ScienceDirect

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect
Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

ScienceDirect www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

Transportation Research Procedia 39 (2019) 112–123

www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Green Cities 2018

Electric mobility in European Greenurban freight and logistics – status

Cities 2018

Electric mobility in andEuropean

attemptsurban of improvement
freight and logistics – status
and
Stanislaw Iwana, Juergen attempts
Allesch b
, Dilayof improvement
Celebi c
, Kinga Kijewskaa, Mette Hoéd, Jens
e,* f
Klauenberg , Juergen c Zajicek
Stanislaw Iwan , Juergen Allesch , Dilay Celebi , Kinga Kijewskaa, Mette Hoéd, Jens
a b
a
Maritime University of Szczecin, P 11e,*
Klauenberg , Juergen
Henryka Zajicek
Pobożnego f Szczecin, Poland
Str. 70-507
b
eM-Pro Elektromobilität GmbH, Lauterstraße 14, 12159 Berlin, Germany
c
Istanbul Technical
a University,
Maritime Istanbul
University Teknik Universitesi
of Szczecin, Isletme
P 11 Henryka Fakultesi
Pobożnego Str.Macka
70-507/ Besiktas,
Szczecin,34367 Istanbul, Turkey
Poland
d
Copenhagen
b Electric,
eM-Pro Capital Region
Elektromobilität of Denmark,
GmbH, Kongens
Lauterstraße 14, Vange
12159 2, 3400 Germany
Berlin, Hillerod, Denmark
e
c GermanIstanbul
Istanbul Technical University, Aerospace Center,
Teknik Rutherfordstrasse
Universitesi 2, 12489Macka
Isletme Fakultesi Berlin,/ Besiktas,
Germany34367 Istanbul, Turkey
f
d Austrian Institute
Copenhagen Electric, of Technology
Capital Region ofGmbH, Giefinggasse
Denmark, 4, A-1210
Kongens Vange Vienna,
2, 3400 Austria
Hillerod, Denmark
e
German Aerospace Center, Rutherfordstrasse 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany
f
Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Giefinggasse 4, A-1210 Vienna, Austria

Abstract

Abstract
Analyses of the potentials of electric mobility in commercial transport have shown that in terms of trip patterns and daily mileage
EVs are suitable for urban freight transport and city logistics. The deployment of EVs could reduce exhaust and noise emissions.
Analyses of the potentials
But the potential of electric
is not being mobility
exploited, and inthere
commercial
are onlytransport have shown
a few vehicles in usethat
inincommercial
terms of tripfleets.
patterns
Thisand dailywill
paper mileage
give
insights
EVs are into the for
suitable status of electric
urban mobility and
freight transport in European urban
city logistics. freight
The and logistics.
deployment of EVs The
couldpaper introduces
reduce the potential
exhaust and for the
noise emissions.
further
But the implementation
potential is not and development
being exploited, andof electric
there arevehicles
only a infewcityvehicles
logistics, based
in use in on the activities
commercial realized
fleets. underwill
This paper EUFAL
give
insights
(Electric into thefreight
urban statusand
of logistics)
electric mobility
project, in European
realized underurban freight andCofund
the ERA-NET logistics. The Mobility
Electric paper introduces
Europe. the potential for the
further implementation and development of electric vehicles in city logistics, based on the activities realized under EUFAL
(Electric urban freight and logistics) project, realized under the ERA-NET Cofund Electric Mobility Europe.
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
©
Selection
2018 The
Selection and peer-review
andAuthors.
peer-review under
Published
underby responsibility
Elsevier B.V.
responsibility of
of the
the scientific committee of
scientific committee of Green
Green Logistics
Logistics for
for Greener
Greener Cities
Cities 2018.
2018.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection and
Keywords: urbanpeer-review undercity
freight transport; responsibility of the
logistics; electric scientific
mobility; committee
alternative of Green
engines; Logistics
sustainable for Greener Cities 2018.
transport

Keywords: urban freight transport; city logistics; electric mobility; alternative engines; sustainable transport

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-30-67055-192
E-mail address: jens.klauenberg@dlr.de
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-30-67055-192
E-mail© address:
2352-1465 jens.klauenberg@dlr.de
2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection
2352-1465and peer-review
© 2018 under responsibility
The Authors. of the scientific
Published by Elsevier B.V. committee of Green Logistics for Greener Cities 2018.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Green Logistics for Greener Cities 2018.

2352-1465  2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Green Logistics for Greener Cities 2018.
10.1016/j.trpro.2019.06.013
 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Stanislaw
Celebi, Kinga
IwanKijewska, Mette Hoé, Jens
et al. / Transportation Klauenberg,
Research Juergen
Procedia ZajicekAuthor
39 (2019) 112–123 name / Transportation113
Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

