1 Article

2 Engineering parameters of rice straw concrete with

3 granulated blast furnace slag
4 Taha Ashour 1, Mohamad Morsy 2, Azra Korjenic 3, Henriette Fischer 3*, Eldira Sesto3, Mervat
5 Khalil 4, Mohammed Orabi 5, Ibrahim Yehia 5
6 1 Agriculture Engineering Department, Faculty of Agriculture at Moshtohor, Benha University, Egypt;
7 taha.ashour@fagr.bu.edu.eg
8 2 Agriculture Engineering Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria University, Egypt;

9 minasr2003@yahoo.com
10 3 Vienna University of Technology, Institute of Material Technology, Building Physics and Building Ecology,

11 Research Unit of Ecological Building Technologies, Karlsplatz 13/207-03, A-1040 Vienna, Austria;
12 azra.korjenic@tuwien.ac.at, henriette.fischer@tuwien.ac.at, eldira.sesto@tuwien.ac.at
13 4 Institute of building physics and environment, National research center of housing and buildings, Cairo,

14 Egypt; marvat.hassan.khalil@gmail.com
15 5 Agricultural Engineering Institute, Dokki. Giza, Egypt; orabi50@yahoo.com

16 * Correspondence: henriette.fischer@tuwien.ac.at; Tel.: +43 1 58801 207328

17
18
19 Received: date; Accepted: date; Published: date

20 Abstract: The construction industry is responsible for a large amount of carbon dioxide emissions
21 caused by using building materials with a high percentage of embodied energy and embodied
22 carbon. One approach to reduce embodied carbon includes the use of building materials totally or
23 partly made of renewable resources. In this research project untreated and chemically pretreated
24 rice straw particles were added to an ecologically optimized concrete. First mechanical experiments
25 were carried out on different mortar mixtures based on blast furnace slag and Portland cement. An
26 optical analysis of the concrete with a scanning electron microscope indicated that treating rice straw
27 with 1 % NaOH indicates a good bond between rice straw fibers and the surrounding matrix. The
28 mechanical and physical testing of the designed concrete showed that the flexural strength of the
29 rice straw concrete has been increased by increasing the straw content up to 3 %. The tests in which
30 the rice straw was treated with NaOH achieved a higher density and strength than tests with
31 untreated straw fibers. The bricks containing 9 % straw particles show suitable characteristics as an
32 application for load bearing walls. Rice straw concrete with granulated blast furnace slag has a great
33 potential as an ecologically optimized construction material.

34 Keywords: rice straw concrete; straw particles; fibers; mechanical properties; cement-based
35 composites
36

37 1. Introduction
38 To develop a sustainable future for all people, changes must be implemented in all industrial
39 sectors. The construction industry in particular is responsible for a large percentage of resource
40 consumption, grey energy and emissions [1]. Emissions and required energy caused by buildings can
41 be divided in two different parts: on the one hand operational energy, which includes heating,
42 cooling and electricity and on the other hand embodied energy, which includes the production,
43 transport and disposal of building materials [2]. In the last decades a lot of projects focused on the
44 development regarding operational energy, but recent studies show that it is very important to

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 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 14

45 reduce embodied energy as well. This is possible with the use of building materials based on
46 renewable resources.
47 Fibers from renewable resources represent a potential alternative to many synthetic materials
48 and at the same time open up a diverse market for the further utilization of by-products from
49 agriculture and the timber industry. Plant-based natural fibers, which can be found in many different
50 countries and are a low cost renewable alternative for conventional fibers used in composites,
51 predominantly have much lower emissions in production and processing [3]. An industrial interest
52 also lies in the use of agricultural residues, since a sustainable cascade use of raw materials is
53 becoming increasingly important with the higher use of renewable raw materials.
54 The use of agricultural residues reduces the environmental impact and the cost of cement-based
55 composites. Resulting material mixes however often yield only limited mechanical performance and
56 are more sensitive to moisture than conventional cementitious building products [4]. Many different
57 natural fibers were investigated in several research projects over the last years [3]. To increase
58 adhesion between wheat straw and cement, chemical pretreatment of the fibers with sodium
59 hydroxide has been proven successful [4].
60 In this study an ecologically optimized concrete with blast furnace slag is created, to which
61 untreated or pretreated rice straw is added. Blast furnace slag is an industrial by-product that until
62 recently was disposed of in landfills, but is now increasingly being used as an additive in the
63 production of building materials such as cement. After it is granulated, blast furnace slag can partially
64 replace cement in the concrete mix. Since 2006, EN 15167 "Blast furnace slag for use in concrete,
65 mortar and grout" has been a harmonized European material standard for using granulated blast
66 furnace slag in concrete mixes.
67 The main goal of this project was:
68 • to find an ecological optimized concrete recipe that can be used as the basis for the rice straw
69 concrete
70 • to investigate the effect of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) treatment on the characterization of
71 rice straw
72 • to investigate the physical and mechanical properties of the developed rice straw concrete.

