ELE 4115 - Stability (Rev 1) PDF

STABILITY
 A power system is in a steady state operating

condition if all the measured (or calculated)
physical quantities describing the operating
condition of the system can be considered
constant for purposes of analysis.
 When operating in a steady state condition if a

sudden change or sequence of changes occurs in
one or more of the parameters of the system, or
in one or more of its operating quantities, we say
that the system has undergone a disturbance
from its steady state operating condition.
Power System Analysis

Granger & Stevenson Chap 16
 Disturbances can be large or small depending
on their origin. A large disturbance is one for
which the nonlinear equations describing the
dynamics of the power system cannot be
validly linearized for purposes of analysis.
❑ Transmission system faults
❑ Sudden load changes
❑ Loss of generating units
❑ Line switching
are examples of large disturbances
Granger & Stevenson, Chap 16
 A change in the gain of the automatic voltage
regulator in the excitation system of a large
generating unit could be an example of a
small disturbance.
 Small load changes can also be considered as

small disturbances

 For a small disturbance, the system returns to
its original steady state operating condition.
 For a large disturbance, the system returns to

a new steady state operating condition

 Steady state
 Transient or rotor angle
 Voltage
 Frequency

 Steady state stability studies examine the
stability of the system under small
incremental variations in parameters or
operating conditions about a steady state
equilibrium point.
 The nonlinear differential and algebraic

equations of the system are replaced by a set
of linear equations which are then solved by
methods of linear analysis to determine if the
system is steady state stable.

 Transient stability studies involve large disturbances
and linearization of the system equations is not
permitted.
 Transient stability is sometimes studied on a first

swing (first cycle) rather than a multi-swing basis.
 First swing transient stability studies use a reasonably

simple generator model consisting of the transient
internal voltage E behind transient reactance X’d.
 In such studies the excitation systems and turbine

governing control systems of the generating units are
not represented

Granger & Stevenson Chap 16
 Usually, the time period under study is the first
second following a system fault or other large
disturbance.
 If the machines of the system are found to remain

essentially in synchronism within the first second, the
system is regarded as being transiently stable.
 Multiswing stability studies extend over a longer

study period, and therefore the effects of the
generating units' control systems must be considered
since they can affect the dynamic performance of the
units during the extended period.

Grangr & Stevenson, Chap 16
 Machine models of greater sophistication are then
needed to properly reflect the behavior of the system.
 Thus, excitation systems and turbine-governing

control systems may or may not be represented in
steady-state and transient stability studies depending
on the objectives.
 In all stability studies the objective is to determine

whether or not the rotors of the machines being
disturbed return to constant speed operation.
Obviously, this means that the rotor speeds have
departed at least temporarily from synchronous
speed.

 To facilitate computation, three fundamental
assumptions therefore are made in all stability
studies:
 1. Only synchronous frequency currents and
voltages are considered in the stator windings
and the power system. Consequently, dc offset
currents and harmonic components are
neglected.
 2. Symmetrical components are used in the
representation of unbalanced faults.
 3. Generated voltage is considered unaffected by
machine speed variations.

 These assumptions permit the use of phasor algebra
for the transmission network and solution by power-
flow techniques using 60-Hz parameters.
 Also, negative- and zero-sequence networks can be

incorporated into the positive sequence network at
the fault point.
 As we shall see, three-phase balanced faults are

generally considered. However, in some special
studies circuit-breaker clearing operation may be
such that consideration of unbalanced conditions is
unavoidable.

 The equation governing rotor motion of a
synchronous machine is based on the
elementary principle in dynamics which states
that accelerating torque is the product of the
moment of inertia of the rotor times its
angular acceleration.
 In the MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system

of units this equation can be written for the
synchronous generator in the form

 Tm and Te are positive for generator operation. In
steady-state Tm equals Te, the accelerating torque
Ta is zero, and, from (11.1.1), the rotor
acceleration αm is zero, resulting in a constant
rotor velocity called synchronous speed.
 When Tm is greater than Te, Ta is positive and αm

is therefore positive, resulting in increasing rotor
speed.
 Similarly, when Tm is less than Te, the rotor speed

is decreasing.
Power System Analysis & Design,

 It is convenient to measure the rotor angular position with
respect to a synchronously rotating reference axis instead of
a stationary axis. Accordingly, we define

Glover, Sarma & Overbye, Chap 4
 It is also convenient to work with power rather than torque,
and to work in per-unit rather than in actual units.
Accordingly, we multiply (11.1.5) by ωm(t) and divide by
Srated, the three-phase voltampere rating of the generator:

 Finally, it is convenient to work with a
normalized inertia constant, called the H
constant, which is defined as

 The H constant has the advantage that it falls within a fairly
narrow range, normally between 1 and 10 p.u.-s, whereas J
varies widely, depending on generating unit size and type.
Solving (11.1.7) for J and using in (11.1.6),