1. Introduction

Analyses of the potentials of electric mobility in commercial transport have shown that in terms of trip patterns
and daily mileage EVs are suitable for urban freight transport and city logistics. The deployment of EVs could
reduce exhaust and noise emissions. But the potential is not being exploited, and there are only a few vehicles in use
in commercial fleets. Several initiatives, aimed at fostering the use of EVs, by public bodies and politicians have
proven not to be successful as expected. Lack of knowledge and lack of information in companies are the most
hindering factors. Furthermore, there are uncertainties about the necessary adaptation of logistics concepts for the
integration of EVs. Increase in knowledge both among public bodies, transport operators, fleet managers and
logistics companies is essential. (add source: SELECT) Public authorities remain the key influencer of the uptake of
electric freight vehicles through monetary and non-monetary support (FREVUE… 2017).
To apply such adaptations all actors must be well connected and have sufficient information. Projects in the field
of electric mobility in commercial transport have shown that there is a lack of information for decision makers and
fleet managers concerning technical possibilities and costs of EVs. To fill this gap the project EUFAL (Electric
urban freight and logistics) sets up a platform for exchange which will allow companies to handle the
implementation of EVs in mixed fleets and multi-level distribution concepts. This will be demonstrated in different
environments, especially where low noise emission vehicles are needed. Differentiated concepts for zones with
micro distribution will also be taken into account. The project EUFAL is realized under the ERA-NET Cofund
Electric Mobility Europe.
EUFAL will take up developments in Europe and make use of experiences and networks connections already
build up by the project partners. Available extern developments will be integrated. This avoids the doubling of
solutions. The projects contributions will allow to exchange know-how between nations and to implement EVs at
different stages of development. Academic partners accumulate methodological know-how in order to give advice to
companies about best suited implementation strategies. Different decision support tools will be applied including
optimization, modelling, and simulation. Finally, the academic partners transfer learnings to the public project-
partners in order to formulate coherent accompanying policy measures. The platform of exchange collects and
bundles information on available vehicle technology, on charging infrastructure, on successful business models as
well as on all relevant regulations and funding opportunities. The platform creates possibilities to consider city
logistics as a whole system between the framework of policies and measures on the one side and optimization efforts
of private companies on the other side.
The consortium for the project EUFAL is formed by partners from Germany, Austria, Denmark, Poland and
Turkey. It aggregates different actors with different roles in the field of electric mobility in urban freight and
logistics – vehicle users, business model development, logistics service providers, municipalities and research
institutions.
The transnational cooperation in the project EUFAL will help to transfer knowledge between the different stages
of development. Tools developed in the project will serve the needs of EV users in all phases of development. All
relevant information will be collected in the platform of exchange.
114 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Celebi,Iwan
Stanislaw KingaetKijewska, Mette Hoé,Research
al. / Transportation Jens Klauenberg,
ProcediaJuergen ZajicekAuthor
39 (2019) 112–123 name / Transportation
Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 3

Fig. 1. The countries and partners involved in the EUFAL Project.

The paper will be shown to what extend and for which purposes electric vehicles are used in chosen European
countries. The focus will be on Germany, Austria, Denmark, Poland and Turkey, partners of the international project
EUFAL. The importance of commercial transport for the transition of road transport to electric mobility will be
revealed. The share of commercial used vehicles in stock and for new registrations will be analysed. Furthermore
the reasons for the lack of broader use of electric vehicles will be explained.

2. The barriers of EV development in city logistics

Nowadays, many shippers and drivers have unsatisfied experience with the electric vehicles implementation in
city logistics. The most important problem is the lesser performance of electric vehicles in comparison to the
conventional engines (taking to the account the travel range, speed, acceleration and considerable unreliability)
(Jeeninga et al. 2002). However, in recent years the significant technical improvements have been made in this area
as well as many efficient EV have been offered on the market (Iwan, et al. 2014; Wątróbski et al. 2017).
EV adoption in developing countries has its own characteristics and problems. Policy priorities, changing
governmental and regulatory structures, unstable development rates, speed of technological diffusion, transition
from traditional to contemporary logistics systems, on-going changes in the competitive structure of vehicle and
logistics industries, and long-term uncertainties in market structure are examples of characteristics that are specific
to most developing economies. Besides several barriers specific to such countries that prevent EV adoption, the
impact of some common barriers shared by all countries on EV diffusion in developing economies are also expected
to be different.
For example, the impact of economic and financial barriers in developing economies is likely to be higher than
the impact on developed countries. It is widely accepted that EVs have a high purchase price compared to petrol or
diesel fuelled counterparts, primarily driven by the costs of R&D (Ockwell et al. 2008) and additional components
such as battery packs, which are is passed on to consumers. Fuel savings may well offset the increased initial cost to
the consumer during the lifetime of the vehicle. This issue acts as perhaps the most prominent obstacle to adoption
of EVs particularly for commercial users. Many companies are unwilling to pay a premium price for new
technology when there are still concerns surrounding range, charging, performance and battery durability (Berkeley
 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Celebi, Kinga Kijewska, Mette Hoé, Jens Klauenberg, Juergen ZajicekAuthor name / Transportation
Stanislaw Iwan et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 39 (2019) 112–123 115
Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