73 2. Materials and Methods

74 First an ecologically optimized concrete was created, that was used as a basis for the further
75 investigations with the untreated and pretreated rice straw particles. Before the concrete recipe was
76 designed, several experiments for investigating a suitable mortar were made.

77 2.1 Materials
78 The investigated concrete mixtures are composed of cement, water, fillers, sand, aggregates,
79 additives and rice straw. The properties of the materials used are characterized as follows. Local tap
80 water with a pH value of 7.0 was used. Natural river sand with 100 % sieve passage on sieve no. 3/8
81 and at least 80 % sieve passage on sieve no. 4 were used. The crushed aggregate used had a retention
82 capacity of at least 20 % on sieve no. 4.
83 The binders used are Portland cement, gypsum and blast furnace slag, each mixed with varying
84 proportions of limestone powder and silica fume. CEM I 52.5N was used as Portland cement (OPC)
85 according to Egyptian standard ES 4756 and European standard EN 197. The oxide compositions of
86 the cement used are shown in Table 1. The Silica fume powder (SF), which meets the requirements of
87 ASTM C 1240 contained an average of 92.85 % SiO2. Granulated blast furnace slag (GBFC) was
88 grinded to a size of 0.15 - 0.20 mm. Local limestone powder CaCO3 (LS) retained on sieve no. 200
89 with a specific weight of 2.61 kg/cm³.

90 Table 1. Chemical compositions of the binder materials

Oxides OPC (%) GBFS (%) SF (%) LS (%) G (%)

SiO2 19,6 35,55 92,85 1,34 0,23
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Al2O3 4,89 11,53 - 0,69 0,08

Fe2O3 2,62 0,39 - 0,12 0,05
CaO 63,07 36,42 - 55,13 32,70
MgO 2,03 6,70 - 0,13 0,46
SO3 3,9 1,31 - - 43,68
Na2O 0,18 0,12 - - 0,03
K2O 0,85 0,14 - - -
91
92 To improve the workability of fresh concrete, a commercially available superplasticizer
93 according to ASTM C 494 was used as type G. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in flakes or pellets with a
94 purity of 97 % - 98 % was dissolved in water to produce a 1 % lye. This lye was used to treat the rice
95 straw particles to reduce their inhibitory effect on cement hydration.
96 Fig. 1 shows the local Egyptian rice straw, on the left side it is untreated and on the right side it
97 is pretreated with the NaOH lye.
98

(a) (b)
99 Figure 1. Local Egyptian rice straw: (a) untreated rice straw; (b) pretreated rice straw with 1% NaOH
100 lye

101 2.1 Examined mortar mixtures

102 Table 2 shows the investigated mortar mixes. The indicated weight of the materials refers to the
103 dry weight. OPC was replaced in varying proportions by LS, SF, G and GBFC. The amount of sand
104 and water remained the same in all tests. A control test specimen consists exclusively of OPC, sand
105 and water. The mixtures differ in the different addition of GBFS, which replaces the OPC. The OPC
106 GBFC binders were mixed with sand in a weight ratio of 1:3. The respective materials were mixed
107 together to form a homogeneous mixture, then water was added. Afterwards, the mixture was mixed
108 further for two minutes until a paste with the required workability was obtained. This was filled into
109 a cubic form with a side length of 50 mm according to ASTM C 109, covered with a cling film to
110 prevent moisture evaporation and cured for 24 hours at room temperature. After 24 hours, the
111 specimens were demolded and stored under water at 25 °C in the laboratory until the time of testing.

