Principles of Abdominal Wall Closure

19/5/2020 Principles of abdominal wall closure - UpToDate
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Principles of abdominal wall closure

Author: Jason S Mizell, MD, FACS
Section Editor: Michael Rosen, MD
Deputy Editor: Wenliang Chen, MD, PhD
All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete.
Literature review current through: Apr 2020. | This topic last updated: Dec 19, 2018.
INTRODUCTION
The ideal abdominal wound closure provides strength and a barrier to infection. In addition, the
closure should be efficient, performed without tension or ischemia, comfortable for the patient, and
aesthetic.
Closure of abdominal incisions will be reviewed here. Incisions for opening the abdomen, wound
healing, and wound complications are discussed separately. (See "Incisions for open abdominal
surgery" and "Complications of abdominal surgical incisions".)
MATERIALS
Sutures — Wounds have less than 5 percent of normal tissue strength during the first
postoperative week; thus, wound security is dependent solely upon the suture closure. (See
"Closure of minor skin wounds with sutures" and "Closure of minor skin wounds with sutures",
section on 'Suture materials'.)
Size — The suture should be the smallest caliber that is strong enough to reapproximate the
tissue and keep the wound intact during normal postoperative activity [1]. Suture caliber is one
factor in minimizing the amount of foreign material in the wound.
Synthetic versus natural — A critical element of effective closure is the choice of suture
material. Sutures can be made from natural fibers or produced synthetically. Natural suture
materials include silk, linen, and catgut (dried and treated bovine or ovine intestine). Synthetic
sutures are made from a variety of textiles such as nylon or polyester, formulated specifically for
surgical use.
Advantages of synthetic suture over natural fibers include:

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● Greater uniformity
● Greater tensile strength
● Longer duration of support during wound healing
● Greater wound security
● Less inflammatory response [2,3]
● Less theoretical risk of disease transmission from animals (eg, bovine spongiform
encephalopathy)
Absorbable versus nonabsorbable — Synthetic and natural sutures can be either absorbable
or nonabsorbable. Each have characteristics that make them appropriate in various
circumstances, depending on the circumstance.
Synthetic absorbable sutures are made from polyglycolic acid or other glycolide polymers and are
generally degraded within days to weeks, although delayed absorbable suture may retain strength
for up to two months (table 1 and table 2). They generally produce less tissue reaction than
natural absorbable sutures (eg, plain gut, chromic catgut), which is thought to be due to the nature
of suture breakdown. Synthetic absorbable sutures are broken down by hydrolysis, whereas
natural absorbable sutures are degraded by proteolysis.
Common types of synthetic absorbable sutures and their in-vivo half-lives are listed below [4]:
● Polyglactin 910 (Vicryl) – Two weeks

● Polyglycolic acid (Dexon) – Two weeks
● Poliglecaprone (Monocryl) – Two weeks
● Polydioxanone (PDS) – Three weeks
● Polyglyconate (Maxon) – Six weeks
Nonabsorbable suture typically maintains tensile strength for more than two months, and many
synthetics remain in the incision permanently. In theory, nonabsorbable sutures made of natural
fibers, such as cotton, linen, and silk, remain permanently in the wound, although, in reality, they
gradually disappear.
Synthetic nonabsorbable sutures generate similar tensile strength and tissue reaction as synthetic
absorbable sutures, but they have longer wound security (300 days or more). Some examples of
this type of suture include polyamide (Nylon), polypropylene (Prolene), polybutester (Novafil), and
polyester (Mersilene).
As a result of their increased and prolonged tensile strength, it might be predicted that
nonabsorbable sutures should decrease the risk of wound dehiscence and hernia, as compared
with absorbable sutures. However, the superiority of nonabsorbable sutures has not been
consistently found in meta-analyses of randomized trials for midline closure [5-7]. Nonabsorbable
sutures are associated with an increased risk of suture sinus and prolonged wound pain compared

with synthetic absorbable suture (odds ratio [OR] 2.18, 95% CI 1.48-3.22; OR 2.05, 95% CI 1.52-
2.77, respectively) [5]. (See 'Midline' below and 'Knots' below.)
Monofilament versus multifilament — Another important characteristic of suture that

determines its behavior is whether it is monofilament or multifilament. Synthetic nonabsorbable
monofilament sutures (eg, polyamide and polypropylene) are more resistant to serious infection
than are multifilament sutures and natural fibers. Thus, the composition of the suture, as well as
the structure, influences the rate of bacterial absorption and proliferation [8]. This was illustrated in
the following representative reports:
● In a study designed to determine the risk of infection for different suture materials, synthetic
nonabsorbable monofilament sutures of nylon, wire, and polypropylene were associated with
less serious infection than multifilament and natural fiber sutures [9]. This was determined by
placing sutures in rabbit subcutaneous tissue; the tissue was then inoculated with
staphylococcus.
● In another study, both braided silk and braided nylon absorbed similar numbers of bacteria,
while monofilament sutures absorbed significantly less. Braided polyglycolic acid absorbed an
intermediate number of bacteria [10]. In this guinea pig study, sutures were placed in solutions
containing bacteria and then the number of bacteria absorbed by each suture was quantified.
Multifilament sutures generally provide greater knot security than monofilament sutures, which
have more "memory" and can return to their original position rather than remaining as a knot.
Sutures usually are weakest at the knot, and knot strength depends upon a number of factors.
(See 'Knots' below.)
Triclosan-coated versus noncoated sutures — Sutures coated with antimicrobial