et al. 2017). Therefore, the impact is plausibly higher in developing countries with lower rates of GDP per capita,
given that price elasticity of EVs increase as the income level decreases (DeShazo et al. 2017).
Another barrier likely to create a more difficult hurdle for electric vehicle adoption in developing countries is the
infrastructure, currently available or to be developed. Besides some dedicated infrastructure investments that need to
be done specific to EVs, there is a need for the parallel deployment of an infrastructure of roads, parking facilities,
repair facilities, and other institutional arrangements for EVs that represent large sunk investments (Steinhilber et al.
2013). The lack of relevant infrastructure which is closely linked to rate of EV adoption, is a common issue that
many developing countries confront. Due to limited investment budgets, high costs of EV related infrastructure, and
low demand, governments are less willing to invest in infrastructure supporting EV diffusion in developing
countries. Similarly, private sector incentives are likely to be less attractive in such countries, as a result of lower
feasibility of EV investments.
Regulatory pressure is a significant determinant of environmental performance (Luken 2007). Current and future
environmental regulations and financial incentives and economic incentives, such as tax exemptions are examples of
public policy measures that are often used to improve the adoption rate of EVs (Zhang et al. 2014). Although
developing countries differ in terms of specific policy measures, they generally share common trend like heavy state
regulation and control on trade, prices, capacity, followed by the recent shifts towards deregulation and privatization
(Pandey 2002). However, related policy decisions generally have not been supported by systematic long-term
analysis. Energy planning and environmental policy are of the areas suffering ad-hoc treatment in developing
countries. Another problem in developing countries is that uncertainties remain as to the extent and nature of the
carbon constraints or incentives that governments are likely to put in place to encourage the adoption of electric
vehicles. Studies show that vehicle manufacturers’ central concern in taking a position to take advantage of future
carbon constraints is the uncertainties in the direction of government policy on carbon emissions (Ockwell et al.
2008).
Furthermore, traditional and economically disadvantaged industries in developing economies face barriers like
high interest rates, lack of access to modern infrastructure and information, thus face constant threat to their
survival. Therefore, governments in developing economies design and implement policies for promotion of
economically disadvantaged and traditional industries and environmental objectives may be assigned second priority
after economic growth for emerging economies (Pandey 2002). Fossil fuel subsidies to support policy objectives are
very common in developing economies. Post-tax subsidies are especially large (about 13–18%) relative to GDP in
Emerging and Developing Asia, the Middle East and North Africa region (Coady et al. 2017). These subsidies and
current government legislation to support non-environmentally friendly sectors create immediate barriers to
adoption of electric vehicles. Among developing countries, only China and India have made electric vehicles a clear
priority (Don't… 2017).
On the other hand, many developing countries import used vehicles from wealthier regions. The number of
vehicles in developing countries is predicted to increase four-or five-fold by 2050 and the majority of these vehicles
are expected to be second hand. The growth rate of the trade in used cars grew by 14.4 percent from 1.24 million to
4.7 million between 1997 and 2007 (Macias et al. 2016). Import of second hand vehicles lead to increases in gross
domestic product in developing countries by offering an affordable way of mobility for people. However, expansion
of the used vehicle market saturates creates a barrier for widely adoption of EVs in developing countries by
saturating the market with vehicles having low emission standards and less fuel efficiency levels.
Furthermore, the market for non-energy efficient and environmentally unfriendly vehicles in developing
countries is likely to increase because of market shrinkage of such vehicles in the EU and other developed countries
with stricter environmental regulations. For example, in Europe, diesel passenger cars remain a major part of the
automotive industry, currently accounting for nearly 50% of all new cars sold across the continent (Arena et al.
2016). As pioneered by the major cities, wider restrictions on the use of diesel vehicles in developed economies,
likely to lead the diesel vehicle manufacturers to focus on emerging markets with lower levels of restrictions in
developing countries, according to the International Product Life Cycle model by Vernon (Vernon 1992).
Consequently, as long as the price advantages of diesel and fossil fuel vehicles are preserved and current economic
 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Celebi, Kinga Kijewska, Mette Hoé, Jens Klauenberg, Juergen ZajicekAuthor name / Transportation
116 Stanislaw Iwan et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 39 (2019) 112–123
Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 5

barriers to adoption of EVs exists, wider use and acceptance of EVs in the developing countries are expected to take
place far later than developed counterparts.

3. The present status of EV in city logistics development – chosen examples

The countries introduced in this section are involved in the activities of the project EUFAL. The following
analysis pools countries with different stages of development in terms of EV use in commercial vehicle fleets. In
Germany, Austria and Denmark there is already some experience with the use of EVs in commercial transport and
urban freight. In these countries further development is needed in terms of optimisation of EV usage. In Poland the
planning of the implementation of EVs in commercial vehicle fleets is currently done whereas in Turkey actors are
taking first steps towards the planning of EV usage.

3.1. Austria

The statistics of new registered vehicle of all classes (L1-L2, M1-M3 and N1-N2) in Austria are recorded
according to vehicle classes (e.g. L, M, N), but not whether these are company cars or privately used vehicles. In
contrast to other European countries, Austrian statistics do not specifically cover the NACE class in the area of
commercially used vehicles (duty vehicles). Therefore it is very difficult to collect this data and to make statements
regarding the use of electrically powered vehicles in commercial fleets.
In 2017, 353,320 new M1 type passenger cars were registered. Of these, 5,433 were BEV and 1,721 were plug-
in hybrid vehicles. Thus, in 2017 there was an increase in new registrations of around 1,600 BEV and 500 PHEV
compared with the previous year. The total of 7,154 electric vehicles represents an increase of around 40%
compared to 2016. In addition to passenger cars, there has also been a continuous increase in the number of electric
vehicles in categories L and N to a total of 10,391 vehicles.
In Austria there are some large companies in the field of postal/parcel delivery and crafts enterprises using EVs
in their daily business. The Austrian post company, the Post AG, has built up a fleet of about 1.450 EV including
630 e-cycles, 372 e-mopeds and 441 e-vehicles and transporters within their initiative “CO2 NEUTRAL
ZUGESTELLT” (“CO2 neutral delivered”). Three of the company's own photovoltaic systems generate around 1.4
million kWh of clean energy a year, which can be used to supply the entire electric vehicle fleet.
Other companies of the delivery sector run some test implementations of new city logistics concepts using EV.
DPD Austria, for example, uses as a result of the Austrian lighthouse project “EMILIA - Electric Mobility for
Innovative Freight Logistics in Austria” (Nolz et al. 2017) together with research and consulting partners an
innovative urban logistics concept. In this concept, the deliveries for a specific area are transported together in an
electrically driven delivery van from a depot in the north of Vienna to a city hub in Aspern, an area in the northern
part of Vienna. In the city hub all deliveries are temporarily stored. The deliveries can be picked up there by the
customers themselves or are delivered by means of optimally planned tours with electric cargo bicycles.
In Austria, the Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of the Environment, in cooperation with the automotive
industry, developed a package, the so called “E-Mobilitätspaket” (BMVIT… 2018b), to promote electric mobility
worth 72 million euros. This package of measures includes the creation of incentives for the purchase of electric
vehicles (private and commercial) and the development of the relevant infrastructures such as e-charging stations.