112 Table 2. Mortar recipes

SF (g) GBFS (g) G (g) Sand Water

OPC (g) LS (g)
(g) (g)
Control 200 0 0 0 0 600 80
10% GBFS 140 10 20 20 10 600 80
20% GBFS 120 10 20 40 10 600 80
30% GBFS 100 10 20 60 10 600 80
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40% GBFS 80 10 20 80 10 600 80

113

114 2.2 The effect of chemical pretreatment on morphological and structural surface of rice straw
115 A scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used in order to find out how the chemical
116 pretreatment affects the morphology and structure of the rice straw particles. Observing the surface
117 morphology of the straw, it provides information on the degree of interfacial adhesion between the
118 rice straw fiber and the matrix.
119 According to ASTM D1109 – 84 (Standard Test Method for 1 % Sodium Hydroxide Solubility of
120 Wood) [5] , the treated rice straw was prepared by soaking it in a 1 % sodium hydroxide solution for
121 24 hours and afterwards filtering it through a 2 mm sieve. The ratio between rice straw and soaking
122 solution was 1:10 by weight. After filtration, the rice straw was washed with tap water until the
123 washing water became clear. The pretreated rice straw was dried in an oven at 105 ± 2°C and packed
124 in polyethylene bags. The straw particles were chopped to 1- 30 mm.

125 2.3 The influence of pretreated rice straw on the physical and mechanical properties of rice straw concrete

126 2.3.1 Concrete design

127 The concrete mix was designed according to the standard BS5328. part2 [6] to make a M-25 grade
128 of concrete. Normal-density aggregates were used, the unit weight of concrete was assumed to be
129 2400 kg/m³. The aggregate was chosen to represent 77 % of the mass. The aggregrates have been
130 selected so that they correspond to the standard grading curves. For instance, the coarse aggregates
131 (65 %) comprise 590 kg/m3 (50 %) of 20 mm aggregates, 590 kg/m3 (50 %) of 10 mm aggregates, and
132 650 kg/m³ (35 %) of fine aggregate, according to the standard grading curves. The water-binding
133 material ratio is defined as 0,55. The mass of binding material amounts 370 kg/m³, the mass of the
134 used water amounts 200 kg/m³.
135 The second step was to design the rice straw content. Since no code provision is available for a
136 concrete mixture with rice straw, the M-25 mix was defined as a control sample for the other rice
137 straw concrete mixes. Ten different rice straw concrete mixtures were obtained by replacing the OPC
138 with different weight percentage of untreated and treated (1% NaOH solution) rice straw particles,
139 namely, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 %. The different recipes of the M-25 concrete with untreated and treated
140 rice straw particles are presented in Table 3.

141 Table 3. Recipes of concrete mixtures

Rice Treat- Fine 20 10 Water

No. OPC LS SF GBFS G straw ment agg. mm mm (g) SP
agg. agg.
T1 350 0 0 0 0 0 No 650 590 590 200 2,5
T2 164,5 17,5 35 105 17,5 10,5 No 650 590 590 200 2,6
T3 154 17,5 35 105 17,5 21 No 650 590 590 200 2,7
T4 143,5 17,5 35 105 17,5 31,5 No 650 590 590 200 2,8
T5 133 17,5 35 105 17,5 42 No 650 590 590 200 2,9
T6 122,5 17,5 35 105 17,5 52,5 No 650 590 590 200 3,0
T7 164,5 17,5 35 105 17,5 10,5 Yes 650 590 590 200 2,6
T8 154 17,5 35 105 17,5 21 Yes 650 590 590 200 2,7
T9 143,5 17,5 35 105 17,5 31,5 Yes 650 590 590 200 2,8
T10 133 17,5 35 105 17,5 42 Yes 650 590 590 200 2,9
T11 122,5 17,5 35 105 17,5 52,5 Yes 650 590 590 200 3,0
142

