j 1.05) +10°(18.7 + 10:8) ' 1735+ j 1040 9° 1 1735+ 104020232309" 47.6 x 0329.7 A | | = 10° (32.22+ 27.65) 42460240.6° Although the circuit is not complex, the analysis by mesh current method is quite lengthy. We lify the analysis by using nodal analysis and network theorems. | | wre teo % 180 Z 60° = 1080 2 60° 2100 2 25° x 180 2 60° = 18000 2 85° ~~ Scanned with CamScannerBasic Electrical Engineering 862 ih 0a [400 ~/2002 i 802 . ( ‘ -150 = rave rv YY Fig. 17.13 Fig. 17.14 [3.5.252.1%4] B.82.28.74° mA} 2. Use mesh. is to find current in the capacitor in Fig. 17.14. 3. Use mesh analysis to find current in the resistor in Fig, 17.15. ivka ka [22 sav Fig. 17.15 17.4. A.C. Nodal Analysis ‘The procedure for nodal analysis of an a.c. network is the same as that fora d.c. network except that we have to deal with impedances instead of resistances and that the phase angle of all quantities (6g. impedances, vollages and currents) must be taken into consideration, Remember that nodal analysis requires the selection of one of the * principal nodes as the **refereace node We can apply Kirchhoff's current law to any principal node (except the reference node) to find its node voltage. Once node voltages at principal nodes are determined, the branch currents can be easily calculated. Note. Since one nodal equation can be written for each Principal node except the reference node, the number of equations required for solution will be (n 1) wheee n is the number of principal odes in the circuit. Example 17.9. Use nodal analysis o determine the voltage at node ‘a’ and current through the capacitor in Fig. 17.16. ' af 109 (259 259 o Fig. 17.16 Scanned with CamScanner: rk Analysis ic wet 863 gut There are Wo principal nodes ‘a and ‘bin the cit 3 i oe Kitchbofr cureat lo ede ‘ae hectit Taking node's the reference 2igand 2PP el Athel Va ea of “ld 10+25+j25 ~ 10 o V, (12.5 — j2.5) 162.5 - JV, 62.5 + 125 V,~ j V,25 = 16250 ¥, (125 + 137.5) = 16250 16250 16250 25+ j1375 ~ 185.8247.73° of of = 87.462 - 47.73°V Vg _ 87.464 - 47.73° =l0 102-90" = 2) in the circuit. Therefore, we require n — I= = B.74Z42.27°A Current thro’ capacitor, /, Note, There are two principal nodes (ce., _ =] equation to solve the circuit, Example 17.10. Use nodal analysis o find the voltage at node ‘a’ and currents I,[,and I, in fecicuit shown in Fig. 17.17. 10.36.9°0 50 5 oF oT — a 20280.1°2 5 bo Fig. 17.17 _Slution: There are two principal nodes ‘@° and ‘bin the circuit, Taking node ‘nd applying Kirchhoff's current law to node ‘a’, we have, it = dy “b’ as the reference 1W0=Vq | 50290°=Va _ Vy 5 10236.9° — 20253.1° (200.2 7,) + (5253.19 0.1 236.9") = 0.05V,4-53.1° or or va , a . 22s) meer “Flo 1s V, and current fy through it is V/-J 10). The voltage across impedance (10+ 2.5 + ili 7 and current fy through iti V, divided by t! i impedance, | ocala Scanned with CamScanner864 Basic Electrical Engineering or V,(0.2 + 0.12-36.9° + 0.052-53.1°) = 20+5253.1° or V,[0.2 + (0.08 — j0.06) + (0.03 — j0.04)) = 20+(3 +4) or V,{0.31 -j0.1]=23 + j4 23+ j4 23.3529.87° 0.31— 70.1 ~ 0.3262—17.88° = 71.62.227.15°V 100~71.62427.75° _ 100 - (63.38+ /33.35) SS ee 62 ~ 733.35 49,532 ~42.32° = 62335 ; = 9.92-42.32°A 50290° -71.62227.75° _ (50) - (63.38 + 33.35) a 10.236.9° ~ 10236.9° = 263.38 /16.65 _ 65.532165.28° tease ~~ 10236.9° ~ — 19736.9° 6.552128.38°A 11.622 27.15° 20 253,1° = 3:582-25.35°A Scanned with CamScannerce / c.Network Analysis A 867 My 34,34252.82° Current through - 20 = —2 “2 22-90" = 17,172142.82°A Tutorial Problems 1, Use nodal analysis to determine current in the capacitor in Fig. 17.21, [3.5 252.1? A] 40+ 50 i - 100 WV on 7) 4020" -/50 4) 252 -/1008 panini re 17.22 [0.1-+/3243.43°A] [1.12-109.5°A] Fig. 17.21 2. Use nodal analysis to det 3. Use nodal analysis to det ermine current in the capacitor in Fig. 17.22 ermine current in SQ resistor "y Fig. 17.23. 