Module 1A SGD Session 1: Cellular Structure and Homeostasis

1. Discuss structure and function of: (Source: Junquiera)

HISTOLOGY- Dr. Peralta

1.1 Nucleus – command center of the cell; houses cell’s complement of genetic information; contains
blueprint for all cell structures and activities encoded in DNA of the chromosomes. Replicates its
DNA and synthesizes & process all types of DNA; rounded or oval in structure
1.1.1 Nuclear envelope
 Selectively permeable barrier between nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments
 Outer membrane: with ribosomes and continuous with RER membrane
 Inner membrane: highly organized meshwork of protein called nuclear lamina
 Nuclear lamina (stabilizing the envelope): Major component is lamins (intermediate
proteins)
 Space between membranes : perinuclear space and continuous with lumen of RER
 Two membranes bridged at nuclear pore complexes (nucleoporins: nuclear pore
complex protein) : regulate movement of macromolecules between nucleus and
cytoplasm. (ex. RNA trancripts , transcription factors, ions and proteins with nuclear
localization sequence ); 30000-4000 NPCs in mammals
1.1.2 Chromatin- consists of DNA and its proteins in largely uncoiled state
 Heterochromatin- dense and basophilic, inactive in transcription
 Euchromatin- finely dispersed, lightly stained, active transcription, in metabolically
active cells
 DNA in chromatin extensively packed by histones and non-histone proteins. DNA
(150 bp) wrapped around histones (H2A,H2B,H3,H4) is collectively called
nucleosome. Connected by H1 protein and linker DNA
 Nucleosomes undergo packing to 30 nm fiber then into chromatids, after replication
2 chromatids are held together to become chromosome.
 *Cell cycle: mitosis (cell division)- G1 (increase in cell volume,cell component
synthesis, RNA &protein synthesis)- S (DNA replication, centrosome duplication,
histone synthesis)-G2 (proteins required for mitosis, accumulation of proteins
required for mitosis)
1.1.3 Nucleolus- specialized subdomain, large prominent structure w/n nucleus for synthesis of
ribosomes
1.1.4 Nuclear Matrix- structural support

1.2 Cytoplasm- cell content between plasma and nuclear membrane.

Cytosol: fluid medium. It also contains hundreds of enzymes, such as those of the glycolytic
pathway, which produce building blocks for larger molecules and break down small molecules to
liberate energy
1.2.1 Organelles
 Endoplasmic Reticulum- convoluted membranous extending from the surface of the
nucleus throughout most of the cytoplasm and encloses a series of
intercommunicating channels called cisterna
o Rough ER-extensive interconnected network with ribosomes on cytoplasmic
surface. The RER consists of saclike as well as parallel stacks of flattened

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cisternae each limited by membranes that are continuous with the outer
membrane of the nuclear envelope
 The major function of RER is production of membrane associated
proteins, proteins of many membranous organelles, and proteins to be
secreted by exocytosis.
 Prominent in cells specialized for protein secretion such as plasma
cell (immunoglobulins), acinar pancreatic cells(digestive enzymes),
fibrobast (collagen)
o Smooth ER- extensive interconnected network with no ribosomes; which is
continuous with RER but frequently less abundant. SER cisternae are more
tubular or saclike, with interconnected channels of various shapes and sizes
rather than stacks of flattened cisternae
 Synthesizes, transports, and stores lipid; metabolizes carbohydrates,
detoxifies drugs, alcohol and poison; forms vesicle and peroxisomes
 Enzymes in the SER perform synthesis of phospholipids and steroids,
major constituents of cellular membranes
 In cells that secrete steroid hormones (eg, cells of the adrenal cortex),
SER occupies a large portion of the cytoplasm
 SER enzymes, including those of the cytochrome P450 family, allow
detoxifcation of potentially harmful exogenous molecules such as
alcohol, barbiturates, and other drugs.
 SER vesicles are also responsible for sequestration and controlled
release of Ca2+, which is part of the rapid response of cells to various
stimuli
 Golgi apparatus-series if elongated, sac-like membranous structures
o Modifies, packages and sorts materials from ER in transport vesicles; forms
secretory vesicles and lysosomes
o completes posttranslational modifications of proteins produced in the RER
and then packages and addresses these proteins to their proper destinations
o Important protein modifications in the Golgi apparatus include sulfation and
many glycosylation reactions
 Vesicles- spherical-shaped membrane-bound sacs; Originating as condensing
vesicles in the Golgi apparatus, secretory granules are found in cells that store a
product until its release by exocytosis is signaled by a metabolic, hormonal, or neural
message (regulated secretion). The granules are surrounded by membrane and
contain a concentrated form of the secretory product.
o Cellular transport of material
 Lysosomes- spherical-shaped membrane bound organelle from GI, contain digestive
enzymes. Lysosomes are sites of intracellular digestion and turnover of cellular
components. Lysosomes are membrane-limited vesicles that contain about 40
different hydrolytic enzymes and are particularly abundant in cells with great
phagocytic activity (eg, macrophages, neutrophils)
o Digest microbe or material produced or taken into cell