compounds may decrease the rates of surgical site infection [11-18]. However, the development of
surgical site infection following midline laparotomy is multifactorial, and manipulation of a single
factor (eg, suture) is not likely to provide a significant benefit for all patients. Further studies are
needed to determine which subsets of patients undergoing abdominal wall closure might benefit
from triclosan-coated sutures to justify the added cost.
Various sutures including polyglactin 910 (Vicryl), polydioxanone (PDS), and poliglecaprone
(Monocryl) coated with triclosan (5-chloro-2-[2,4-dichlorophenoxy] phenol) have been used and
appear to perform technically as well as standard sutures. A systematic review and meta-analysis
that included 17 trials involving 3720 patients undergoing a variety of procedures (including
nonabdominal surgery) found a significantly lower risk of surgical site infection for triclosan-coated
versus noncoated sutures (relative risk [RR] 0.70, 95% CI 0.57-0.85) [17,18]. Subgroup analysis
supported the use of triclosan-coated sutures in adult (not pediatric) patients, abdominal
procedures, and clean or clean-contaminated (not dirty) wounds. For abdominal wound closure (n

= 1562), triclosan-coated sutures reduced the rate of surgical site infection from 9.8 to 7.6 percent
(RR 0.50, 95% CI 0.50-0.97).
However, a later multicenter German trial randomly assigned 1224 patients to polydioxanone
suture without triclosan (PDS-II) or polydioxanone with triclosan (PDS Plus) for continuous closure
of midline abdominal wounds in patients undergoing laparotomy for a variety of intra-abdominal
conditions (PROUD trial) [16]. The incidence of surgical site infection did not differ between groups
(14.8 versus 16.1 percent), nor did the rate of serious adverse events (25 versus 22.9 percent),
including wound dehiscence, which can be related to surgical site infection or suboptimal
technique. In this study, the majority of the cases were clean or clean-contaminated (97.8 percent
in triclosan coated, 98.4 percent uncoated), and antibiotic prophylaxis was used in >98 percent of
patients. Logistic regression identified extended operative procedures with a combination of target
organs (colon, rectum, liver, pancreas, and stomach [OR 6.4, 95% CI 2.7-14.9]), missing antibiotic
prophylaxis (OR 5.2, 95% CI 1.6-17.3), chronic renal insufficiency (OR 2.9, 95% CI 1.4-6.5),
anemia (OR 1.7-2.6), increased body mass index, and surgeon expertise (OR 1.73, 95% CI 1.02-
2.9) as increasing the risk for surgical site infection. Interestingly, a meta-analysis of prior trials
including these results favored triclosan-coated suture (OR 0.67, 95% CI 0.47-0.98) but over a
wide confidence interval. Further studies are needed to determine which subsets of patients are
more likely to benefit to justify the added cost.
Another trial published after the meta-analysis that enrolled over 1000 patients undergoing
gastrointestinal surgery found that abdominal wall closure with triclosan-coated sutures did not
reduce the incidence of surgical site infection (6.9 percent triclosan versus 5.9 percent control)
[19].
Needles — Although many types of needles are available, most are designed for very special
suturing needs. Needles are classified according to shape, caliber, degree of curvature, type of
point, and how the suture is attached (swaged or threaded) (figure 1). Most surgeons use only a
few needle types. (See "Closure of minor skin wounds with sutures" and "Closure of minor skin
wounds with sutures", section on 'Needles'.)
Straight or curved — Straight needles are used primarily for skin closure but are not
commonly used. They are of the cutting variety and are designed to be handheld. Curved needles
require a needle driver. They are characterized by the diameter of their arc, degree of curvature,
and caliber. Degree of curvature is one-fourth, three-eighths, one-half, and five-eighths of a circle.
Selection of size and curvature depends upon the tissue to be sutured and the depth of dissection.
The greater the curvature, the easier it is to manipulate the needle in deep or confined spaces.
Diameter — Needle caliber is dependent upon the wire diameter from which the needle is
made. These are defined as fine, medium, and heavy. Medium needles, which are sometimes
called general closure needles, have utility in most tissues and are especially useful for pedicles
and fascia. Fine needles are sometimes called intestinal needles because of their frequent use in