200 j5Q Fig. 17.23 17.5. Superposition Theorem for A.C. Circuits ‘The superposition theorem for an a. circuit is the same as that for a dc. circuit except that phase angle of all quantities (impedances, voltages and currents) must be taken into consideration. Therefore, superposition theorem for ac. circuits can be stated as under ‘Inan ae. network containing more than one source of voltage or current, the total current or voltage in any branch of the network is the phasor sum of currents or voltages produced i that branch by each source acting, independently: ssing this theorem i s under The procedure (i) Select one source and replace all other source swith their *intemal impedances, rough or voltage across the desired branch as a result of the single (i) Determine current th source acting alone. (ii) Repeat steps () and (i) using each source in tum until the branes, .urrent! voltage components have been calculated for all sources, (iv) Determine the phasor sum of curren voltage components to obtain the actual current through or voltage across that branch. 30 that an ideal voltage souree is replaced by a short circuit. an ideal current source is replaced by an open circuit. * Resall that an ideal voltage source has zero internal impedan ‘An ideal cu wit source has infinite internal impedance so that Scanned with CamScannerBasic Electrical Engineering 868 Example 17.14, Use superposition theorem to find current through 120 resistor in Fig. 17.24, /309 - 200.2 £=8220°V 1209 G |= 0.6520 Fig. 17.24 Solution. The use of superposition theorem requires the following two steps: (i) E = 52Z0°V source acting alone. To find the current through 1200 resistor due to E = 52.20°V source acting alone, we *open-circuit the current source as shown in Fig. 17.25. Since no current can flow through the capacitor, the total impedance Z,-across voltage source is Zy, = 120 + 50 = 130 222.62°Q Therefore, current /, in 120Q resistor due to voltage source alone is ha Fw ee o.ac-22.62°44 (6 d 1 Zp ~ 130222.62° 4 catnatiates {509 ~j2002 180; eeu Q@rrossara Fig. 17.26 (ii) = 0.6520°A source acting alone. In order to find current through 1202 resistor due to = 0.6520°A source acting alone, we replace the voltage source by a short-circuit as shown in Fig. 17.26. Referring to Fig. 17.26 and applying current-divider rule, current /, through 1200 resistor is ; i50_ _ _50290° =o x2 2° 120+ j50 130.222.62° Fig. 17.25 * 0.6520° = 0.25 2 67.38° At (upward) Current thro’. 