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 Peroxisomes- spherical-shaped membrane bound organelle formed from ER with

oxidative enzymes; catalase that breaks down the H2O2 resulting from those
reactions.
o Detoxify specific harmful substances; beta oxidation of fatty acid to acetyl coA
 Mitochondria-double membrane with circular DNA (genes for mitochondrial proteins);
outer membrane containing many transmembrane proteins called porins; The inner
membrane is folded to form a series of long infoldings called cristae. The psa
o Synthesize ATP during aerobic cellular respiration
o Stressed cells release Cytochrome c from the inner membrane, triggering a
regulated series of events culminating in cell death (apoptosis)
 Ribosomes-composed of both protein and rRNA organized into large and small unit;
may be bound to membrane or free. Ribosomes are macromolecular machines
which assemble polypeptides from amino acids on molecules of transfer RNA (tRNA)
in a sequence specified by mRNA. During protein synthesis many ribosomes
typically bind the same strand of mRNA to form larger complexes called
polyribosomes, or polysomes.
 Proteasomes- Proteasomes are very small abundant protein complexes not
associated with membrane, each approximately the size of the small ribosomal
subunit. They function to degrade denatured or otherwise nonfunctional
polypeptides. Proteasomes also remove proteins no longer needed by the cell and
provide an important mechanism for restricting activity of a specifc protein to a
certain window of time. Whereas lysosomes digest organelles or membranes by
autophagy, proteasomes deal primarily with free proteins as individual
molecules.Tagged to UBIQUITIN..

1.2.2 Cytoskeleton- structural support to the cell

 Microfilaments-(actin) maintain cell shape; Contract and move cells; change cell
shape; cytokinesis; cytoplasmic transport and streaming Myosins are motor proteins
that bind and move along actin flaments
 Intermediate filaments- Strengthen cell and tissue structure; maintain cell shape;
maintain nuclear shape (lamins). They include vimentin; nuclear lamins;neuroflament
proteins; and keratins, which are especially important in epithelial cells.
 Keratins (In epidermal cells, cytokeratins accumulate in the differentiation
process termed keratinization, which results in an outer layer of nonliving
skin cells that reduces dehydration. Keratinization also provides some
protection from minor abrasions and produces various hard protective
structures of
 Vimentin cells derived from mesenchyme. Important vimentin-like
proteins include desmin found in almost all muscle cells and glial fbrillar
acidic protein (GFAP) found especially in astrocytes, supporting cells of
central nervous system tissue.
 Neurofilament proteins of three distinct sizes make heterodimers that
form the subunits of the major intermediate filaments of neurons.

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 Lamins are a family of seven isoforms present in the cell nucleus, where
they form a structural framework called the nuclear lamina just inside the
nuclear envelope

 Microtubules- maintain cell shape; are also organized into larger arrays called
axonemes in the cytoplasmic extensions (cilia and flagella); Maintain cell’s shape
and polarity; provide tracks for organelle by motor proteins kinesin and dynein and
chromosome movement; move cilia and flagella ;.

1.2.3 Inclusions- Aggregates of specific type of molecule; have little or no metabolic activity(which
distinguishes them from organelles), but contain accumulated metabolites or other
substances not enclosed by membrane. Most kinds of inclusions are transitory cytoplasmic
components not enclosed by membrane;
 Fat droplets accumulations of lipid molecules prominent in adipocytes (fat cells),
adrenal cortex cells, liver and other cells.
 Glycogen granules aggregates of the carbohydrate polymer in which glucose is
stored, are visible in several cell types, mainly liver cells,
 Lipofuscin, especially in stable nondividing cells (eg, neurons, cardiac muscle).
Granules of lipofuscin contain a complex mix of material partly derived from residual
bodies afer lysosomal digestion.
 Hemosiderin- aggregate of denatured ferritin proteins with many atoms of bound
iron. It occurs in phagocytic cells, especially macrophages of the liver and spleen,
where it results from phagocytosis of red blood cells.