3.2. Denmark

Denmark has set the ambitious target to be independent of fossil fuels by 2050, this also includes the transport
sector (Ea… 2015). The number of sales in the van segment of electrical vehicles has just made modest increases
over the years in Denmark. In 2014, the van segment represented 3 % of the total electric vehicle sales, in 2016 it
was 4 %, and in 2017 the segment corresponded to 5 % (Insero… 2014; Insero… 2016; Insero… 2017).
 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Celebi, Kinga Kijewska, Mette Hoé, Jens Klauenberg, Juergen ZajicekAuthor name / Transportation
Stanislaw Iwan et al.Procedia
Research / Transportation Research
00 (2018) 000–000Procedia 39 (2019) 112–123 117

Fig. 2. EV sales in Denmark divided into segments – 4. Quatre of 2017 (Insero Quarterly Q4-2017).

Denmark has introduced different policy measures to increase the use of light duty electrical vehicles. Denmark
has tax exemption scheme that promotes the usage of light duty electrical vehicles. This tax scheme has changed
over time. Initially, electrical vehicles were completely free from paying registration tax. Later this changed and the
electrical vehicles were exempted 80 % of the registration tax, starting in 2016, and then the precentral exemption
decreases by 20 % per year until 2020. This new taxation scheme resulted in a drastic sales drop of electrical
vehicles and created insecurities on the market. Due to this, the taxation scheme was changed once again. The
current state is that light duty electric vehicles are exempted 80 % from paying registration tax until Denmark
reaches 5000 sales of these vehicles, thereafter, the precentral exemption will decrease by 20 % per year.
Another national approach to increase the number of commercial vehicles on electricity is a special agreement
made with the Danish utility companies. This agreement allows commercial vehicle owners to get subsidies when
procuring at least five new energy efficient vehicles during a time period of 12 months, and the amount of the
subsidies are valued by the utility companies and are based on whether the replacement of cars is forced or
voluntary (Danish… 2018). Between 2008 and 2015, The Dansih Energy Agency provided a national funding
programme for projects related to electrical vehicles (EV). This funding gave support to multiple projects by
companies, interest organizations, regions, and municipalities whom all were required to contribute to new solutions
and experiences of EV usage and its infrastructure. Some of these projects were related to the usage of electrical
vehicles for commercial transport (Energistyrelsen 2018).
In 2017, Denmark had 5 748 769 inhabitants, and around one third of them live in the Capital Region of
Denmark (Statistics… 2018; Inhabitants 2018). In 2013, The Capital Region of Denmark established Copenhagen
Electric, a department with the vision of becoming the leading electric vehicle region in Europe (About… 2018).
Copenhagen Electric used the Danish Energy funding programme to fund several projects. Among these projects,
two focused on electric freight “50 vans on electricity”, and Vehicle to Equipment (V2E) (Energistyrelsen, 2018).
Although these projects are owned by the Capital Region of Denmark, companies all over Denmark can participate
in these projects. The first project targets commercial fleets and allows companies to purchase an electrical vehicle
to a lower price, financed by subsidies of 20.000 Dkr. (ca. 2.700 Euro) from the Danish Energy funding programme.
In return, the companies who take part of this project, shares their experiences which will be released in a report
(V2E… 2017). The V2E Project introduces the technology of using the battery of an electrical driven car to provide
energy for tools and equipment. This project was the first of its kind in Europe. The project did a total cost of
ownership (TCO) analysis, which compared a diesel van (Nissan NV-200) to an electrical van (Nissan e-NV200).
 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Celebi, Kinga Kijewska, Mette Hoé, Jens Klauenberg, Juergen ZajicekAuthor name / Transportation
118 Stanislaw Iwan et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 39 (2019) 112–123
Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 7

Although the electrical vehicle was more expensive to buy, the TCO was lower in the long with a breakeven point
after six years. (V2E… 2017)
Copenhagen Electric wants to introduce more electric vehicles in commercial transportation. However, it is a
struggling ambition due to the lack of common visions and goals on a national and sub-national level. There is a
need for public and private to meet and get a common understanding of how electrical vehicles can be further
implemented in this field. Copenhagen Electric has established an electrical vehicle network for public and private
organisations. The network is a place where various actors can share knowledge and inspire other actors to make a
green transition of their vehicles. (Danish… 2018)

3.3. Germany

In Germany, several attempts have been taken to foster the use of electric vehicles. Most of the measures have
been focused on electric passenger cars, but at some points there are links to commercial transport given. In 2009
different related ministries promoted a plan to develop Germany as a leading electric mobility market
(Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie, 2009). In connection to this the goal of one million electric vehicles
by 2020 was set (Die Bundesregierung, 2009). The governmental support for eight model regions programme was
followed up by six regional show cases in 2011 (Dudenhöffer et al., 2012). In 2014 the Electric Mobility Promotion
Act was ratified (Deutscher Bundestag, 2014). Since 2011, monetary measures such as the exemption from the car
tax for battery electric vehicles or the compensation of disadvantages of electric vehicles have been introduced. In
the same year the promotion of research and development along the NPE (National platform for electric mobility)
roadmaps has been fostered. A special focus was applied to research on commercial vehicles, because a substantial
market potential is seen in this area with relatively modest financial support (Gnann et al., 2015). In 2016, the
environmental bonus for private users in the amount of 4,000 euros for battery electric vehicles and 3,000 euros for
plug-in hybrids was established. The federal government and the automotive industry each contribute half of the
subsidy. In total, the subsidy amount is 1.2 billion euros. There is no such measure for commercial vehicles owners.
Furthermore a public procurement program with 20 percent for the introduction of electric vehicles in public fleets
was set up. (Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie, 2017)
Table 1. Stock of electric vehicles in Germany (KBA, 2010-2017).

