Professional Documents
Culture Documents
a r t i c l e i n f o abstract
Article history: Renewable biofuels are increasingly important in the Brazilian energy matrix. In 2010, the country
Received 25 September 2012 became the second world producer of biodiesel with a production of 2.4 million of m3 in that year, only
Received in revised form behind Germany. In 2011, both the United States and Argentina increased production and now Brazil is
26 December 2012
the fourth world producer of biodiesel. The Brazilian biodiesel production federal program has been
Accepted 29 December 2012
designed so that small family farmers, as well as large agribusiness operations, are encouraged to
Available online 5 February 2013
produce vegetable oil crops for biodiesel production. Brazil is the second largest world producer of
Keywords: soybeans, currently the main feedstock used for biodiesel production in the country. Due to the
Biodiesel increasing demand for biodiesel and low oil productivity from soybean, Brazil is searching for
Feedstocks
alternative oilseed crops from which biodiesel can be produced. In this review, the current scenario
Brazil
for biodiesel production in Brazil is discussed, as well as vegetable oil crops that are being considered as
potential biodiesel feedstocks in addition to soybeans. Brazil’s biodiesel industry is currently operating
only at 47% of its capacity. Therefore, it is expected that biodiesel production in Brazil will further
increase. Due to the size of the country’s bioethanol and biodiesel industries, Brazil can already be
considered one of the world powers in sustainable biofuel production, an strategic area of the world’s
emerging bio-based economy.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
2. Biodiesel production and early beginnings in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
3. The Brazilian National Program for biodiesel production and use (PNPB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
4. Candidate crops for producing biodiesel in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
4.1. Oil palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
4.2. Physic nut. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
4.3. Coconut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
4.4. Babassu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
4.5. Sunflower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
4.6. Rapeseed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
4.7. Castor bean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
4.8. Peanut. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
4.9. Soybean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
4.10. Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
4.11. Exotic oil producing species found in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
5. Future prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
n
Corresponding author at: Embrapa-Agroenergy, Parque Estac- a~ o Biológica, s/n 70.770-901 Brası́lia, DF, Brazil. Tel.: þ 55 61 3448 7115; fax: þ 55 61 3274 3127.
E-mail addresses: betania.quirino@embrapa.br, bfq@uwalumni.com (B.F Quirino).
1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.12.058
412 J.C Bergmann et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 21 (2013) 411–420
World population growth is increasing the use of petroleum- Natural oil has a viscosity 10 to 17 times higher than petro-
derived energy resulting in high emissions of pollutants into the diesel, which can cause damage to engines. To reduce viscosity, it
atmosphere. Fortunately, concern about the environment is growing is necessary for crude vegetable oil to be converted into biodiesel
and the scientific community is being challenged to improve existing through a transesterification or esterification process [6]. For the
renewable alternatives to petroleum-derived fuels and to create new biodiesel production process, vegetable oils can be extracted with
ones. Renewable fuels will likely be an important product in bio- solvent or mechanically by pressing the fruit or seed, depending
based economies. on the plant species, which is followed by purification and a
Biodiesel is a fuel produced from vegetable oils, animal fats or refining process [7].
waste vegetable oils and has been widely studied. Chemically, In the transesterification process, reaction occurs between the
biodiesel is a mono ester alkali that can substitute oil diesel triglyceride (oil) and an alcohol forming a methyl or ethyl-ester
(petrodiesel). The degree in which this substitution will happen (i.e., biodiesel) as the main product and glycerin (i.e., glycerol) as
will depend on how economically competitive biodiesel is. For a byproduct. To increase efficiency and reduce reaction time, a
this it will need to be produced from renewable and abundant catalyst is used. Different catalysts such as acids, bases or
feedstocks, the largest component to the price of biodiesel. In enzymes can be used. Transesterification can occur with acid or
2010, Brazil became the second largest producer of biodiesel with base catalysts which can be homogeneous or heterogeneous [6].