1.3 Cell Membrane- regulates movement of substances in and out of the cell; keep constant ion
concentration which differs ICF and ECF
1.3.1 Identify descriptions and functions of cell membrane proteins and lipids
1.3.1.1 Membrane Lipid
 Phospholipid- amphipathic, consisting of two nonpolar (hydrophobic or water-
repelling) long-chain fatty acids linked to a charged polar (hydrophilic or water
attracting) head that bears a phosphate group

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 Cholesterol- a sterol lipid, insert at varying densities among the closely-

packed phospholipid fatty acids, restricting their movement, and modulating
the fluidity and movement of all membrane components
 Glycolipid- include oligosaccharide chains that extend outward from the cell
surface and contribute to a delicate cell surface coating called the glycocalyx
1.3.1.2 Membrane Proteins
 Integral Proteins-directly incorporated within the lipid bilayer itself; extracted by
drastic methods using detergents; provide structural channels for molecules to
diffuse esp. ions; act as carrier proteins that could not pass thru lipid bilayer; act
as enzymes; provide info about environment to the cell interior.
 Peripheral proteins-looser association with one of the surfaces of the bilayer; can
be extracted by salt solution; often attached of integral protein; functions as
enzymes of transport through membrane pores
1.3.1.3 Membrane Carbohydrates- in combination with protein or lipid outward cell’s surface;
receptor for binding hormones such as insulin; some enter immune reactions; have
negative electrical charge; attaching cells to one another

1.3.2 Identify descriptions of different types of ion channels of the cell membrane
1.3.2...1 Ungated Channels (lea/open/non-gated channels)- Always open
1.3.2...2 Gated channels- controls permeability
 Voltage-gated ion channel-channels open/close depending on
electrical potential across the membrane
 Ligand-gated channels- channel that opens by binding of a ligand;
conformational change in structure that opens/closes the channel
 Mechanically-gated channel-physically deforming (stretching) of
membrane may affect the conformation of some channel proteins

1.3.3 Identify descriptions of the different types of cell membrane junctions

 Tight or occluding junctions/ Zonula occludens form a seal between adjacent
cells and are the most apical of the junctions. The seal between the membranes is
due to interactions between the transmembrane proteins claudin and occludin of
each cell . The intercellular seal of this junctional type ensures that molecules
crossing an epithelium in either direction do so by going through the cells
(transcellular path) rather than between them (paracellular pathway). Defects in
occludins may compromise the fetal blood-brain barrier, leading to severe neurologic
disorders
 Adherens or anchoring junctions/Zonula adherens which also encircles the
epithelial cell, usually immediately below the zonula occludens. This is an adherent
junction, firmly anchoring a cell to its neighbors. Cell adhesion here is mediated by
cadherins which binds to catenin that is linked via actin-binding proteins to actin
flaments. It provides points linking the cytoskeletons of adjacent cells; strengthens
and stabilizes nearby tight junctions. Loss of E-cadherin in epithelial cell tumors
(carcinomas) promotes tumor invasion and the shift to malignancy
 Desmosomes/macula adherens contain larger members of the cadherin family
called desmoglein and desmocollin. On the cytoplasmic side of each cell membrane,
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these proteins inset into a dense attachment plaque of anchoring proteins

(plakoglobin and desmoplakin) that bind intermediate filaments rather than actin
filament. It provides points of strong intermediate filament coupling between adjacent
cells, strengthening the tissue. Autoimmunity against desmoglein leads to dyshesive
skin disorders characterized by reduced cohesion of epidermal cells.
 Gap junctions (nexus) mediate communication rather than adhesion or occlusion
between cells. The gap junction proteins, called connexins, form hexameric
complexes called connexons. Connexins in the adjacent cell membranes move
laterally and align to form connexons between the two cells with each junction having
dozens or hundreds of aligned connexon pairs. Gap junctions permit intercellular
exchange of molecules with small (<1.5 nm) diameters.
 Hemidesmosomes is the junction between basal domain of an epithelial cell and
subjacent basal lamina these adhesive structures resemble a half-desmosome ultra
structurally, but, unlike desmosomes, they contain abundant integrins rather than
cadherins. Anchors cytoskeleton to the basal lamina

2. Discuss homeostasis (Vander’s Human Physiology)

PHYSIOOGY- Dr. Laguardia

Physiological variables- blood pressure; body temperature; and blood-borne factors such as
oxygen, glucose, and sodium ions, for example—are maintained within a predictable range. A constant
internal environment is a prerequisite for good health.

Homeostasis was defined as a state of reasonably stable balance between physiological variables.

2.1 Identify descriptions and examples of negative feedback, positive feedback and feed
forward regulation

Feedback Systems

Negative feedback system, in which an increase or decrease in the variable being

regulated brings about responses that tend to move the variable in the direction opposite
(“negative” to) the direction of the original change. Example: Thermoregulatory System.

Positive feedback. Accelerates a process Example. The process of parturition (birth).