143 2.3.2 Preparation of the test samples

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144 The materials for the concrete mixtures were first weighed and mixed in a dry state for 3 to 4
145 minutes. Water and superplasticizer were then added to the dry mixture to improve the processing
146 properties. Mixing was continued for about 6 to 8 minutes and the fresh concrete was divided into
147 two identical test specimens.
148 The first part was used to measure the fresh concrete properties, the second part was placed in
149 different steel moulds, compacted and covered with a diffusion-proof foil. After 24 hours, the
150 specimens were demoulded and stored in water at 25 °C in the laboratory until the time of testing.

151 2.3.3 Test procedure

152 The fresh concrete was tested according to ASTM C231-03 [7]. The hardened concrete was tested
153 according to BS 1881:Part 114 [8].
154 The porosity was calculated after 28 days using the following equation:
155
P = {(wa-wd)/(wa-ww)} * 100 (1)
156
157 Where: P: Saturated porosity, %, wa: Sample weight of the saturated sample in air, g., wd: Dry
158 weight of the sample after 24 h in the oven at 105 ± 5ºC, g., ww: Sample weight in water, g.
159
160 This method was used for the measurement of the porosity of cement-based materials according
161 to [9]–[11].
162 The compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strength as well as the thermal conductivity were
163 measured in accordance to BS 1881.Part 108 [12], ASTM C 496 [13], ASTM C 293 [14] and ASTM
164 C 1113-99 [15] respectively, using a universal testing machine. Cube specimens with dimensions of
165 150 mm for concrete and 50 mm for mortar were used to measure the compressive strength. The
166 splitting tensile strength was measured with a cylindrical specimen of 150 mm diameter and 300 mm
167 height. The flexural strength was also carried out on a prism sample with dimensions of 100 × 100 ×
168 400 mm. The compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strength tests were carried out after 28 days.
169 Three specimens were tested for each material property.

170 3. Results

171 3.1. Morphological and structural surface of rice straw particles

172 It was expected that the surface morphology of untreated straw fibers would differ from the
173 surface morphology of treated straw fibers in terms of smoothness and roughness. The SEM images
174 of untreated fibers in Fig. 2a showed that the initial condition of rice straw has a regular and compact
175 surface structure. In addition, the surface is covered with a layer of oils, waxes and extracts, which
176 are part of the natural constitution of the lignocellulose fiber. This layer was also detected by [16],
177 [17] in the analysis of untreated coconut fiber, sugar cane bagasse and brown coconut fiber. The
178 micrographs in Fig. 2b show the treatment of straw fibres with NaOH, which produced a rough
179 surface. According to Troedec et al. [18], treatment with NaOH removes the extractives, waxes, oils
180 and amorphous components such as hemicellulose and lignin from the fiber surface, thus increasing
181 the overall roughness of the surface. With the removal of these substances, the presence of
182 parenchyma cells, which are the natural component of lignocellulose fibers, as well as the presence
183 of spherical protuberances, which are fat deposits known as "tyloses", could be detected [19].
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