a production of 2.4 million m3, remaining behind Germany, the While homogeneous catalysts function in the same phase as the
largest world biodiesel producer for 2010 with a production of reactants, heterogeneous catalysts act in a different phase than
2.8 million m3 [1]. In 2011, despite Brazil’s increase in biodiesel the reactants. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is widely used as a
production to 2.6 million of m3 [2], it was surpassed by the United homogeneous base (i.e., alkaline) catalyst in transesterification
States which produced 3.7 million of m3 [3] and Argentina which for its efficiency and low price, as well as availability in the
produced 2.7 million of m3 of biodiesel [4]. Germany maintained market [8].
production at 2.8 million m3 [5] (Fig. 1). Brazil’s ranking among Different types of alcohols can be used in the transesterifica-
the top world producers is largely a result of investments made tion process including ethanol, methanol, propanol, butanol, and
in biodiesel research and production due to a governmental amyl-alcohol. Currently, the methanol route to biodiesel produc-
program. tion is most commonly used in Brazil and in the world as this
Renewable energy sources are vitally important to Brazil’s reaction has higher efficiency, occurs in a shorter time and lower
energy matrix. Sugarcane production for energy purposes temperature (60 1C) compared to other alcohols [9]. However, as
(i.e., bioethanol) has a long-standing tradition in Brazilian agri- methanol is obtained from fossil source (i.e., from methane) and it
culture. Brazil is currently not only a large producer of soybeans is toxic, ideally it should be substituted by alternative alcohols [8].
but also an important producer and consumer of biodiesel. According to Freedman et al. [9], the transesterification reaction
Brazil’s proven competitiveness in agribusiness and its under- of soybean oil using methanol, ethanol and butane and 1% of
standing that the use of biofuels need to be expanded put the sulfuric acid, achieved conversion between 96 and 98%, regardless
country in a key position in the biofuel market. However, the of the alcohol used. As ethanol can mix better with oil than others
demand for biodiesel is increasing due to governmental policies alcohols, the excess of alcohol used to force the stoichiometry can
and alternatives to soybean as a source for biodiesel should be be a problem later when the ester formed needs to be separated
encouraged, particularly crops with higher oil productivity. Other from ethanol. Because of the large production of ethanol in Brazil,
than soybeans, there are several oil crops that are candidate it would be more advantageous to use ethanol to make biodiesel
feedstocks for biodiesel production in Brazil. After a brief over- than methanol. Brazil is investing in research to improve this
view of the history of biodiesel in Brazil and biodiesel production, technology [8].
this review discusses the Brazilian federal program PNPB and Because oil properties’ are different for each oil crop species
candidate crops that may be used to produce biodiesel in Brazil in (for an extensive review on this subject see [10]), a particular
addition to soybeans. In this review, data from Brazilian govern- biodiesel conversion process may be more suitable for each oil
ment agencies that are not easily accessible to non-Portuguese type. For example, more basic catalyst needs to be added to an
speakers are presented. The current status, some challenges and acidic oil to neutralize the free fatty acids (FFA) (i.e., long-chain
future prospects for the biodiesel industry in Brazil are consid- carboxylic acid) or it could be necessary to use an acid catalyst
ered. The Brazilian experience should be of interest both to instead [11]. Both the alcohol and the oil used in this reaction
countries that are current competitors (i.e., large biodiesel need to be anhydrous, as the presence of water in the reaction can
producers), as well as to countries that are starting to look for lead to the production of soap from the FFA. This undesirable
business opportunities in this sector, particularly countries with byproduct decreases ester production efficiency and complicates
similar tropical climate. the purification of glycerol.
A second route to produce biodiesel is through esterification.
In an esterification reaction, a FFA reacts with a low molecular
Benelux weight alcohol such as methanol or ethanol producing ester (i.e.,
4% 7% biodiesel) and water. This process can be used when the oil is
16% 17% Germany
acidic (i.e., acidity 45) such as FFA-rich oil resultant from the
France
refining of vegetable oils, animal fats obtained from the slaughter-
17% Italy house, as well as oils obtained from sewage [7]. For FFA-rich oils,
14%
United States the use of basic catalysts is not recommended, once it can
Argentina combine with the FFA to form soap. The use of homogeneous
3%
Brazil acid catalysts for esterification can be used instead. However, it is
22% difficult to remove the residual catalyst from the esterified
Spain
product [7].