EV stock Stock Stock EV LDV Stock LDV up

Year passenger passenger Share EV up to 999 kg to 999 kg Share EV
cars (1.1.) cars (1.1.) payload payload

2010 1,588 41,737,627 0.004% 305 1,084,765 0.028%

2011 2,307 42,301,563 0.005% 525 1,097,322 0.048%
2012 4,541 42,927,647 0.011% 862 1,120,551 0.077%
2013 7,114 43,431,124 0.016% 1,793 1,133,119 0.158%
2014 12,156 43,851,230 0.028% 2,316 1,411,014 0.164%
2015 18,948 44,403,124 0.043% 2,946 1,485,234 0.198%
2016 25,502 45,071,209 0.057% 3,739 1,571,713 0.238%
2017 34,033 45,803,560 0.074% 5,950 1,664,868 0.357%

Despite the measures taken, the use of electric vehicles is still well below expectations in Germany. There are
insights that the number of one million electric vehicles on streets in Germany is very unlikely to reach. Still there
are several attempts taken to increase the use of electric vehicles. But most measures are focused on private use of
electric vehicles. Currently, the significance of electric mobility in commercial transport in Germany is reflected in
the registration figures for electric vehicles. On 1 January 2017, for trucks with a payload of up to 999 kg, electric
vehicles accounted for 0.357% (5,950 out of 1.66 million vehicles). This share is significantly lower for passenger
cars (0.074%, 34,022 out of 45.80 million cars) (KBA, 2010-2017) (see Table 1). Especially since 2016,
 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Stanislaw
Celebi, Kinga
IwanKijewska, Mette Hoé, Jens
et al. / Transportation Klauenberg,
Research Juergen
Procedia ZajicekAuthor
39 (2019) 112–123 name / Transportation
119
Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

Streetscooter has a not inconsiderable share on this. When it comes to the question in which areas electromobility
plays or could play a role, the commercial transport with light commercial vehicles is by no means negligible. For
private vehicle use, some long journeys over the year are one important reason against the purchase of electric
vehicles. The use patterns of light commercial vehicles are much more balanced over the whole year. Thus the use
of electric vehicles is much easier. From our point of view, registration numbers already reflect this. A repeatedly
cited example in the literature for this are parcel delivery vehicles.
Additional to this, commercial used vehicles have higher daily driving performance on average than private used
vehicles. Therefor the effect on the environment is even greater than the relations mentioned above. It should also be
noted that the share of registrations for commercial vehicles (55%, 01.01.2017) and the share of new registrations
(69%, 2016) is not insignificant for electric vehicles either. This is despite the fact that commercially registered
passenger cars account for only 10.5% of all registered passenger cars. Again, reference is made to the different
daily driving performance of private and commercial passenger cars. It is expected that by the year 2020 the number
of available electric vehicles in the light commercial vehicle category will steadily increase
There are several companies known in Germany which serve as good examples for the use of electric vehicles in
commercial transport. The German postal company DPDHL is one of the most citied examples for this. DPDHL
helped to develop the electric Streetscooter parcel delivery vehicle. In 2016 DPDHL bought the producing company
of the vehicles and deploys now more than 5,000 Streetscooter vehicles. But there are other examples as well: The
logistics service provider and transport company Meyer Logistik uses electric trucks to deliver grocery articles to
stores of Rewe and Lidl. (Lidl, 2014; Logistra, 2015). The forwarding company Dachser SE uses the electric trucks
FUSO eCanter for delivery of less-than-truckload shipments in their company forwarding network. (Dachser, 2017).
Electric Terberg trucks are used in different German demonstration projects. The same vehicle type is used by
BMW for inhouse transports (Bottler, 2017). Furthermore the forwarding company max Müller Spedition uses
electric E-Force One in test environments (Kfz-Anzeiger, 2018). Still all the described attempts to use electric trucks
and delivery vehicles have not been proven to be financial sustainable. It is necessary to further test and develop
electric trucks to have wider knowledge on the usability of electric vehicles in commercial transport.

3.4. Poland

So far, the EV market in Poland shows very low sales levels. Nevertheless, a distinct and steady growth can be
observed in the number of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids being sold in Poland. Most car manufacturers offer
electric or hybrid vehicles. At present, the main factor limiting the demand for such vehicles is the excessive prices.
Potential buyers also object to the insufficient travel range. Still, the basic problem in Poland is the fact that there are
no coordinated measures taken to promote e-mobility. Within the still insignificant number of brand-new electric
vehicles registered in Poland, a large percentage of them are produced by companies that do not merely adapt the
conventional vehicles to their electric versions, but also develop complete electric drive systems from scratch. One
of them is Instytut Napędów i Maszyn Elektrycznych (the Institute of Electirc Drives and Machines) KOMEL based
in Katowice (www.komel.katowice.pl). The fact of the very existence of such economic entities is a proof that there
is supportive environment for e-mobility development in Poland.
The current state of e-mobility in Poland resembles the one observed in Europe 5-6 years ago. Therefore, we
may expect that in the years to come, if sufficiently favourable conditions exist, the electric vehicles sales market in
Poland will improve dramatically. As for Polish customers’ preferences regarding the purchased electric vehicles
makes, they are similar to those in other European countries, however, Poles tend to purchase the less expensive
models. The most relevant parameters include: number of seats, travel range with full batteries, battery capacity, and
price, as these parameters are most often decisive in choosing a given type of vehicle.