184 Fig.2. SEM micrographs of rice straw fiber surface of: (a) untreated fiber; (b) NaOH treated fiber.

185

186 3.2 Influence of blast furnace slag on the compressive strength

187 The results of the tests on the compressive strength of OPC and OPC with 10, 20, 30 and 40 %
188 GBFS mixtures after 3, 7 and 28 days are shown in Fig. 3. All mixtures showed a continuous increase
189 in compressive strength with increasing curing time. The diagram also illustrates that all mixtures
190 containing up to 20 % GBFS showed higher compressive strength values than the control sample. The
191 samples with more than 30 % GBFS showed a decrease in compressive strength. The maximum
192 compressive strength of 61 MPa was achieved after 28 days using a GBFS content of 10 %. The
193 minimum compressive strength of 13.3 MPa was achieved using a GBFS content of 40 % after 3 days.
194 After 28 days the compressive strength values of 39, 52.5, 58.9 and 61 MPa were achieved using the
195 mix with GPFS rations of 40 %, 30 % and 20 % respectively. In addition, no significant difference
196 between the compressive strength of the GBFS-OPC sample (52.5 MPa) and OPC sample (55 MPa) at
197 a GBFS content of 30 % was observed. Therefore, a GBFS-OPC mixture with a GBFS content of 30 %
198 was chosen for the next part of the investigation. The developed strength of mixtures with a GBFS
199 replacement content of up to 20 % could be possible due to the following combined reasons:
200 • Better strength, which was observed due to the presence of more silica in the GBFS OPC
201 mortar as a result of the replacement of OPC by SF and GBFS (see Table 2), which
202 improved the pozzolanic reaction and resulted in the development of more calcium
203 silicate hydrate (CSH) than OPC mortar [20];
204 • the chemical cross-linking effect of binary or ternary mixtures of pozzolans with OPC
205 and gypsum [21];
206 • the grinding effect of materials, which leads to an increase in surface area and to the
207 reinforcement of cavities between OPC particles because part of the OPC is replaced by
208 limestone powder [22]. Finally, the reduction in strength of GBFS OPC mortars may be
209 due to the lack of availability of calcium hydroxide for the pozzolanic reaction of GBFS
210 and SF.
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

211
212 Fig.3. Compressive strengths of different GBFS contents after 3, 7 and 28 days

213 3.3 Influence of the rice straw content and its chemical pretreatment on the properties of the mortar mixture

214 3.3.1 Air content

215 The results illustrated in Fig. 4 clearly show that the addition of straw particles increases the air
216 content. The values vary from 1.5 % for the control sample to 14 % for concrete with untreated straw
217 fibers. The compaction of concrete with straw fibers becomes difficult at high contents, as air voids
218 are inserted. The addition of treated rice straw fibers increases the workability compared to untreated
219 rice straw fibers, which explains the lower air content. However, it must be emphasized that the air
220 content depends on many variables, such as the mixing process, composition, grain size distribution,
221 physical and chemical properties of the cement used and many other complex parameters [23].

16
14
14
12
12
Untreated 10,5
y = 0.796x + 1.661
10 8,9 9
R² = 0.992
Air content [%]

7,8
8 6,7
5,5 Treated
6
4,2 y = 0.684x + 1.381
3,3 R² = 0.992
4
1,5
2

0
0 3 6 9 12 15
Straw content [%]

Un treated NaOH treated

222
223 Fig. 4. Air content at different rice straw contents

224 3.3.2 Dry weight

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225 The dry unit weights of untreated and pretreated rice straw GBFS-OPC concrete with different
226 straw contents are shown in Fig. 5. The values for the dry weight units decrease from 2243 kg/m³ for
227 the control mix to 1444 and 1320 kg/m³ for concrete mixes containing 15 % pretreated and untreated
228 straw fibers respectively. These values correspond to reductions of up to approximately 35.6 for
229 treated and 41 % and untreated straw particles respectively. In general, the higher the straw content,
230 the lower the composite density. This is a common phenomenon with wood-cement composites, as
231 wood particles generally have lower bulk densities than cement. As shown in Fig. 5, the treated straw
232 particles produced are relatively denser composites than the untreated particles. A possible reason
233 for this is that pretreated particles are likely to bond better to the cement matrix (with a tiny particle
234 size) than larger particles for untreated straw, minimizing the presence of air voids [21]. The Egyptian
235 standard specification No 1349-1991 for cementitious sandstones states that the dry density is 2 g/cm³.
236 Based on this value, an investigated rice straw content of 0 – 9 % is acceptable for cementitious
237 sandstones.

2300

2100
Untreated
Unit weight [kg/m3]

1900 y = -56.93x + 2105.