Fig. 1. World biodiesel production in 2011. In both transesterification and esterification processes,
Source: Data from OECD [3]. another option instead of using chemical catalysts is to rely on
J.C Bergmann et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 21 (2013) 411–420 413
enzymes (i.e., lipases) for catalysis. The yield of biodiesel production 3. The Brazilian National Program for biodiesel production
using enzymatic catalysts is high, especially when using refined oils and use (PNPB)
instead of crude oils. Crude oils contain phopholipids that can affect
the interaction between enzyme and substrate [12]. Lipase catalysts According to law no. 11.097/2005, as of January 2008, the use
are more active on insoluble substrates and on triglycerides of long of 2% biodiesel blended with petrodiesel (B2) is mandatory in
chain fatty acids. For short chain triglycerides (i.e., less than Brazil and increasing amounts of biodiesel blended with petro-
6 carbons), esterase enzymes can be used as catalysts. The use of diesel will be required with time. Currently Brazil is using B5
enzyme catalysts is more advantageous than base or acid catalysts diesel, which became mandatory before the scheduled date.
because they can be recovered and reused or can be used in an Therefore, the demand for biodiesel tends to increase and the
immobilized form. Also, the process occurs at low temperatures PNPB came as an important instrument of public policy in the
(e.g., 40 1C) in comparison to chemically catalyzed processes. How- sector.
ever, one of its drawbacks is that commercial lipases are expensive, PNPB defines biodiesel as a fuel derived from biomass that can
a problem for large-scale industrial operations. be used in internal combustion engines with compression igni-
In Brazil, the earliest reference to the use of vegetable oils as tion. As such, biodiesel has emerged to replace petrodiesel,
fuel occured in 1920. At that time, many universities began to partially or completely. PNPB aims to reduce Brazil’s dependence
invest in research using in natura oil blended to petrodiesel as a on imports of petrodiesel and to seek new sources of renewable
fuel. The research centers in Brazil that participated in these energy. PNPB was also designed to encourage small farmers
studies were the National Institute of Technology, the Oil Institute (family farms) to produce feedstock for biodiesel production
of Ministry of Agriculture and the Industrial Technology Institute and become an important part of this biofuel production chain.
of the state of Minas Gerais [13]. This is accomplished in part through the Social Seal, a certificate
In 1973, a petroleum crisis impacted global economy and provided by the Ministry of Agrarian Development (MDA) to
research for renewable fuels was again intensified. Back then, biodiesel producers that buy oil from family farmers at specific
Brazil imported 80% of the petroleum needed. In the same decade, percentages from each geographical region of Brazil. In turn,
the National Institute of Technology and the Institute for Tech- biodiesel producers with the Social Seal get fiscal benefits from
nological Research began to study biodiesel made from palm oil the Federal government [15]. For example, a 68% reduction in
(‘dende’ in Portuguese), calling it dendiesel [13]. In the following federal taxes (i.e.; PIS/PASEP and COFINS taxes) is granted to
years, with the end of the petroleum crisis, petrodiesel became biodiesel producers that buy oil seeds from family farms and up
cheaper and research on biodiesel was no longer a priority. to 100% tax reduction can be obtained if the acquisition of oil is
The use of biodiesel in Brazil became more common in the 80s from oil palm family farmers from the North or Northeast regions
when a number of governmental programs were launched. In or castor bean family farmers from the semiarid region of Brazil.