3.5. Turkey

In Turkey, about two million of the total 22 million vehicles on the road are commercial. Light commercial
vehicles (also called “light trucks”) are significantly popular in Turkey with a share of 18% of the all vehicle stock.
This is mainly due to the deductions on vehicle sales tax for light commercial vehicles. For example, special
consumption tax for minivans are subject to a 4-15% compared to 45-145% for passenger cars (ACEA, 2017).
 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Celebi, Kinga Kijewska, Mette Hoé, Jens Klauenberg, Juergen ZajicekAuthor name / Transportation
120 Research Research
Stanislaw Iwan et al. / Transportation Procedia Procedia
00 (2018)39
000–000
(2019) 112–123 9

700 12%

Thousands
600 10%
9,6%
500
8%
400
6%
300
4%
200

100 1,9% 1,7% 2%

0 0,2% 0%
Automobiles Buses and Light trucks Medium and
Minibuses Heavy Trucks

2016 2017 Growth rate

Fig. 3. Commercial Vehicle stock, differentiated by vehicle type, in absolute numbers (TUİK, 2018).

There are about 60 thousand new commercial vehicles registered in Turkey every year. Light trucks accounts for
the majority of new registrations with an average of 13% annual growth rate in the last five years. The annual
vehicle stock growth rate for medium and heavy trucks is around 2-3 percent.
Diesel vehicles dominate the Turkish automotive market, accounting for 50% of the total vehicle stock. The
share of commercial vehicles which run on diesel fuel is around 75% and is expected to increase to 82% by 2021
(CVO, 2016). It is important to mention though that in Turkey a large portion of petrol cars are converted to run on
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) later on during their lifetime. About 21% of all vehicles currently on the road run on
LPG. The strong growth in diesel and LPG vehicles in recent years is most likely related to the fact that fuel taxes in
Turkey are amongst the highest in the world (GIZ, 2014), thereby providing a strong incentive for vehicles with
nominally low fuel consumption figures. Fig. 4. Development of vehicle stock by fuel type in Turkey (TUİK, 2018).

100
Share of vehicle stock

80
60
40
20
0
2004
2007
2010
2013
2016

Gasoline Diesel
LPG Unknown

Fig. 4. Development of vehicle stock by fuel type in Turkey (TUİK, 2018).

Turkish government offers significant tax incentives for lowering the up-front costs of electric vehicles. The
motor vehicle tax is zero for electric vehicles. The percentage of the excise tax depends on the motor size of the
vehicles. A comparison of the current excise tax rates for electric and gasoline vehicles is given in Table 2.
 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Celebi, Kinga Kijewska, Mette Hoé, Jens Klauenberg, Juergen ZajicekAuthor name / Transportation
Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

Stanislaw Iwan et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 39 (2019) 112–123 121

Table 2. Excise tax rates for electric and petrol fuelled vehicles in Turkey (ACEA,2017).
Electric Vehicles Gasoline/Diesel vehicles
Motor size Excise tax Motor size Excise tax
<85 kW 3% <1600cc 45%
85 – 120 kW 7% 1600-2000cc 90%
>120 kw 15% >2000cc 145%

Despite the significant tax advantages, the share of hybrid-electric or full electric vehicles do not constitute a
significant place in Turkey currently, with a market share of less than 0.4%.The number registrations of new
electric cars in 2017 is only 77, though small, this number corresponds to almost double the size of previous year’s
sales which was 44. The situation is relatively more positive in terms of charging stations, there are six companies
providing charging service for electric and hybrid vehicles in Turkey. As of 2017, total number of charging stations
all around Turkey is 1500, however currently only around 400 of those are open to public use and operating
actively.
The size of the commercial vehicle stock of electric vehicles in Turkey is unknown. Based on media declarations
and press releases disseminated by companies, we identified a total of 79 electric vehicles being used in urban
freight transportation operations. On the other hand, according to a survey conducted by CVO in 2016, both hybrid
and electric vehicles have been used or implemented by 5% of commercial fleet owners in Turkey. However, this
number does not give an idea about the electric or hybrid vehicle usage in commercial operations because the
proportion of the cars in the fleets are not recorded. Moreover, the percentages of the companies which are planning
to implement hybrid and electric vehicles in their fleets within three years are 17% and 20% respectively. This result
indicates a significant potential for uptake for both hybrid and electric vehicles for commercial use in Turkey.
Similarly, high growth rates in diesel and LPG vehicles in recent years is an indicator of high price elasticity of fuel,
particularly in commercial cars.
4 Conclusions
Today there is a limited electric freight vehicle supply and therefore high purchase prices, resulting in a negative
business case, especially for the operator of medium and large trucks > 5t. Operator makes a financial reservation
because of the uncertain depreciation rate of electric freight vehicles, mainly due to uncertain battery residual value.
Potential buyers wait for OEMs to produce cheaper and guaranteed off-the-shelf EFVs.
This and before mentioned reasons as lack of information and experience lead to low registration numbers of
electric vehicles in the countries analysed. Even if in some countries growing numbers can be seen, the reality is far
behind expectations.
Overall, cities will have 66% of the population in 2050. For freight insulated an expected increase in freight in
Index 200 in 2010 in 2050. Therefor policy measures combine with knowledge sharing is essential if uptake of
electric freight vehicles is to be reached. FREVUE survey results showed that at the beginning of the vehicle trials
only 39% of participating fleet managers thought electric vans and trucks were a viable alternative to their diesel
equivalents. At the end of the trial, this rate had nearly doubled: now 72% of fleet managers believed that electric
freight vehicles were a viable alternative (FREVUE… 2017). Organise demand volume also need to be handled
together with creating a market price perspective.