1202 resistor = J, — Jy AZ-22.62° — 0.25267.38° (0.369 — j0.154) ~ (0.096 + j0.231) = 0.273 ~/0.385 .472.2-54.66°A 4 (downward) Scanned with CamScanner872 Basic Electrical Engineering. AWW Fig. 17.34 2. Use superposition theorem to find current in 100 resistor in Fig, 17.34. [2.212-56.24°4] ~ 3. Use superposition theorem to find the total average power dissipated in the circuit shown in Fig. 17.35. [37.29W] = j20a Hl 1 razora (fF won s0zo-v Fig. 17.35 17.6. Thevenin’s Theorem for A.C. Circuits Thevenin’s theorem foran a.c. circuit is the same as that fora d.c. circuit except that phase angle of all quantities (impedances, voltages and currents) must be taken into consideration, Therefore, Thevenin’s theorem for a.c. circuits can be stated as under : Any two-terminal linear a.c. circuit can be replaced by a single ac. voltage source (Vy) in series with a single impedance (Zy). The procedure for finding Vz, and Zp, is the same as for d.c. circuits ie. V;, isthe open-circuit ~ voltage at the considered terminals (say terminals 4B) and the series impedance Z,, is the impedance at terminals 4B with all sources replaced by their internal impedances. A Ac. Circuit 1 @ (ii) Fig. 17.36 Fig, 17.36 (ii) shows the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the ac. circuit shown in Fig. 17.36 (. Note that behind terminals AB, the a.c. circuit is replaced by a single a.c. voltage source V, in series with a single impedance Zp, os Scanned with CamScannerA.C. Network Anaiysis 873 Example 17.17. D, equivalent circuit. termine Zp,and Vy, for the circuit shown in Fig. 17.37 and draw the Thevenin 14.20°V , Fig. 17.37 Solution. Z,=5020°Q ; Z,=j50=50290°R ; Z,=- 1002 = 1002-90°2 ee 206 a oe to find Z,,, replace the voltage source by a short-circuit. The circuit then ig. 17.38, Now Z,, is the impedance looking into terminals 4B in Fig. 17.38. Veit ee mice —— So. Zm ~~ 2 22 Zs ~ 30Z0° 50290? 1002 -90° Multiplying throughout by 100, we have, 100 = 220° +22-90° +1290? = 2-j2+jl = 2/1 2m — 100 = 44.6226.6° 2n= 2-fl ~ 2242-266 e. xX ? = — in smart 100 2 Zn Fig, 17.38 1 voltage at terminals AB as shown in Fig. and capacitor is | $0.2 0° 1002-90" _ 447 p25.6°0 = 50 20° ||100 4 -99°.= 59 Z 0° + 100 2-90" 17.39. The equivalent is the open-cireui adil Vy i Finding Vy. "7% combination of resisto impedance Zp of parallel 2p 26.6° = 50236.9°Q2, 44,.12-26.6° , 14 70° = 12.52-63.5°V ze x 1420°= 597369" Scanned with CamScannerBasic Electrical Engineering 6.2662 2m ~oA Fig. 17.39 | The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 17.40. - 17.40 Example 17.18, Using Thevenin’s theorem, find current in the resistor R in Fig. 17.41. 2000 300 in 1 A Xe 52a0-V 10a ar 8 Fig. 17.41 Solution. Consider the resistor & to be the load. Z, = 72002 = 200290° ; Z, = -j3002= 3002-900 Finding Z,,, To find Zp, at the terminals 4B, we remove the resistor R and replace the voltage sources by short-circuit. The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig, 17.42. It is clear that Zy, is the parallel equivalent impedance of the inductor and capacitor. 00x (~/300) : 2n= “7200-7300 ~ 16002 = 600 290° 2000 2002 3002 y ee ESSE. ] 1} : M he Xe v, Qs Short >| eeu short “ | Fig, 17.42 Fig, 17.43 Finding V,,. To find ,,, remove the load & from the original circuit. The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 17.43, The voltage across the open terminals 2 is V,,. It can be found as under : Net circuit voltage = ¥, - V, = 2020°~15230° = 10,32-46.0°V" Total circuit impedance, Z,= 200 2 90° + 300 2 -90° = 100 4 - 90°. , = 10.32 -46,9° Circuit current, /, ” eee 10.32 -46.9° Voltage across X,, V,~ fp, = <= x 200.2908 = 20.6.2133.1°7 dal 1002-90" _—_—— Scanned with CamScannerAG. Network Analysis 875 Vn = 2020" - 20.62133.1° 00 20°62 Without load 2, Thevenin equivalent circuit at I eng terminals 4B is an a.c, source of 37.22-23.8°V in series — im with an impedance of 600 290°Q., When load R isconnected A to terminals 8, the cireuit becomes as shown in Fig. 17.44. The current / through R is given by; Ve @» acesev - 100 age 37.22-23.8° : . 