gastrointestinal surgery. They are commonly used for delicate or thin tissue, small pedicles, and
blood vessels. The heavy needles are often referred to as hernia needles. They are designed for
use on fascia, ligaments, and other dense tissues.
Point — Most abdominal incisions can be closed with one-half or five-eighths circle, taper
point, general closure needles. Hernia needles may be used if the fascia is thickened or scarred. A
cutting needle is rarely necessary for standard fascial closures.
● Taper – Taper point needles are atraumatic. They create the smallest holes because the
tissues are stretched and can retract around the suture. These are the most commonly
employed needles and have utility in all tissues except skin.
● Blunt – Taper point needles can also be blunted. Blunt needles may give an extra measure of
protection to both surgical personnel and patients from exposure to blood-borne pathogens
because penetration of the skin is less likely even when penetration of gloves occurs [20,21].
Glove punctures and finger sticks with surgical needles account for up to 80 percent of
accidental exposures to body fluids and potentially serious pathogens such as hepatitis B,
hepatitis C, and HIV [22]. Double gloving also reduces exposure risk. (See "Prevention of
hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infection among health care providers" and
"Management of health care personnel exposed to HIV".)
Blunt needles may be used to close fascia satisfactorily, but, because of the blunt tip, they do
not immediately pierce the tissue, and extra force is usually needed [23]. On occasion, the
surgeon may have to change to a traditional taper point or cutting needle.
● Cutting – Cutting needles have at least two honed edges and are used in dense or scarred
tissue. These are the most commonly employed for skin closure. Care must be taken with
cutting needles to prevent laceration of tissue and accidental cuts to surgical personnel. The
conventional cutting needle has three sharpened edges on its surface. It cuts tissue easily in
the direction of the pull of the needle.
● Reverse cutting – A reverse cutting needle has a cutting edge on its convex surface. It
generally cuts tissue away from the pull of the needle. Although it may prevent accidental
cutting through the tissue edges, it will produce larger holes. These needles are useful for the
placement of retention sutures.
● Free versus swaged – A free needle must be threaded through an eyelet while swaged
needles are a single unit with the suture attached directly. The swaged needles may have the
sutures attached to needles permanently or in a way that allows the needle to be pulled off
with a gentle tug. The latter are known as control release or "pop-off" needles and may save
time when numerous interrupted sutures are necessary. Swaged needles cause less tissue
injury because they are smaller and always remain sharp. There is less chance of metal

fatigue since they are disposable. Less handling and manipulation is needed with swaged
needles, which may lower the risk of glove punctures and needle sticks.
KNOTS
Secure knots are critical for a strong closure. Most suture failures occur at the knot. Knot security
is a function of how the loops and throws are configured, as well as the type and size of the
suture.
Many studies have been performed to determine which sutures have the best knot security, but
results are mixed. It appears that braided suture consistently tends to have better knot security
compared with monofilament suture when the same size, suture, and number of knots are used.
In most situations, a single strand of suture should be tied to a single strand. Tying a single strand
of suture to a double strand of suture may reduce knot security [24]. This is especially important if
the suture will significantly experience tension, such as with fascia closure.
There is no benefit to the use of a surgeon's knot (a double throw in the first loop) over a square
knot (figure 2) [25,26]. The primary benefit of a square knot is that it becomes tighter when the
ends of the suture are pulled [25]. Although knots are the weakest part of the suture, square knots
maintain 90 percent of the tensile strength of untied sutures. If nonidentical sliding knots are used,
then six throws are needed for adequate knot security [24].
Knots always provide space in which bacteria can become enmeshed and therefore are the most
common site of sinus formation. Early attempts to exploit greater tensile strength of
nonabsorbable sutures were thwarted by the frequency of suture sinuses when natural fiber
multifilament sutures were used. The risk of sinus formation may approach 80 percent if a
contaminated wound is closed with natural multifilament suture [27].
A lower risk of suture sinus formation with synthetic suture was illustrated in a study that
compared continuous closure using polydioxanone (PDS) with interrupted closure using braided
silk in clean and contaminated abdominal wounds [28]. The incidence of sinus formation was 1.3
percent in the PDS group compared with 7.1 percent in the silk group. Also, sinus formation
following use of PDS healed within one week after percutaneous drainage alone without removal
of the suture, whereas sinus formation associated with braided silk required excision of the sinus
tract and removal of the infected suture. Wound dehiscence, early wound infection, and incisional
hernia did not differ significantly between the two groups.
Additionally, the use of absorbable suture may eliminate palpation of the knot through the skin, a
potentially distressing problem in thin patients.