Acknowledgements

The paper has been prepared under the project EUFAL (Electric urban freight and logistics). Project EUFAL is co-
funded by the ERA-NET Cofund Electric Mobility Europe (EMEurope) and national funding organizations.
EMEurope is co-funded by the European Commission within the research and innovation framework programme
Horizon 2020 (Project No. 723977).
 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Celebi, Kinga Kijewska, Mette Hoé, Jens Klauenberg, Juergen ZajicekAuthor name / Transportation
122 Stanislaw Iwan et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 39 (2019) 112–123
Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 11

References

About Copenhagen Electric (2018) Copenhagen Electric, www.cph-electric.dk, accessed 13.03.2018.

ACEA Tax Guide 2017 – European Automobile Manufacturers' Association, www.acea.be, Accessed 31.08.2018.
Arena F., Spera D., Hoppe W.-D., Suzuki H., Kirstetter E. (2016) The future of diesel engines, Arthur D. Little Reports.
Berkeley N., Bailey D., Jones A., Jarvis D. (2017) Assessing the transition towards Battery Electric Vehicles: A Multi-Level Perspective on
drivers of, and barriers to, take up, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Volume 106, pp. 320-332.
BMVIT Austrian Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology (2018b), www.bmvit.gv.at/verkehr/elektromobilitaet/index.html.
Bottler, S. (2017) BMW prescht mit Elektro-Lkw weiter vor (BMW continues to push ahead with electric trucks)
http://www.dvz.de/rubriken/land/strasse/single-view/nachricht/bmw-prescht-mit-elektro-lkw-weiter-vor.html, Accessed 31.08.2018.
Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (2009) Deutschland soll Leitmarkt für Elektromobilität werden (Germany is to be leading market
for electric mobility). https://www.bmwi.de/DE/Presse/pressemitteilungen,did=309868.html Accessed 31.10.16
Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (2017), Innovationen in der Elektromobilität - IKT für Elektromobilität III: Einbindung von
gewerblichen Elektrofahrzeugen in Logistik­, Energie­ und Mobilitätsinfrastrukturen (Innovations in electromobility - ICT for electromobility
III: Integration of commercial electric vehicles in logistics, energy and mobility infrastructures) Project report
Coady D., Parry I., Sears L., Shang B. (2017) How Large Are Global Fossil Fuel Subsidies?, World Development, vol. 91, issue C, pp. 11-27.
CVO, 2016 – Corporate Vehicle Barometer: Turkey, Corporate Vehicle Observatory, https://www.corporate-vehicle-
observatory.com/figures/2017-cvo-barometer, Accessed 31.08.2018.
Dachser (2017) DACHSER liefert mit Elektro-Lkw (DACHSER supplies with electric trucks), Press Release,
www.mynewsdesk.com/de/dachser/pressreleases/dachser-liefert-mit-elektro-lkw-2334173, Accessed 31.08.2018.
Danish activities (2018) The Capital Region of Denmark, www.regionh.dk/english/traffic/electric%20cars/Pages/danischactivities.aspx, accessed
20.03.2018.
Danish Electric Vehicle Alliance (2018),
www.danskelbilalliance.dk/Viden%20om%20elbiler/Energispar/~/link.aspx?_id=52D338343669493F8F16BF586BDE75C5&_z=z, accessed
19.03.2018.
DeShazo J.R., Sheldon T. L., Carson R. T. (2017) Designing policy incentives for cleaner technologies: Lessons from California's plug-in electric
vehicle rebate program, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Volume 84, pp. 18-43.
Deutscher Bundestag (2014). Gesetz zur Bevorrechtigung der Verwendung elektrisch betriebener Fahrzeuge, Elektromobilitätsgesetz vom 5. Juni
2015 (Act to preempt the use of electric vehicles, electromobility law) (BGBl. I S. 898)
Die Bundesregierung (2009). Nationaler Entwicklungsplan Elektromobilität der Bundesregierung (National Electromobility Development Plan of
the Federal Government), Berlin.
Don't Miss the Bus: Electric Vehicles Promise Big Benefits (2017) UN Environment, www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/dont-miss-
bus-electric-vehicles-promise-big-benefits, accessed 20.03.2018.
Dudenhöffer, F., Bussmann, L., & Dudenhöffer, K. (2012). Elektromobilität braucht intelligente Förderung (Electromobility needs intelligent
promotion). Wirtschaftsdienst, 92, 4, 274-279.
Ea Energy Analyses (2015). Promotion of electric vehicles - EU incentives & measures seen in a Danish
contex,.ens.dk/sites/ens.dk/files/Transport/ens065.pdf, accessed 13.03.2018.
Electromobility in Austria - Facts & Figures (2018) BMVIT Austrian Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology & Statistik Austria &
Austriatech.
Energistyrelsen. (2018). Forsøgsordning for elbiler, ens.dk/ansvarsomraader/transport/alternative-drivmidler/forsoegsordning-elbiler, accessed
13.03.2018.
FREVUE Results and Guidance for Local Authorities 2017, frevue.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/FREVUE-Results-and-Recommendations-
for-Local-Authorities-v_09.pdf, accessed: 20.06.2018.
GIZ, 2014 – Die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, International Fuel Prices,
https://www.giz.de/expertise/downloads/giz-2015-en-ifp2014.pdf, Accessed 31.08.2018.
Gnann, T., Plötz, P., Kühn, A., & Wietschel, M. (2015). Modelling market diffusion of electric vehicles with real world driving data–German
market and policy options. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 77, 95-112.
GREAT (2017). Interim study report 2.0 - For the EU-project GREAT – Green Region for Electrification and Alternative fuels for Transport
“GREAT”. Region Skåne.
Inhabitants (2018) The Capital Region of Denmark, www.regionh.dk/om-region-hovedstaden/fakta/befolkning/Sider/Befolkning.aspx, accessed
13.03.2018.
Insero Quarlerly (2017). Insero quarlerly, Q4 2017 - Nordic electric vehicle market overview with the latest sales figures, infrastructure overview,
and the main market tendencies, gallery.mailchimp.com/344edaf31e9ab9074127eec99/files/c22181c5-e773-4fc0-b04c-
f0168580422a/Insero_Quarterly_2017_Q4.pdf, accessed 13.03.2018.
 Stanislaw Iwan, Juergen Allesch, Dilay Stanislaw
Celebi, Kinga
IwanKijewska, Mette Hoé, Jens
et al. / Transportation Klauenberg,
Research Juergen
Procedia ZajicekAuthor
39 (2019) 112–123 name / Transportation
123
Research Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