600290° + 100.20° 608.3280.5° = 61 * 10 52-104.3° 4 = 61 2104.39), Scanned with CamScanner/p.C. NEWOIK HNSiyals, 32 [20 881 i) j20082 Find the Thevenin " ce ent ci quivalent circuit at terminals AB for the circuit eee 64. jon in Fig. 17. y= V; ‘ (Wy, = 5.7 281 V; Zp, = (7.98 -j 56) 2] 5. Use Thevenin’s theorem to fi ough the capacitor in the circuit shown in F theor “ to find current through i ircuit i yon in Fig, 65; 0.2 £78.77 A 4, 100 Fig. 17.65 +5 Theorem for A.C. Circuits n for d.c. circuits allows u: t source (/y) in paral nilar and may be states 17.7. Norton Recall that N circuit by a single equ (Ry). The a.c. version A two-terminal linear a.c. C1" by asingle equivalent ac. current source (ly, with a single equivalent impedance (Zy)- 1, 17.66 shows the Norton equivalent circuit of a two-terminal a.c. eireuit. The impedance Zy (called Norton equivalent imped nce) has exactly the same value as the Thevenin equ valent impedance (Zj,) and is found in the same Way: ‘The current Jy (called Norton equivalent current) is the ‘enrrent tat 10s thvoURD a short circuit connected across the Norton terminals (Le: load terminals). Note that the ‘Thevenin and Norton circuits are alternative equivalents fora circuit. Norton's rig. 17.66 theorem is popular for analysing. transistor circuits. ce a two-terminal linear &-<- f resistance: 5 to replat Ilel with a single equivalen d as under = orton’s theorem valent d.c. current { Norton’s theorem is sim reuit can be replaced 1) in parallel Norton equivalent ci cult Scanned with CamScanner882 Basic Electrical Engineering 17.8. Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits A two-tern.inal a.c, circuit can be replaced either by Thevenin equivalent circuit or Norton equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 17.67. Since both circuits are equivalent, we ean show that Vp, IyZyand Zz, = Zy. Norton equivalent circuit Thevenin equivalent circuit Fig. 17.67 (8 Since the two circuits are equivalent, their open-circuit voltages must be the same. For the Thevenin circuit, the open-circuit voltage is V, while for Norton circuit, itis Jy Vin = ly 2y (ii) If both the equivalent circuits are short-circuited, then same short-circuit current must flow through cach. For the Norton circuit, the short-circuit current is y while for Thevenin circuit, it is Vill. nil Lay 2x Vin WZ Itis clear that 7 y= Zp), For the solution of a circuit, you can use either equivalent circuit. The choice is purely a m: tter of convenience. Example 17.23. Use Norton's Theorem to find current through (5 ~ j2)Q impedance in the circuit shown in Fig. 17.68. 22 + 42 52 40 ty aaney soar) snow i839 f3.Q% Fig. 17.68 Fig. 17.69 Solution, Consider the (5 — jz) impedance to be the load. Finding 1,. To find /y, short-circuit the load terminals, The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 17.69. The current that flows in the short-circuited terminals is the Norton current /.,. It is clear from Fig. 17.69 that entire source voltage is across 20 -. sistance. 