WOUND CLOSURE TECHNIQUE BY LAYER
The method of closure of the abdominal wall is a critical aspect of an effective incision closure, in
addition to choice of suture material. Layered closure is described as the separate closure of the
individual component of the abdominal wall, specifically the peritoneum and distinct
musculoaponeurotic layers, whereas mass closure is the closure of all layers of the abdominal
wall (except the skin) as a single structure. An evidence-based review identified three separate
meta-analyses, each of which found that mass closure was associated with a lower incidence of
incisional hernia [6,29-31]. In addition to mass closure, this review determined that the optimal
method of abdominal wall closure is mass closure using absorbable suture in a simple running
technique with a suture length to wound length ratio of 4 to 1. (See 'Mass closure' below.)
Peritoneum — Surgical closure of the peritoneum does not impact incision strength or healing.
There is overwhelming evidence from randomized trials that peritoneal closure is unnecessary
because the peritoneum reepithelializes within 48 to 72 hours [32-34]. Furthermore, peritoneal
closure results in more advanced adhesion formation at the time of a subsequent procedure [35].
(See "Postoperative peritoneal adhesions in adults and their prevention".)
Also, there are insufficient data to suggest that aggressive peritoneal lavage is beneficial if there is
no gross contamination [36]. Lavage may impede host defenses and spread previously localized
infection.
Fascia — The fascia is the most critical layer because this tissue provides the greatest wound
tensile strength during healing.
Tensile strength of the fascial wound — The inflammatory process at the wound edge
produces collagenase, which assists digestion of necrotic debris but also results in lysis of
collagen and partial digestion of fascia. During these first few postoperative days, tensile strength
of the sutured wound may actually decline by as much as 50 percent before a slow increase in
tensile strength begins [37,38]. (See "Basic principles of wound healing", section on 'Wound
healing'.)
Tensile strength of a wound follows a characteristic nonlinear pattern and depends upon the
synthesis of new connective tissue by fibroblasts (figure 3). Adequate blood supply is critical to
supply nutrients and oxygen. Wounds have less than 5 percent of the tensile strength of
unwounded tissue in the first postoperative week; thus, wound security is dependent solely upon
suture that has been secured in strong healthy tissue. Maximum strength rarely, if ever, exceeds
80 to 90 percent of intact fascia. Fortunately, only 15 to 20 percent of maximum strength is
necessary for normal daily activities [39]. Since return of tensile strength can take more than 70
days, sutures that maintain their strength for at least this length of time are preferred. Therefore,
most surgeons select a delayed absorbable or nonabsorbable suture for abdominal wall closure.
(See 'Materials' above.)
Technique — Fascial closure should reapproximate the wound edges without undue tension or
tissue ischemia. Although interrupted closure has the advantage of not relying on the security of a
single knot, this technique is associated with tissue ischemia due to an uneven distribution of
tension. Fortunately, dehiscence due to knot slippage is rare [40]. Continuous closure distributes
tension evenly along the entire length of the incision, allows better tissue perfusion, and saves
time. A meta-analysis evaluating midline abdominal closure techniques supports closure of
elective midline incisions with a continuous technique using slowly absorbable sutures [7]. (See
'Midline' below.)
The amount of suture used depends upon the size of each stitch (ie, distance from fascial edge)
and stitch interval (ie, space between stitches). For continuous closure, the total length of the
suture should be approximately four times the length of the incision [41,42]. The use of a shorter
length suture due to a reduced stitch size and/or stitch interval increases the risk of hernia
formation [42-44]. In a randomized trial, the incidence of hernia formation (9 versus 21.5 percent,
respectively) was lower when the suture length/wound length (SL/WL) ratio was ≥4 compared with
<4 [43].
Regardless of whether interrupted or continuous closure is chosen, sutures should be placed

approximately 10 mm from the fascial edge. Suture widths in excess of 10 mm may increase the
magnitude of compressive forces on the tissue contained between the suture hole and fascial
edge [45].
In Europe, a further reduction in suture width from 10 mm to 5 to 8 mm is advocated by the 2015

European Hernia Society guidelines on the closure of abdominal wall incisions [41], largely based
upon the results of two randomized trials [42,46].
● A randomized trial comparing long stitch width (>10 mm) with shorter stitch width (5 to 8 mm)
identified longer stitch width as an independent risk factor for the development of both
incisional hernia and surgical site infection [42]. Incisional hernia occurred in 49 of 272
patients (18.0 percent) in the long stitch group and in 14 of 250 (5.6 percent) in the short
stitch group.
● In a second trial (STITCH), 560 patients were randomly assigned to undergo continuous
suture closure of a midline incision with either a long (10 mm) or short (5 mm) suture width
[46]. Significantly fewer patients in the short, compared with long, suture width group
developed incisional hernia at one year (13 versus 21 percent). The rates of complications
(including surgical site infections) were not different.
Further studies with different needle/suture types, as well as with a longer follow-up, are required
before a suture width of less than 10 mm can be recommended for routine closure of all midline
incisions.

Retention sutures have traditionally been used in wounds thought to be at a high risk for
dehiscence, but data consistently supporting this technique are lacking, and this technique is
associated with increased wound complications and difficulty with ostomy placement and care.
(See "Complications of abdominal surgical incisions".)
Mass closure — Mass closure may be performed in either a continuous or interrupted fashion.
Mass closure significantly reduces the incidence of wound dehiscence and is performed by
incorporating a small amount of subcutaneous fat, rectus muscle, rectus sheaths, transversalis
fascia, and, optionally, the peritoneum. Techniques for mass closure include the Smead-Jones and
continuous single or double loop closures.
Continuous mass closure with nonabsorbable or slowly absorbable suture is safe and as effective
as interrupted techniques (figure 4). In addition, studies in animals and humans have found
continuous mass closures to be faster and more cost effective [47-49].
To perform the Smead-Jones closure, sutures are placed in a vertical mattress fashion.
Continuous double loop mass closure may be superior to single loop mass closure. A study that
compared the double and single loop mass closure in midline laparotomy wounds reported that
wound dehiscence was zero with the continuous double loop closure technique compared with 8
percent for single loop mass closure [50].
Prophylactic mesh — The incidence of incisional hernia following laparotomy varies widely
and depends upon the patient's risk factors for hernia formation and the nature of the surgery, with
most studies reporting rates between 10 and 15 percent [51]. (See "Clinical features, diagnosis,
and prevention of incisional hernias", section on 'Epidemiology and risk factors'.)
For high-risk patients (eg, obese or those undergoing open abdominal aortic aneurysm repair),
there has been some interest in placing mesh prophylactically at abdominal wall closure to prevent
incisional hernia formation. However, no data are available regarding potential long-term adverse
outcomes, such as chronic pain and mesh complications. Given these limitations, we do not place
mesh prophylactically at the time of abdominal wall closure. Data on prophylactic mesh use are
presented elsewhere. (See "Clinical features, diagnosis, and prevention of incisional hernias",
section on 'Prophylactic mesh placement'.)
Subcutaneous — A systematic review identified eight trials evaluating subcutaneous closure for
non-cesarean delivery, concluding that the low-quality evidence available was insufficient to
support or refute subcutaneous closure [52]. By eliminating dead space, closure of subcutaneous
tissue may help prevent superficial wound disruption, which is often associated with wound
seroma, hematoma, or infection. Meticulous attention to control of subcutaneous bleeding or the
use of closed suction drainage can help prevent the development of hematoma or subcutaneous
fluid collection and may have a similar effect on wound disruption as subcutaneous closure
[53,54], although this is controversial [55]. Further randomized trials with stratification for incision