Insero Quarterly (2014). Insero quarterly, Q4 2014 - Nordic electric vehicle market overview with the latest sales figures, infrastructure overview
and the main market tendencies, insero.com/media/3032/insero-quarterly_feb2015_preview.pdf, accessed 19.03.2018.
Insero Quarterly (2016). Insero Quarterly, Q4 2016 - Nordic electric vehicle market overview with the latest sales figures, infrastructure overview
and the main market tendencies, insero.com/media/4031/iq-q4-wip-faerdig-pdf.pdf, accessed 19.03.2018.
Iwan S., Kijewska K., Kijewski D., Possibilities of Applying Electrically Powered Vehicles in Urban Freight Transport, Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 151, Elsevier 2014, Pages 87-101
Jeeninga H., van Arkel W.G., Volkers C.H. (2002) Performance and Acceptance of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Municipality of Rotterdam,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
KBA (2010-2017) Fahrzeugzulassungen (FZ) Bestand an Kraftfahrzeugen nach Umwelt-Merkmalen, FZ 13 (Vehicle registrations (FC) Stock of
motor vehicles according to environmental characteristics), Statistics by Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt (KBA)- Federal Motor Transport Authority
2010-2017
Kfz-Anzeiger (2018), Max Müller Spedition testet Elektro-LKW in Süddeutschland (Max Müller Spedition is testing electric trucks in southern
Germany), http://kfz-anzeiger.com/logistik-verkehr/max-mueller-spedition-testet-elektro-lkw-in-sueddeutschland, Accessed 31.08.2018.
Lidl (2014) Lidl fährt grün: Elektro-LKW geht in Deutschland an den Start (Lidl drives green: electric truck goes in Germany at the start)
http://www.lidl.de/de/lidl-faehrt-gruen-elektro-lkw-geht-in-deutschland-an-den-start/s7372477, Accessed 31.08.2018.
Logistra (2015), Elektro-Lkw bei Meyer Logistik: Der flüsterleise Hoffnungsträger (Electric trucks at Meyer Logistik: The whisper-quiet bearer
of hope) http://www.logistra.de/fachmagazin/nfz-fuhrpark-lagerlogistik-intralogistik/fachartikel-city-check/7160/elektro-lkw-bei-meyer-
logistik-der-fluesterleis, Accessed 31.08.2018.
Luken R. A. (2007) Environment and Industry in Developing Countries: Assessing the Adoption of Environmentally Sound Technology, Edward
Elgar Publishing.
Macias J., Aguilar A., Schmid G., Francke E. (2013) Global Fuel Economy Initiative, Policy Handbook for the Regulation of Imported Second-
Hand Vehicles.
Nolz, P., Hu, B., Koller, H., Reinthaler, M. (2017). Expresszustellungen von Lebensmitteln mit Lastenfahrrädern, Jahrbuch der Logistikforschung,
ISBN 978-3-99062-175-2, 179-187.
Ockwell D. G., Watson J., MacKerron G., Pal P., Yamin F. (2008) Key policy considerations for facilitating low carbon technology transfer to
developing countries, Energy Policy, Volume 36, Issue 11, pp. 4104-4115.
Pandey R. (2002) Energy policy modelling: agenda for developing countries, Energy Policy, Volume 30, Issue 2, pp. 97-106.
Statistics Denmark. (2018). Befolkningsfremskrivning (inhabitant estimate), www.dst.dk/da/Statistik/emner/befolkning-og-valg/befolkning-og-
befolkningsfremskrivning/befolkningsfremskrivning, accessed 13.03.2018.
Steinhilber S., Wells P., Thankappan S. (2013) Socio-technical inertia: Understanding the barriers to electric vehicles, Energy Policy, Volume 60.
V2E Final report (2017), Fremsyn, the Capital Region of Denmark, www.regionh.dk/til-fagfolk/trafik/elbiler/Documents/V2E%20Slutrapport.pdf,
accessed 19.03.2018.
Vernon R. (1992) International Investment and International Product Life Cycle, In Economic Theory, Econometrics, and Mathematical
Economics [in] ed. John M. Letiche, International Economic Policies and their Theoretical Foundations (Second Edition), Academic Press,
Boston, 1992, pp. 415-435.
Wątróbski, J.; Małecki, K.; Kijewska, K.; Iwan, S.; Karczmarczyk, A.; Thompson, R.G. (2017) Multi-Criteria Analysis of Electric Vans for City
Logistics. Sustainability, 9, 1453
www.komel.katowice.pl, available 20.04.2018.
Zhang X., Xie J., Rao R., Liang Y. (2014) Policy Incentives for the Adoption of Electric Vehicles across Countries, Sustainability, 6(11), pp.
8056-8078.