2020" we =1020°A NS 220 Scanned with CamScannerA.C. Newwork Analysis 883 din ; oltage 38 a one to find Zy (= Zp), temore the load [i.e, (5 ~j 2) @ impedance] and replace ya short circuit in the original circuit. The circuit then becomes ¢ 3 shown in Fig. 17.70. It is clear that Zy i i that Zy is equal to the equivalent impedance of parallel 2ombination of 20 and Norton oa equivalent ‘Sehaon oneal ow 4a g Short—>| a 3 ve roa (AY) SF * jaa : =u Fig. 17.70 Fig. 17.71 1 Now oa 228 Zy 8456 7, = Sti8 8418, 6253 N= 64j3 64 f3 6-f3 Fig. 17.71 shows Norton equivalent circuit along with the load By current-divider rule, current J, in the load [i-e. ($ = 2QJ is = (147+j0.27)2 Zy 1 1020? x—- 7/027) I. +21 (A747 027) +(5- 72) (1474 0.27) 1.49 210.42 7 0 5g HATH 02) 19 £ 0° x 10 4 0°* (647 — 1.73) 6.69 2-149" 223 2253°A Example 17.24, Use Avrton’ theorem to find current in (3 +] 2) @ impedance in the circuit shown in Fig. 17.72. 20 4a OG Aa Fig. 17.73 Fig. 17.72 ion. Consider the (3 +72)0 i To find Jy, short-circui ihe short-circuite« impedance to be the load. « the load terminals. The cireuit then bee “res as shown in d terminals is the Norton cu at Jy. It is clear Solut ing [, 5 Fig. 17.73. The current that flows in t that : Ae Ajeet hy" Foy 2020 1020 _ 9425 ro ae Scanned with CamScanner884 Basic Electrical Engineering Finding Zy. In order to find Zy (= Zy,), remove the load [i.e. (3 +/ 2) impedance] and replace each voltage source by a short circuit. The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 17.74. Itis clear that: 2x4 2y =20.||140 = Fg = 132 22 4Q t A tae 3Q , rscora(t) aul [18% j22 Fig. 17.74 Fig. 17.75 Fig. 17.75 shows Norton equivalent circuit along with the load, By current-divider rule, current 1, in the load is Zy 13 13 oe = 12,5 x——>—___ = 12.5 x 13 _ Lt Zane 13434+j2 “G3472 13 =12.5* 47422499 ~ 3:43 2-24.9°A Scanned with CamScanner886 Basic Electrical Engineering Therefore, Thevenin equivalent circuit isan a.c. voltage source of 46.02 2 90° V in series with 13 Z 22.62° kQ impedance as shown in Fig. 17.80. ‘Tutorial Problems 1, Use Norton's theorem to determine current through (5 +7 3)Q impedance in Fig. 17.81 40 6a [0.85 2 25.6%] 100 | 8a szov(Ay near v) aocovs) 30 6a ig. 17.82 2. Use Norton s theorem to determine current through the capacitor in Fig. 17.82. (3.5 252.1%] 3. Convert the Thevenin circuit in Fig. 17.83 to an equivalent Norton circuit Uy = 1.8 2 26.6° 4 in parallel with 11.2 Z 26.6°Q impedance] 102 j52 + 4a j2a Fig. 17.83 Fig. 17.84 4. Convert the Norton circuit in Fig. 17.84 to an equivalent Thevenin circuit, (Vi, =9 2 5..6° Vin series with 5 2 26.6°.Q impedance) 5. Use Norton’s theorem to find current in the capacitor in Fig. 7, 5. [0.35 2-81.6° 4] 20 j3a 1a j20 SOVIT—§$+ 2Q - -j30 a) 5Lo°v 1020°V I ®) ig. 17.85 17.9. Maximum Power Transfer Theorems for A.C. Circuits Ina de. circuit, the d.c. source has only resistance Ry and the load also has only resistance R,. Maximum power is transfered from the source to the load when R, = Rs. However, in an a.c. circuit, the a.c. source ‘as itapedance and supplies power to load having impedance. To understand how the ‘maximum power transfer theorem applies to a.c. circuits, let us consider the following cases : Scanned with CamScannerA.C. Network Analysis 887 1. When toad i ; case is shown He is only variable resistance R,. This a Xs Voltage Pe mit Fig. 17.86. The ac. source with rms. WAT ‘s and source impedance Zs (= R + j Xq) is OOO it supplying pow i me os e eI ee toa variable load resistance R,. Note that ‘eactance is zero. The circuit current /is given by: y, @ s| zn Vs +X} + Power