type and other components of perioperative care (eg, use of antibiotics, type of suture material)
are needed to examine these approaches.
Skin — Closure of the skin may be performed with subcuticular suture, stainless steel staples,
subcuticular absorbable staples, surgical tape, or wound adhesive glue.
Subcuticular closure obviates the need to remove surgical staples, is more comfortable for the
patient, and is less costly [56]. Whether subcuticular suture results in a more cosmetically pleasing
scar is debated [57,58]. Suture knots have potential disadvantages in subcuticular wound closure
because they may cause tissue ischemia, act as a nidus for infection, and can extrude through the
skin weeks after surgery. One option is to anchor the suture above the skin away from the incision.
Another alternative is self-anchoring barbed polyglycolic acid or polydioxanone suture (Quill,
Contour Thread), which requires no knots [59]. These have a similar cosmetic and safety profile
as conventional suture but avoid the drawbacks inherent to suture knots [59].
Staples are quicker to place, give an acceptable cosmetic result, are associated with a low rate of
infection, and allow small portions of the wound to be opened easily when needed [60]. Staple
closure is less likely to obscure wound drainage and impending separation compared with
subcuticular closures but is more likely to be a source of postoperative pain [56]. Staples are
preferred for reentry incisions. An experimental study found no staple displacement or increase in
skin temperature for stapled closure exposed to magnetic resonance imaging [61].
Absorbable staples (eg, Insorb) potentially combine the benefits of subcuticular closure with the
speed and precision of staple placement [62]. In a study that compared skin incision closure by
absorbable subcuticular staples, cutaneous metal staples, and polyglactin 910 suture in a pig
model, absorbable subcuticular staples induced a less severe inflammatory response in the early
stages of healing.
Surgical tape and adhesives are alternatives to suture or staples. In particular, use of tissue
adhesives, such as octyl cyanoacrylate (Dermabond) and butylcyanoacrylate (Histoacryl), may
potentially save time and have wound infection rates and cosmetic outcomes that are comparable
to nonabsorbable monofilament sutures [63]. A systematic review supported these findings but
also noted that the tissue adhesives are associated with a small but significant increased rate of
wound dehiscence, which must be considered when choosing the closure method [64]. (See
"Minor wound repair with tissue adhesives (cyanoacrylates)".)
WOUND CLOSURE BY INCISION TYPE
Abdominal wall incisions are generally closed using the principles described above; however,
there are a few points specific to the type of incision.
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Midline — We suggest placing the omentum beneath a longitudinal incision to reduce the risk of
adhesions between bowel and the anterior abdominal wall. The posterior rectus sheath is included
in the fascial closure to increase tensile strength of the closure.
To minimize the risk of incisional hernia, elective midline abdominal closure (first operation or
reoperation) should be performed using a continuous technique with slowly absorbable sutures. A
meta-analysis of 14 randomized trials of midline fascial closure in 7711 patients compared the
incidence of incisional hernia for elective abdominal wall closure performed with continuous versus
interrupted closure, rapidly absorbable versus slowly absorbable, and nonabsorbable versus
slowly absorbable suture [7].
Rapidly absorbable sutures included polyglactin 910 (Vicryl), and polyglycolic acid (Dexon). Slowly
absorbable sutures included polydioxanone (PDS, MonoPlus) and polyglyconate + trimethylene
carbonate (Maxon). Nonabsorbable sutures included polyamide (nylon), polypropylene (Prolene)
and polyester (Ethibond) (table 2).
Results were as follows:
● The incidence of incisional hernia was significantly higher in the interrupted compared with
continuous closure group (12.6 versus 8.4 percent) regardless of the type of suture material
used (ie, absorbable versus nonabsorbable).
● The incidence of incisional hernia was significantly lower for absorbable sutures compared
with nonabsorbable sutures (6.1 versus 26.3 percent) regardless of suture technique (ie,
continuous versus interrupted).
● The incidence of incisional hernia was significantly lower for slowly absorbable sutures
compared with rapidly absorbable sutures (8.1 verus 10.8 percent) regardless of suture
technique (ie, continuous versus interrupted).
No conclusions could be drawn regarding optimal closure techniques for abdominal closure in an
emergency setting.
Since this meta-analysis, another trial randomly assigned 456 patients to closure of the midline
abdominal fascia to nonabsorbable (polypropylene; Prolene) or absorbable (polydioxanone; PDS)
suture material. In contrast, there were no significant differences in the incidence of incisional
hernia or secondary outcomes measures between the groups [65]. This trial included both
emergent and elective cases and did not stratify the analysis.
A 2017 Cochrane review of 55 randomized trials (19,174 patients) compared absorbable versus
nonabsorbable sutures, continuous versus interrupted closure, mass versus layered closure,
monofilament versus multifilament sutures, and slow versus fast absorbable suture in terms of
incisional hernia (at one year), wound infection, wound dehiscence, wound sinus, or fistula
formation. The only significant findings were that monofilament sutures may reduce the risk of
incisional hernia (relative risk 0.76, 95% CI 0.59-0.98), and that absorbable sutures may reduce
the risk of sinus or fistula tract formation (relative risk 0.49, 95% CI 0.26-0.94). However, only
about half of the included trials (26) enrolled patients who underwent midline incisions exclusively;
the others included patients who underwent paramedian, subcostal, or transverse incisions [66].
Transverse
Pfannenstiel and Cherney — The Pfannenstiel and Cherney incisions are closed in a similar
manner. The rectus muscles will usually approximate themselves, but if rectus diastasis is present,
the muscles can be pulled to the midline with several loosely tied absorbable sutures. The
aponeurosis is closed with interrupted or continuous suture. Both absorbable and nonabsorbable
sutures have been used for closure. Skin can be reapproximated by any method. A subcuticular
technique using 4-0 suture is easily performed since the edges are readily brought together.
The only difference for the Cherney incision is the need to reattach the tendons to the lower
aponeurosis of the anterior rectus sheath rather than to the periosteum of the symphysis directly.
One option for this is horizontal mattress sutures of 2-0 permanent suture material; delayed
absorbable sutures are an alternative.
Maylard incision — With the Maylard incision, oozing from the cut muscle and extensive
tissue fluid collection may rarely be significant enough to warrant placement of a closed suction
drainage system under the fascia. The drain is brought out through a stab wound separate from
the incision. The fascia may then be closed with interrupted or continuous sutures, usually of 1 or
0 suture caliber. Permanent or delayed absorbable suture is preferred, and a mass closure
technique can be used. A common method is closure of the fascia with running permanent suture
of 0 suture caliber in a mass technique and closing the skin using a subcuticular technique with
absorbable 4-0 suture.
Oblique — Oblique incisions are muscle splitting; therefore, the muscles reapproximate by their
own contraction when anesthetic paralysis resolves. The wound would likely heal with skin closure
only; however, we suggest a deep simple closure. The internal oblique and transversus abdominis
are approximated with loosely tied absorbable sutures spaced 1 cm apart in the internal oblique
layer. The external oblique aponeurosis can be closed with interrupted or continuous 2-0
absorbable sutures. The skin can be closed by any method. When oblique incisions are used in
the face of intra-abdominal infection, delayed primary closure should be considered (figure 5) [67].
Alternatively, the skin can be closed with staples so that the incision can be easily be reopened, as
needed.
DRAINS
Prior to closure, it may be necessary to place temporary drainage systems. Drains are categorized
as passive or active, meaning that they rely upon gravity or negative pressure suction,
respectively. Examples of passive drains include the Penrose drain, Foley catheter, Word catheter,
and Malecot catheter. Active drains may be open (eg, Salem sump) or closed systems (eg,
Jackson-Pratt). One disadvantage of open systems is the potential for bacterial contamination of
the tubing. Therefore, most surgeons prefer closed systems with negative pressure suction.
Because closed suction systems (figure 6) require smaller incisions, herniation is uncommon.
The primary indication for the placement of a drain is the prevention of fluid collection and
subsequent infection. Intra-abdominal procedures frequently associated with large collections of
blood and serum (eg, hepatic, pancreatic surgery) may benefit from prophylactic drainage. Drains
are placed adjacent to the injured tissue (eg, liver, pancreas) or in the vicinity of an anastomosis at
risk for leakage (ie, choledochoenteric, pancreaticoenteric). Other procedures that may require
drainage include radical pelvic surgery, entry into the space of Retzius, or muscle-splitting
incisions. Although the data are mixed, randomized trials and meta-analyses have found that
closed drainage of the subcutaneous tissue does not prevent significant wound complications
[68,69].
Thus, the value of prophylactic drains remains controversial. Complications from drains may
include infection, hemorrhage, kinking, and hernia formation. Good surgical technique with
adequate hemostasis, the elimination of dead space, and the use of prophylactic antibiotics
obviates the need for drains in most patients.
Irrigation of wounds with antibiotics initially was thought to lower the incidence of wound infection,
but contemporary reviews suggest there is no benefit to routine irrigation of a midline wound,
provided the patient received appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis [70]. Additionally, antibiotic
solutions are toxic to the cellular elements necessary for healing. For this reason, delayed closure
of an abdominal incision with or without the use of a negative pressure wound system is an
alternative to irrigation in certain circumstances. (See "Negative pressure wound therapy".)
Placement — Drains should be placed through a small incision separate from the primary incision
(figure 7) [1]. The drain should have a direct path to prevent kinking and subsequent obstruction.
Care must be taken to avoid injury to the abdominal wall vessels (eg, epigastric), which can lead
to significant bleeding. A stab wound involving the rectus sheath must be adequate to prevent
kinking of the drain and to allow its removal, but not so large that a hernia may form. Normally, an
incision greater than 5 mm but less than 10 mm is ideal. Care must also be taken to avoid suturing
the drain to the fascia during closure. Once placed, the drain should be properly dressed and
placed in a position that avoids traction and potential fracture [71].
WOUND PACKING
Contaminated wounds should generally be packed open. (See "Basic principles of wound
management".)