1980, the National Program for Vegetable Oil Production for Biodiesel producers with a Social Seal also benefit from credit
Energy Purposes (Proóleo) was launched following resolution lines with favorable rates from banks such as BNDES, BASA, BNB
no. 7 of the National Council of Energy. This program aimed to and Banco do Brasil. Mills that have the seal can also participate
replace 30% of petrodiesel by vegetable oil, encourage researchers in auctions buying and selling the biodiesel [16]. Family farmers
to increase the production of vegetable oils in different regions of also get special credit lines [15].
the country and to try to replace the petrodiesel by biodiesel [13]. Another interesting feature of PNPB is that biodiesel producers
Due to the drop in petrodiesel prices in 1985, this program was and family farmers are bound by a contract establishing the price
abandoned. Still in the 80s, the Industrial Technology Secretary the family farmer will get for the oil as well as the date the oil has
launched the National Energy Program from Vegetable Oils to be delivered to the biodiesel producer. In addition, biodiesel
(OVEG) that aimed to test vegetable oils in diesel engines. producers supply technical assistance to family farmers [15]. In
Different tests with pure biodiesel and with B30 biodiesel (i.e., this way, PNPB has been able to encourage the structuring of the
70% petrodiesel and 30% biodiesel blend) were performed, but sector with small farmers and the industry working in concert. In
due to the high cost of production, commercial scale use of 2010, 20% of biodiesel production came from family farming;
biodiesel was not feasible at the time [8]. with 103,000 farming families participating in the biodiesel
In 2002, the Ministry of Science and Technology launched the production chain [17]. In 2011, the number of farming families
program Probiodiesel. This program aimed to reduce biodiesel increased to 105,000 [18]. Furthermore, PNPB seeks to diversify
imports because of high prices, to expand the market for the oil crops from which biodiesel is produced, as well as the
vegetable oils and to decrease emission of greenhouse gases, as region of the country where they are planted. In practice, it
Brazil is a signatory country for the Kyoto Protocol. In 2003, the attempts to give an opportunity to feedstocks other than soy-
Ministry of Mines and Energy launched the Green Fuel Program beans produced by large agribusiness operations [15]. Crop and
which also intended to create more farm jobs [8]. In the same region of origin diversification allows for a more stable supply of
year, came decree no. 02/07/2003 and a commission at the oil for biodiesel production throughout the year.
ministry level was formed to lay the foundation for the National Large areas available for agriculture and governmental incen-
Program for Use and Production of Biodiesel (PNPB). PNPB was tives can lead Brazil to become an even more important biodiesel
created in December 2004 and, as will be discussed in detail in producer. However, the ultimate challenge for the future is to
the next section, it is currently the most important Brazilian make biodiesel that is cost competitive with petrodiesel. Thus,
government biodiesel public policy program. In 2004, the state technologies are being developed to improve biodiesel production
of Pará Biodiesel Program was created, contributing to its in Brazil.
current status as the largest producer of palm oil in Brazil [14].
In 2005, the first year of the PNPB program, Brazil produced
736 m3 of biodiesel increasing production by more than 500 fold 4. Candidate crops for producing biodiesel in Brazil
to 399,243 m3 in 2007; with the state of Goiás being the largest
producer of biodiesel, mainly from soybeans [11]. In 2008, the In 2011, Brazil produced 2.6 million of m3 of biodiesel, with
world faced another petroleum crisis and prices became abusive. the Center-west region of the country being the main producer
Brazil took this as a warning and started to invest again in (Fig. 2a) [19,20]. Brazil has increased its biodiesel production over
research on renewable fuels. the years (Fig. 2b), however, its mills are not producing at
414 J.C Bergmann et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 21 (2013) 411–420
Table 1
6000 Comparison of oil crops grown in Brazil.
Thousands of m3 Production (B100)
5000 NC
Crop Oil content (%) Plant cycle Oil yield (kg/ha) References
4000
3000 Oil palm (fruit) 22 Perennial 2000–8000 [24,27]
2000 Physic nut (kernel) 38 Perennial 1200–1500 [34,35,82]
Coconut (copra) 58–65 Perennial 1481 [43,44]
1000
Babassu (kernel) 60 Perennial 120 [51]
0 Castor bean (seed) 39.6–59.5 Annual 470–810n [34,60,83]
Peanut (grain) 40–60 Annual 788 [24,64]
Sunflower (seed) 40–47 Annual 774 [24]
Soybean (grain) 18–21 Annual 560 [24]
Region Rapeseed 34–40 Annual 570 [34]
Cotton (seed) 18–20 Annual 361 [24]
2.5 n
810 kg/ha was calculated considering a productivity of 1.8 t/ha and an
Millions of m3
[39]. Furthermore, oil extraction from fruits at different ripening Brazil, and there is little knowledge about babassu palm crop
stages has a negative impact on oil quality [39]. Studies of management.