Clotting. Lactation

Feed forward regulation. Changes in regulated variables are anticipated and prepared
for before they actually occur. Example. Thermoregulatory and smell of food. (The smell triggers
nerves responses from the odor receptors to digestive systems.

2.2 Identify the important generalizations about homeostatic control systems.

1. Stability of an internal environmental variable is achieved by balancing inputs and outputs. It is

not the absolute magnitudes of the input and outputs that matter but the balance between them.

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2. In negative feedback, a change in the variable being regulated brings about responses that tend
to move the variable in the direction opposite the original change—that is, back toward the initial
value (set point)
3. Homeostatic control systems cannot maintain complete constancy of any given feature of the
internal environment. Therefore, any regulated variable will have a more or less narrow range of
normal values depending on the external environmental conditions
4. The set point of some variables regulated by homeostatic control systems can be reset—that is,
physiologically raised or lowered
5. It is not always possible for homeostatic control systems to maintain every variable within a
narrow normal range in response to an environmental challenge. There is a hierarchy of
importance, so that certain variables may be altered markedly to maintain others within their
normal range.

2.3 Identify descriptions/characteristics of the components of homeostatic control

system.

2.3.1 Reflex

Reflex is a specific, involuntary, unpremeditated response to a particular stimulus. The

pathway mediating a reflex is known as the reflex arc, and its components: A stimulus is
defined as a detectable change in the internal or external environment. A receptor detects the
environmental change. A stimulus acts upon a receptor to produce a signal that is relayed to an
integrating center. The signal travels between the receptor and the integrating center along the
afferent pathway. An integrating center receives the signals then the output of an integrating
center is sent to the last component of the system via the efferent pathway which is the
effector whose change in activity constitutes the overall response of the system.

2.3.2. Local Homeostatic Responses

These responses are initiated by a change in the external or internal environment (that
is, a stimulus), and they induce an alteration of cell activity with the net effect of counteracting
the stimulus. However, the entire sequence occurs only in the area of the stimulus
Example: When cells of a tissue become very metabolically active, they secrete
substances into the interstitial fluid that dilate (widen) local blood vessels. The resulting
increased blood flow increases the rate at which nutrients and oxygen are delivered to that area,
and the rate at which wastes are removed. The significance of local responses is that they
provide individual areas of the body with mechanisms for local self-regulation.

2.3 Identify descriptions to processes related to homeostasis

2.3.1 Adaptation and Acclimatization
Adaptation denotes a characteristic that favors survival in specific environments.
Homeostatic control systems are inherited biological adaptations. The ability to respond
to a particular environmental stress is not fixed, however, but can be enhanced by
prolonged exposure to that stress. This type of adaptation—the improved functioning of
an already existing homeostatic system—is known as acclimatization. Acclimatizations
are usually reversible.

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2.3.2 Biological rhythms

Circadian rhythm, which cycles approximately once every 24 h. Waking and
sleeping, body temperature, hormone concentrations in the blood, the excretion of ions
into the urine, and many other functions undergo circadian variation.
Biological rhythms enable homeostatic mechanisms to be utilized immediately
and automatically by activating them at times when a challenge is likely to occur but
before it actually does occur. A crucial point concerning most body rhythms is that they
are internally driven. Environmental factors do not drive the rhythm but rather provide the
timing cues important for entrainment, or setting of the actual hours of the rhythm
In the part of the brain called the hypothalamus, a specific collection of neurons
(the suprachiasmatic nucleus) functions as the principal pacemaker, or time clock, for
circadian rhythms. The pacemaker receives input from the eyes and many other parts of
the nervous system, and these inputs mediate the entrainment effects exerted by the
external environment. In turn, the pacemaker sends out neural signals to other parts of
the brain, which then influence the various body systems, activating some and inhibiting
others. One output of the pacemaker goes to the pineal gland, a gland within the brain
that secretes the hormone melatonin. These neural signals from the pacemaker cause
the pineal gland to secrete melatonin during darkness but not during daylight. It has
been hypothesized; therefore, that melatonin may act as an important mediator to
influence other organs either directly or by altering the activity of the parts of the brain
that control these organs.

2.3.3 Balance of chemical Substances in the body

Generalizations concerning the balance concept: (1) During any period of time,
total-body balance depends upon the relative rates of net gain and net loss to the body;
and (2) the pool concentration depends not only upon the total amount of the substance
in the body but also upon exchanges of the substance within the body. For any
substance, three states of total-body balance are possible: (1) Loss exceeds gain, so
that the total amount of the substance in the body is decreasing, and the person is in
negative balance; (2) gain exceeds loss, so that the total amount of the substance in
the body is increasing, and the person is in positive balance; and (3) gain equals loss,
and the person is in stable balance.

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