Options for wound closure include healing by secondary intention, which requires ongoing wound
packing, negative pressure wound therapy, or delayed primary closure. Whether primary closure
necessarily leads to a higher incidence of surgical site infection under this circumstance has not
been definitively proven. A systematic review identified eight trials that randomly assigned patients
to primary closure or delayed primary closure following a variety of procedures, including
perforated appendicitis, perforated viscus, ileostomy closure, trauma, and intra-abdominal
abscess [72]. Primary closure appeared to increase the risk for surgical site infection; however,
significant heterogeneity was noted, and with a random (rather than fixed) effects model, the effect
was no longer significant.
DRESSINGS
A sterile dressing is generally used to protect the closed surgical wound for 24 to 48 hours
postoperatively. There are no convincing data to suggest that one type of dressing is better than
another with respect to surgical site infection. Systematic reviews have found no significant
difference in surgical site infection rates for surgical wounds covered with different dressings
(basic wound contact dressing, film dressing, hydrocolloid dressing) and those left uncovered for a
variety of wound conditions (clean, mixed contamination levels) [73,74]. As such, the choice of
surgical wound dressing should be made with regard to the ability of the dressing to manage
absorption of exudate upon the nature of the surgical wound and any properties and qualities that
a particular dressing can offer. Although the dry sterile dressing has been a standard for decades,
wounds heal better in a moist environment. Thus, modern film dressings that are impermeable to
fluid and bacteria but allow passage of moisture vapor may be preferable [1,75]. These do not
appear to increase the frequency of wound infection, and they permit visual assessment of the
wound and improved patient comfort. (See "Basic principles of wound management", section on
'Common dressings'.)
Negative pressure dressings — Following their use in orthopedic and sternal surgery [76],
negative pressure dressings have been applied to closed abdominal wounds in general and
colorectal surgery [77]. In a systematic review and meta-analysis of three randomized trials and
six nonrandomized comparative studies, negative pressure dressings, when used on closed
abdominal incisions, were associated with reduced surgical site infections (12 versus 27 percent)
but similar rates of seroma and wound dehiscence compared with conventional dressings [78].
There was significant clinical heterogeneity across the nine studies both in terms of patient
characteristics and setting/duration of the negative pressure dressings (-75 to -125 mmHg; four to
seven days).
Further studies are required to identify the patient population that would benefit most from the
negative pressure dressings (eg, obese patients or contaminated wound). Routine use of negative
pressure dressings after abdominal closure is costly and therefore will need to be justified by a