mechanized and semi-mechanized harvesting of Jatropha fruits
are being made; and some of the methods are described on ‘‘The 4.5. Sunflower
Jatropha Handbook’’. However, there is still no efficient mechan-
ization method for harvesting Jatropha fruits [39]. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is an annual crop of Asteraceae
Many of the current problems of Jatropha as a biodiesel family and was introduced in Brazil by European immigrants. It is
feedstock crop (e.g., variable productivity, susceptibility to patho- not one of the major crops in the country since it competes with
gens, lack of synchrony in fruit maturation) may be solved using a soybeans and corn that are planted in the same period of the year.
genetic approach. However, a study of 192 Brazilian accessions of In 2011, the area used for sunflower cultivation was 66,400 ha
J. curcas with RAPD primers and six selected microsatellite with a total production of 83,100 t [52]. The central region of
markers revealed low genetic diversity, a problem for plant Brazil is the largest producer generating 64,000 t in 2010/2011;
breeding programs [40]. Interestingly, nontoxic genotypes of J. most of the production is destined for bird food, a few companies
curcas low in phorbol esters have been found in Mexico and these produce biodiesel from sunflower seed oil [52].
can be identified with molecular markers. Sunflower seed oil presents high nutritional value and it can be
Recently, the whole J. curcas genome (i.e., ca. 286 Mbp) has extracted at room temperature without chemical products. Sun-
been sequenced. This will be useful not only for developing tools flower has a high oil yield at 774 kg/ha. In 2010, world sunflower
to genetically improve this crop, but also to increase the under- oil production was 12,206,000 t. The major producers being
standing of the basic biology of this species [41]. Ukraine followed by Russia, the E.U. and Argentina [53]. In Brazil
the percentage of biodiesel produced from sunflower oil is only
0.04%, comparable to that of castor oil [24].
4.3. Coconut
4.6. Rapeseed
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) is a perennial species of the Arecaceae
family (Fig. 3) widely distributed in the tropics. The introduction
Rapeseed (Brassica napus) is a weed of the Brassicaceae family
of this palm tree in Brazil occurred before the colonization of
(formerly Cruciferae). Its origin is uncertain, but it is likely to be
Brazil by the Portuguese. Today coconut is found throughout the
native from the Mediterranean area or Northern Europe. Rape-
coast of Brazil, between the states of Rio Grande do Norte and
seed oil is commonly known as ‘‘Canola’’, however, this name
Bahia (Fig. 4) [42]. The coconut tree takes 7 years to start
stands for Canadian oil, low acid and was a trademark of the
producing, after which fruits can be harvested every 1.5 to
Canola Council of Canada. Native rapeseed was inedible and its oil
3 months [22]. There are two basic types of coconut tree: the tall
used as machine lubricant. It contains erucic acid, which is toxic
variety Typica Nar. and the dwarf variety Nana Griff. Each of these
to humans in high concentrations, and glucosinolates, which gives
varieties has certain advantages that can be combined in a hybrid
the oil an unpleasant flavor. In the late 1970s, Canadian scientists
variety. The tall and the hybrid varieties have high oil yields; the
used classic plant breeding methods to develop cultivars from
dwarf has a high production of coconut water. The main reason
B. napus and B. rapa (campestris) without the undesirable char-
coconut became a candidate for biodiesel production is its high oil
acteristics. Since 1986, the name canola was used as a general
content. The desiccated coconut endosperm (i.e., also known as
term to define rapeseed oil that contains less than 2% erucic acid,
copra or coconut flesh) (Fig. 3) has 58–65% of oil content [43], and
and less than 30 mmoles/g glucosinolates [54].