R² = 0.923
1700

1500

1300 Treated
y = -49.21x + 2138.
1100 R² = 0.942

900
0 3 6 9 12 15
Straw content [%]
Un treated NaOH treated
238
239 Fig. 5. Dry unit weights of different rice straw contents

240 3.3.3 Porosity

241 The correlation between the porosity of the tested material samples and the straw content is
242 shown in Fig.6. In general, the porosity of the material increases when the straw content is increased.
243 Overall, the porosity varies between 13.7 % at 0 % straw content by weight and 32.05 % at 15 %
244 untreated straw content.
245 The addition of a certain amount of straw fibers (up to 20 %) leads to an accumulation of voids,
246 especially when untreated straw particles are used. This effect offers the possibility to reduce the
247 composite compressive strength. A regression analysis was carried out to determine the relationship
248 between straw content and porosity, as shown in Fig. 6.
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

40
Untreated
35 y = 1.288x + 17.10
R² = 0.909
30

25
Porosity, %

20
Treated
15 y = 1.059x + 13.90
R² = 0.989
10

0
0 3 6 9 12 15
Straw content,%
Un treated NaOH treated
249
250 Fig. 6. Porosity at different rice straw contents

251 3.3.4 Compression strength

252 Fig. 7 shows the compressive strength of the concrete in relation to the straw fiber content and
253 treatment over a period of 28 days. The results show that the compressive strength decreases with
254 increasing straw fiber content. The compressive strength of the untreated straw concrete was also
255 lower than the strength of the treated straw concrete at the same straw content. The compressive
256 strength value for the reference concrete decreased from 32 MPa to 3.44 for untreated and 3.7 for
257 treated straw concrete, respectively, at 15% straw content. This corresponds to an 89 % and 88 %
258 decrease in compressive strength for untreated and treated straw concrete at 15 % straw content. The
259 compressive strength values are in the range of the values given by [21] for composite materials
260 containing straw particles. A plausible explanation for this phenomenon was provided by [36], which
261 describes the influence of the presence of different fibers on the compressive strength in cement-like
262 materials. The strength properties of cement-based materials are influenced by porosity. At low
263 inclusion levels (0.5-1.0 % by volume) fibers improve compressive strength by resisting crack growth.
264 However, a higher fiber content increases the porosity of the composite material and leads to a loss
265 of compressive strength. Other possible reasons for an increase in porosity at higher straw contents
266 are higher water input and poor compaction [24]. The decrease in compressive strength is also
267 attributed to the physical properties of the straw particles, as they are less rigid than the cement
268 matrix. Under load, cracks are initiated around the particles, which accelerate the failure of the
269 cement matrix.
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

35

30
Compressive strength [MPa]

25

Treated
20
y = 0.093x2 - 3.253x + 31.50
R² = 0.975
15

10
Untreated
5 y = 0.118x2 - 3.534x + 30.49
R² = 0.951
0
0 3 6 9 12 15
Straw Content [%]
Un treated NaOH treated
270
271 Fig. 7. Compressive strength of different rice straw contents

272 On the other hand, the relationship between the compressive strength of concrete made from
273 rice straw slag and the straw content is closely related to the cement composites made from cotton
274 straw produced by [25]. According to the Egyptian standard, specification number 1349 – 1991 states
275 that the compressive strength of cementitious sandstones should not be less than 7 MPa for load-
276 bearing and not less than 2.5 MPa for non-load-bearing stones. Due to this fact, the cement specimens
277 made of rice straw with up to 9 % straw content are suitable for load-bearing structures.

278 3.3.5 Splitting tensile strength

279 Fig. 8 shows the effect of rice-straw on the splitting tensile strength of hardened concrete over
280 the time period of 28 days. The results show that it decreases by increasing the rice straw percentage,
281 for both treated and untreated rice-straw samples. The splitting tensile strength ranges of 2.65 – 1.17
282 for treated and 2.52 – 1.03 MPa for untreated rice straw were obtained by using a concrete mix with
283 a rice straw content of 3 – 15 %, respectively. The control sample obtained a splitting tensile strength
284 of 2.78 MPa.
285
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3,5

3
Spiltting strength [MPa]

Treated
2,5
y = -0.118x + 2.898
R² = 0.973
2

1,5

1 Untreated
y = -0.122x + 2.803
0,5 R² = 0.993

0
0 3 6 9 12 15
Straw content [%]
Un treated NaOH treated
286
287 Fig.8. Splitting tensile strength at different percentages of rice straw.