significant reduction in complication rates. One study found the use of negative pressure
dressings cost effective in the treatment of high-risk abdominal wounds [79].
SOCIETY GUIDELINE LINKS
Links to society and government-sponsored guidelines from selected countries and regions
around the world are provided separately. (See "Society guideline links: Abdominal incisions and
closure".)
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
● The suture chosen for closure should be absorbable and have a caliber that will provide
adequate strength to the wound while minimizing foreign body content. Multifilament sutures
provide better knot strength but are more prone to infection and sinus formation. (See
'Sutures' above.)
● Most abdominal incisions can be closed with one-half or five-eighths circle, taper point,
general closure needles. Hernia needles can be used if the fascia is thickened or scarred. A
cutting needle is rarely needed for standard closures. (See 'Needles' above.)
● Continuous mass closure is the ideal closure method using a suture length to wound length
ratio of 4:1 in a simple running technique. The tissue should be reapproximated with low
tension to prevent ischemia. A single strand should be tied to another single strand using a
square knot or surgeon's knot. (See 'Fascia' above and 'Knots' above.)
● We suggest not closing the peritoneum, as this appears to confer no benefit (Grade 2C). (See
'Peritoneum' above.)
● To reduce the incidence of incisional hernia following elective midline abdominal closure (first
time closure or repeat closure), we recommend a continuous suture technique using slowly
absorbable monofilament suture (Grade 1A). The optimal closure technique in the emergency
setting has not been defined. The fascia of non-midline abdominal incisions can be closed in
a similar fashion. (See "Complications of abdominal surgical incisions", section on 'Suture'.)
● There appears to be no benefit to subcutaneous closure. Good surgical technique with

adequate hemostasis and the use of prophylactic antibiotics obviates the need for drains in
most patients. (See 'Subcutaneous' above and 'Drains' above.)
● Staples, subcuticular suture, and tissue adhesives are appropriate for skin closure; the wound
should be covered with a semipermeable film or hydrocolloid dressing. (See 'Skin' above and
'Dressings' above.)

Use of UpToDate is subject to the Subscription and License Agreement.
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Topic 4 Version 26.0

GRAPHICS
Classification of common suture materials
Type Generic name
Absorbable
Natural fibers Plain catgut
Chromic catgut
Synthetics Polyglycolic acid (Dexon)
Polyglactin 910 (Vicryl)
Polydioxanone (PDS)
Polyglyconate (Maxon)
Poliglecaprone (Moncryl)
Permanent
Natural fibers Cotton
Linen
Silk
Synthetics Polyamide (Nylon)
Polypropylene (Prolene)
Polybutester (Novafil)
Polyester (Mersilene)
Coated polyester (Ti-cron, Tevdek)
Metal Stainless steel (Flexon)
Silver
Graphic 66977 Version 2.0

Characteristics of sutures
Knot Tensile Tissue

Material Wound security, days
security strength reaction
Plain gut + + ++++ 5
Chromic gut ++ ++ ++++ 14
Polyglycolic ++++ +++ ++ 21

acid
Polyglactin +++ +++ ++ 30
Polydioxanone ++ ++++ ++ 60
Polyglyconate ++ ++++ ++ 60
Poliglecaprone ++ +++ ++ 14
Polyamide + +++ + 300
Polyester ++++ ++++ ++ 300+
Polybutester +++ ++++ ++ 300+
Polypropylene +++ ++++ + 300+
Stainless steel ++++ ++++ ++ 300+

Types of surgical needles

Surgical knots
Square knot and surgeon's knot.
Courtesy of William J Mann, Jr, MD.