delivered to load is (Rs +R, 4X3 To det le termine the value of R, for maximum transfer of power, dP, /AR, should be zero i.e. PL=PER ad | or +X5 [(Rs + Rp)? +.X3 oF 2+ 2 Ry Ryt RY, +X 2 R, Ry-2 or Rgt ¥, R, Hence, when load in an a.c. cireuit consists of variable resistance (R,) only, maximum power is transferred to R, when R= Magnitude of source impedance = /R3 +X 2, When load consists of variable Ry and 14 variable X;,. This case is shown in Fig. 17.87, Here A venistive component (R,) as well as reactive component (X;) of t current [is given by: Rs Xs Vs Soo je. 17. (Rs + Ru +(X5 4X1) Fig. 17.87 VER, red to load, P= PR (Re aR, (XS +XL) to be maximum, the denominator of ea (0 should be minimum, This will occur when Power delive! For —X,. In that case, , Pines” Cg +R When'X, = -Xy the eeu becomes RL. ye (eX, and X, cancel each other), For maximum power transfer, the ‘quirement is Ry ~ Rs ce component (R,) of the load. [power i only dissipated in ine resistive ne load is variable, The circuit °° \) ik Scanned with CamScanner888 Basic Electrical Engineering 43% Thus with a complex load and complex source impedance, the condition for maximum power transfer is X=, and R, = Ry. * 2, =Rs-iXs Note that load impedance is the conjugate of source impedance. Hence ifload in an a.c. circuit consists of variable resistance and variable reactance, maximum power is transferred from the a.c. source to the load when load impedance is the conjugate of the ‘source impedance. For example, suppose an a.c, source has an impedance of (20 + 10). This source will deliver maximum power when load impedance is (20 ~ 10). In other words, for maximum power transfer, the resistive components of the source impedance and load impedance should be equal (i.e. R; = Rs) and reactive components of the source impedance and load impedance should be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign (i.e. X, = — 9). Example 17.26. Find the load impedance Z, so that maximum power can be transferred to it in the circuit shown in Fig. 17.88. Also find this power: 3a 30 Fig. 17.88 Solution. The first step isto find the Thevenin 1 30 4 30 equivalent circuit to the left of terminals AB. To : find V7,, remove the load Z,. The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 17.89. The open-circuit Voltage at terminals 4B is V;,. Referring to Fig. 44, @) 17.89, the total impedance Z across the voltage fn source is oy, BE-) Z=3+ 5 73 7 6+/30 3 Fig. 17.89 | 520' “ ~ 67226.56° = 0.746.2-26.56°A. oo By current-divider rule, current J, is = Voltage across — 7 30= 1, x =j3 =(* J) * Cj3) = 31=3 * 0.746 £-26.56° = 2.233 / 56° = 2.2382-26.56°V To find Z,,, remove the load Z, and : Zn Z,,and replace the voltage source by a short circuit i i siteuit. The circuit then becomes as shown is Fig. 17.90. tis clear that, nt he original “2=34G31/3-73) Scanned with CamScannerA.C. Network Analysis “ i32 -j3Q —Zp Fig. 17.90 Zn=3+G 1 INCI) 3xj3 6-53 a [23 ]ici 2 = 32-53.12° = (1.8 -j2.4)Q Fig. 17.91 shows the Thevenin equivalent circuit behind terminals AB along with the load Z,. For maximum power transfer, the load impedance should be conjugate of the source impedance. Zin= (1.8 = [2.4) 2 in he A I * 8 Fig. 17.91 Z, =(18+j2.4)Q ___2.2382-26.56° Zpy+Z, ~ (U8 72.4)+ (8+ j2A) __ 22382-26567 ~ 3.6 Circuit current, J, = = 0.6212-26.56°A . Power transferred, P, = /2R, = (0.621)? x 1.8 = 0.694 W Scanned with CamScanner