288 3.3.6 Flexural Strength

289 The flexural strength is shown in Fig. 9. The results show that the flexural strength ranges of 6.49
290 – 1.66 for pretreated and 5.98 – 1.41 MPa for untreated rice straw were obtained by using concrete
291 mixtures with a straw content of 3 – 15 %. The control specimen obtained a flexural strength of 5.9
292 MPa.
293 According to the Egyptian standard, specification number 1349 – 1991 states that the flexural
294 strength should not be less than 3 MPa. Due to this fact, the cement specimens made of rice straw
295 with up to 9 % straw content are suitable.
7

Treated
Flexural strength [MPa]

5
y = -0.015x2 - 0.096x + 6.316
R² = 0.931
4

2
Untreated
y = -0.011x2 - 0.171x + 6.217
1 R² = 0.940

0
0 3 6 9 12 15
Straw content [%]
Un treated NaOH treated
296
297 Fig. 9. Flexural strength at different percentages of rice straw.
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

298
299

300 3.3.6 Microscopic morphological fracture surface

301 Fig. 10. shows the microscopic morphological fracture surface between untreated and treated
302 rice straw and concrete at 15 % rice straw content. A gap between untreated straw and the rest of the
303 material mix is visible, which indicates a defective bond. This may be due to the fact that the alkaline
304 properties of rice straw impair the hydration phase of the cement. The more untreated rice straw was
305 added, the greater the impairment to the hydration phase and the worse the bonding of the different
306 composites. Due to the removal of the alkaline surfaces by the lye, no gap is visible between treated
307 rice straw and the rest of the material mixture. Therefore, SEM pictures verify the hypothesis that the
308 degree of bonding between the rice straw and the concrete mix is increased when rice straw is treated
309 with an NaOH solution.

310 Fig.10. Optical microscopic morphology of concrete fracture surface at 15 %wt rice straw: (a) un-treat
311 straw, and (b) NaOH treated straw.

312 4. Discussion
313 The carried out experimental studies determine the physical and mechanical properties of rice
314 straw concrete. The use of rice straw fibers as aggregate in concrete minimizes weight and
315 compressive and splitting tensile strength. The porosity increases with the additional use of straw
316 fibers. The flexural strength of rice straw concrete has been increased by increasing the straw content
317 up to 3%. The mechanical tests in which the rice straw was treated with NaOH achieved a higher
318 density and strength than tests with untreated straw fibers. The degree of bonding between the rice
319 straw and the concrete mix is increased when rice straw is treated with an NaOH solution. The
320 specimens containing 9 % straw particles show great potential in the application for load bearing
321 structures. Overall, it could be shown that rice straw concrete is a potential ecologically optimized
322 building material.
323
324 Author Contributions: T.A.: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, writing original draft preparation;
325 M.M.: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, writing original draft preparation; M.K.:
326 Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, supervision; M.O.: Conceptualization, investigation,
327 methodology, writing original draft preparation; I.Y.: Methodology, editing, supervision; H.F..: extension of the
328 research idea; rewriting the manuscript, correcting English language and managing the manuscript; E.S.:
329 correcting English language; A.K.: head of team; support in sharpening the research idea;

330 Funding: This research received no external funding.

331 Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the Open Access Funding by TU Wien.
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 14

332 Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
333 study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
334 publish the results.

335

336 References

337 [1] I. E. Agency, 2019 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction. Towards a zero-emisisions, efficient and
338 resilient buildings and construction sector. 2019.

339 [2] F. Pomponi and A. Moncaster, “Scrutinising embodied carbon in buildings: The next performance gap
340 made manifest,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 81, no. May 2017, pp. 2431–2442, 2018.

341 [3] O. Onuaguluchi and N. Banthia, “Plant-based natural fibre reinforced cement composites: A review,”
342 Cem. Concr. Compos., vol. 68, pp. 96–108, 2016.

343 [4] J. V. F. Silva et al., “Characterization of composite formed by cement and wheat straw treated with
344 sodium hydroxide,” BioResources, vol. 14, no. 2, 2019.

345 [5] American Society for Testing and Material;, Standard Test Method for 1% Sodium Hydroxide Solubility of
346 Wood.

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