Collagen synthesis and tensile strength
Relation of the rate of collagen synthesis to the gain of tensile strength of rat skin wounds.
Reproduced from: Madden JW, Peacock EE Jr. Studies on the biology of collagen during wound healing. 1. Rate of
collagen synthesis and deposition in cutaneous wounds of the rat. Surgery 1968; 64:288. Illustration used with
the permission of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Mass closure of abdominal incisions
(A) Smead-Jones closure. Far-far-near-near. Suture passes laterally through

rectus sheath and peritoneum and adjacent fat. The suture crosses midline to pick
up medial edge of fascia on opposite side of incision.
(B) Alternative closure. Far-near-near-far. The far bite is 1 to 1.5 cm away from
the edge. The near bite is 5 mm from the edge.
(C) Running mass closure. Two sutures are used, beginning from each pole of the
incision. Sutures are 1 cm away from edge and 1 cm apart. The sutures are tied at
the midpoint of the incision.
Courtesy of Therese Trenhaile, MD.

McBurney abdominal incision and closure
(A) Incision through McBurney's point. (B) Fibers of exterior oblique separated. Internal
oblique muscle split. (C) Peritoneum and transversalis fascia incised. (D) Internal
oblique closed with interrupted suture. (E) External oblique closed with running suture.
(F) Delayed closure of skin.
Courtesy of Therese Trenhaile, MD.

Tubes for closed suction drainage
Many sizes are available.

Drain placement at surgery

Contributor Disclosures
Jason S Mizell, MD, FACS Consultant/Advisory Boards: Applied Medical [Laparoscopic colorectal surgery
(Laparoscopic hand access device, transanal access platform)]. Michael Rosen, MD Employment: Medical
Director of AHSQC (Americas Hernia Society Quality Collaborative). Grant/Research/Clinical Trial Support:
Intuitive Surgical [Inguinal hernia (Surgical robot)]; Pacira [Ventral hernia repair (Bupivacaine)].
Consultant/Advisory Boards: Artiste Medical [Mesh (Mesh)]. Wenliang Chen, MD, PhD Nothing to disclose
Contributor disclosures are reviewed for conflicts of interest by the editorial group. When found, these are
addressed by vetting through a multi-level review process, and through requirements for references to be
provided to support the content. Appropriately referenced content is required of all authors and must conform
to UpToDate standards of evidence.
Conflict of interest policy

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Advantages of synthetic suture over natural fibers include:

● Polyglactin 910 (Vicryl) – Two weeks

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Monofilament versus multifilament — Another important characteristic of suture that

Triclosan-coated versus noncoated sutures — Sutures coated with antimicrobial

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WOUND CLOSURE TECHNIQUE BY LAYER

Regardless of whether interrupted or continuous closure is chosen, sutures should be placed

In Europe, a further reduction in suture width from 10 mm to 5 to 8 mm is advocated by the 2015

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WOUND CLOSURE BY INCISION TYPE

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Results were as follows:

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SOCIETY GUIDELINE LINKS

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

● There appears to be no benefit to subcutaneous closure. Good surgical technique with

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Use of UpToDate is subject to the Subscription and License Agreement.

8. Thiede A, Jostarndt L, Lünstedt B, Sonntag HG. [Controlled experimental histological and

10. McGeehan D, Hunt D, Chaudhuri A, Rutter P. An experimental study of the relationship

11. Justinger C, Moussavian MR, Schlueter C, et al. Antibacterial [corrected] coating of

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13. Galal I, El-Hindawy K. Impact of using triclosan-antibacterial sutures on incidence of surgical

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34. Tulandi T, Al-Jaroudi D. Nonclosure of peritoneum: a reappraisal. Am J Obstet Gynecol

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49. Colombo M, Maggioni A, Parma G, et al. A randomized comparison of continuous versus

51. Nachiappan S, Markar S, Karthikesalingam A, et al. Prophylactic mesh placement in high-

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76. Hyldig N, Birke-Sorensen H, Kruse M, et al. Meta-analysis of negative-pressure wound

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Topic 4 Version 26.0

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Classification of common suture materials

Type Generic name

Natural fibers Plain catgut

Synthetics Polyglycolic acid (Dexon)

Polyglactin 910 (Vicryl)

Natural fibers Cotton

Synthetics Polyamide (Nylon)

Coated polyester (Ti-cron, Tevdek)

Metal Stainless steel (Flexon)

Graphic 66977 Version 2.0

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Knot Tensile Tissue

Plain gut + + ++++ 5

Chromic gut ++ ++ ++++ 14

Polyglycolic ++++ +++ ++ 21

Polyglactin +++ +++ ++ 30

Polyamide + +++ + 300

Polyester ++++ ++++ ++ 300+

Polybutester +++ ++++ ++ 300+

Polypropylene +++ ++++ + 300+

Stainless steel ++++ ++++ ++ 300+