 However in most cases ωp.u(t) =1

 Armature resistance is small and can be
neglected
 Va is reference phasor
 Ea leads Va by angle δ
 Ia lags Va by Ɵ
 Ea = Eacos δ +jEasin δ
 Ia = Iacos Ɵ – jIasin Ɵ
 Po = 3VaIacosƟ
 which is known as the power angle equation
 For a given field current and terminal voltage

the maximum power output
 Pom or Pdm
 Figure 11.2 shows a simplified model of a
synchronous machine, called the classical model,
that can be used in transient stability studies. As
shown, the synchronous machine is represented by
a constant internal voltage E’ behind its direct axis
transient reactance Xd’.
 This model is based on the following assumptions:
 1. The machine is operating under balanced three-
phase positive sequence conditions.
 2. Machine excitation is constant.
 3. Machine losses, saturation, and saliency are
neglected.
 In transient stability programs, more detailed models
can be used to represent exciters, losses, saturation,
and saliency. However, the simplified model reduces
model complexity while maintaining reasonable
accuracy in stability calculations.
 Each generator in the model is connected to a system

consisting of transmission lines, transformers, loads,
and other machines. To a first approximation the
system can be represented by an ‘‘infinite bus’’
behind a system reactance.
 An infinite bus is an ideal voltage source that

maintains constant voltage magnitude, constant
phase, and constant frequency.

 Figure 11.3 shows a synchronous generator connected to a
system equivalent. The voltage magnitude Vbus and 00 phase
of the infinite bus are constant. The phase angle δ of the
internal machine voltage is the machine power angle with
respect to the infinite bus.

 Figure 11.4 shows a single-line diagram of a
three-phase, 60-Hz synchronous generator,
connected through a transformer and parallel
transmission lines to an infinite bus. All
reactances are given in per-unit on a common
system base. If the infinite bus receives 1.0 per
unit real power at 0.95 p.f. lagging, determine
 (a) the internal voltage of the generator and
 (b) the equation for the electrical power delivered
by the generator versus its power angle δ.

 When a machine receives a disturbance that
changes its operating point, it does not
immediately settle to the new point, but
oscillates until damping finally causes it to
settle.
 The energy gained during the disturbance

must be dissipated on an equal amount and
this leads to the concept of Equal Area
Criteria

 The swing equations that have been developed
are nonlinear in nature. Formal solutions of such
equations cannot be explicitly found. Even in the
case of a single machine swinging with respect to
an infinite bus, it is very difficult to obtain literal-
form solutions, and computer methods are
therefore normally used .
 Consider a synchronous generating unit

connected through a reactance to an infinite bus.
Plots of electrical power pe and mechanical power
pm versus power angle δ are shown in Figure
11.6. pe is a sinusoidal function of δ, as given by
(11.2.1).

 Initial electrical and mechanical powers are equal
and operating angle is δ0
 Mechanical input changes from pm0 to pm1
Increase in mechanical power changes operating
angle to δ1
 Because of rotor inertia change does not happen

from one position and stops at the next but rotor
swings (oscillates) before finally settling to point
δ1
 Areas A1 and A2 are equal

 Rotor swings to δ2 and then swings back toward
δ1. If there is no damping, δ would continually
oscillate around δ1.
 However, damping due to mechanical and

electrical losses causes δ to stabilize at its final
steady-state operating point δ1.
 Note that if the power angle exceeded δ3, then

pm would exceed pe and the rotor would
accelerate again, causing a further increase in δ
and loss of stability.

 One method for determining stability and maximum
power angle is to solve the nonlinear swing equation
via numerical integration techniques using a digital
computer. This method, which is applicable to
multimachine systems, is described later.
 However, there is also a direct method for

determining stability that does not involve solving the
swing equation; this method is applicable for one
machine connected to an infinite bus or for two
machines.
 This method is called the equal-area criterion.

 To derive the equal-area criterion for one
machine connected to an infinite bus, assume
ωp.u(t) =1, giving

 The above equation begins at δ0 where dδ/dt = 0 (steady
state) and ends with δ2 where dδ/dt also = 0 (point at which
energy gained is exhausted) .

 In practice, sudden changes in mechanical
power usually do not occur, since the time
constants associated with prime mover
dynamics are on the order of seconds.
 However, stability phenomena similar to that

described above can also occur from sudden
changes in electrical power, due to system
faults and line switching.

 Example 11.4 shows how to use the equal
area criteria to determine stability

 The synchronous generator shown in Figure
11.4 is initially operating in the steady-state
condition given in Example 11.3, when a
temporary three-phase to-ground bolted
short circuit occurs on line 1–3 at bus 1,
shown as point F in Figure 11.4. Three cycles
later the fault extinguishes by itself. Due to a
relay misoperation, all circuit breakers remain
closed

 Determine whether stability is or is not
maintained and determine the maximum
power angle.
 The inertia constant (H) of the generating unit

is 3.0 per unit-seconds on the system base.
Assume pm remains constant throughout the
disturbance. Also assume ωp.u. =1.0 in the
swing equation.

 Assuming the temporary short circuit in
Example 11.4 lasts longer than 3 cycles,
calculate the critical clearing time.

The critical clearing angle is such that δ3 does not go beyond
Intersection with pm else rotor begins accelerating again

 The p–δ plot is shown above. At the critical
clearing angle, denoted δcr, the fault is
extinguished.
 The power angle then increases to a

maximum value δ3 = 1800 - δ0 = 156.050 =
2.7236 radians, which gives the maximum
decelerating area. Equating the accelerating
and decelerating areas,

 If the fault is cleared before t = tcr = 11:38
cycles, stability is maintained.
 Otherwise, the generator goes out of

synchronism with the infinite bus; that is,
stability is lost.

 The figure above is a single line diagram of a three
phase, 60Hz, synchronous generator, connected
through transformers and parallel transmission lines
to an infinite bus. All reactances are shown on the
diagram in per unit on the same base. The infinite
bus is receiving 0.8 per unit real power at 1.0 per unit
voltage and 0.8 power factor lagging. The inertia
constant (H) of the generating unit is 4.0 per unit-
seconds on the system base. Determine the
following:

 the internal voltage of the generator
 the power angle equation for the system .

 The generator is operating as above when a three
phase to ground fault occurs at P, at point at the
source end one of the transmission lines reducing the
power output to zero. After some time the fault is
cleared and the system returns to normal.

 Sketch the p-δ plot of the power angle curve for
before, during and after the fault demonstrating the
equal area criterion for the critical clearing angle.

 Calculate the critical clearing angle and the critical
clearing time.

 The synchronous generator in Figure 11.4 is
initially operating in the steady state
condition given in Example 11.3 when a
permanent three-phase-to ground bolted
short circuit occurs on line 1–3 at bus 3. The
fault is cleared by opening the circuit
breakers at the ends of line 1–3 and line 2–3.
These circuit breakers then remain open.
Calculate the critical clearing angle. As in
previous examples, H = 3.0 p.u.-s, pm = 1.0
per unit and ωp.u. =1.0 in the swing equation.

Looking in from the generator source
(i) Short out infinite bus and find Thevenin impedance
(ii) Replace infinite bus and find Thevenin voltage

 tcr = 0.2331 sec

 The figure above is a single line diagram of a three
phase, 60Hz, synchronous generator, connected
through transformers and parallel transmission lines
to an infinite bus. All reactances are shown on the
diagram in per unit on the same base. The infinite
bus is receiving 0.8 per unit real power at 1.0 per unit
voltage and 0.8 power factor lagging. The inertia
constant (H) of the generating unit is 4.0 per unit-
seconds on the system base. Determine the
following:

 the internal voltage of the generator
 the power angle equation for the system .

 The generator is operating as above when a three
phase to ground fault occurs at P, in the middle of
one of the transmission lines. The fault is cleared by
the breakers and the transmission line remains open.
The system now operates with only one transmission
line.

 Sketch the p-δ plot of the power angle curves for
before, during and after the fault demonstrating the
equal area criterion for the critical clearing angle.

 Calculate the critical clearing angle and the critical
clearing time.


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STABILITY

 A power system is in a steady state operating

 When operating in a steady state condition if a

Power System Analysis

 Small load changes can also be considered as

Power System Analysis

 For a large disturbance, the system returns to

Power System Analysis

 Transient or rotor angle

Power System Analysis

 The nonlinear differential and algebraic

Power System Analysis

 Transient stability is sometimes studied on a first

 First swing transient stability studies use a reasonably

 In such studies the excitation systems and turbine

Power System Analysis

 If the machines of the system are found to remain

 Multiswing stability studies extend over a longer

Power System Analysis

 Thus, excitation systems and turbine-governing

 In all stability studies the objective is to determine

Power System Analysis

Power System Analysis

 Also, negative- and zero-sequence networks can be

 As we shall see, three-phase balanced faults are

Power System Analysis

 In the MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system

Power System Analysis

 When Tm is greater than Te, Ta is positive and αm

 Similarly, when Tm is less than Te, the rotor speed

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

 which is known as the power angle equation

 For a given field current and terminal voltage

 Each generator in the model is connected to a system

 An infinite bus is an ideal voltage source that

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

 The energy gained during the disturbance

Power System Analysis & Design,

 Consider a synchronous generating unit

Power System Analysis & Design,

 Because of rotor inertia change does not happen

 Areas A1 and A2 are equal

Power System Analysis & Design,

 However, damping due to mechanical and

 Note that if the power angle exceeded δ3, then

Power System Analysis & Design,

 However, there is also a direct method for

 This method is called the equal-area criterion.

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

 However, stability phenomena similar to that

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

Power System Analysis & Design,

 The inertia constant (H) of the generating unit