oil yield is between 1481 kg/ha [44]. In 2011, Brazil produced
Oil content in rapeseed ranges from 34 to 40% [34]. It is the
1,8999,355 t of coconut in 261,824 ha and imported 264,934 kg
primary oilseed crop in Europe, and its oil production is mainly
[45]. Large investments are needed to increase coconut produc-
directed to industrial purposes, especially biodiesel [55]. In Brazil,
tion if its oil is to be used in the biodiesel industry.
rapeseed started being planted in 70s in the southern area of the
country as a rotation crop for wheat. The cultivation of canola in
4.4. Babassu Brazil has been in expansion since 2005, when Embrapa devel-
oped hybrid cultivars resistant to diseases caused by fungi [56].
Babassu (Attalea speciosa) is a perennial plant of the Arecaceae The area of rapeseed production in 2010/2011 was 46,300 ha and
family. The taxonomy of species in the genus Attalea is still the production was 69,700 t, with 94% of this production from the
confusing [46]. Babassu is native to the southern part of the southern region of Brazil [52].
Amazon (Fig. 3) [47] and currently grows in the States of Rapeseed oil production in Brazil is mostly for the food market,
Maranha~ o Tocantins, Piauı́ and Pará (Fig. 4) [23]. The state of the use for biodiesel is practically inexistent, but it is considered
Maranha~ o accounts for 94% of the total production in Brazil [48]. by the Brazilian government as an alternative to soybean. The
The babassu palm takes approximately 12 years to start produc- Brazilian government is encouraging rapeseed crop expansion to
tion and the first bunch takes nine months to mature [23]. In other regions of the country. The introduction of canola in the
subsequence years, babassu can be harvested throughout the year Center-west region of Brazil has generated promising productiv-
[49]. There is no systematic cultivation of babassu in Brazil and ity results, and in 2010/2011 it accounted for 6% of Brazilian total
current production comes from spontaneous babassu palm trees production [56].
that occur in clusters (i.e., babassu forests). The Brazilian babassu
production area occupies about 17 million ha, but this data is not 4.7. Castor bean
exact [50] as the occurrence of babassu palm trees is sporadic. The
babassu palm tree (Fig. 3) can be fully used. From its seed, oil to Castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) is an annual plant of the
produce biodiesel is extracted, the pie is used as animal feed and Euphorbiaceae family (Fig. 3) native to Africa [57] that is harvested
the bark can be burned for energy [8]. The reason that this plant during 3 months per year [49]. It was introduced in Brazil by the
became a candidate to produce biodiesel is that the fruit endocarp Portuguese during colonization. It is produced in the northeast of
has about 60% of oil and the plant produces approximately 120 kg Brazil, mainly in the state of Bahia (Fig. 4) by family farmers [50].
of oil/ha [51]. The cost of oil extraction is high because it is Castor bean oil has wide application in the chemicals industry (e.g., it
manual. There are no commercial plantations of babassu palms in is used to produce paint, varnishes and lubricants) and cosmetic
J.C Bergmann et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 21 (2013) 411–420 417
industry (e.g., it is used to produce soap and shampoo). One of the large agribusiness operations in part of the Center-west, North-
reasons it has been considered for biodiesel production in Brazil, is east and South regions of Brazil (Fig. 4) [69]. It is an annual crop
that castor bean is a drought-tolerant plant, well adapted to semi-arid with 3 months of harvesting [49]. In the recent past, soybean
regions or places with long dry periods. In 2011, Brazil had crops increase every year and 25,042 million ha were planted in
128,200 ha of castor bean planted area and a production of 24,800 t 2011. In 2011, 66.4 millions of tons of soybeans were produced,
of seeds [58]. In 2005, family farmers were encouraged to plant castor making Brazil the second world producer of this crop [58]. The
bean, but lack of buyers made the price fall and producers lost Brazilian industry uses 30.7 million t of soybean per year to produce
interest. This situation was reversed after the company Petrobras 5.8 million t of edible oil and 23.5 millions of tons of protein bran.
Biofuels opened a pilot plant for producing biodiesel with castor bean Brazil ranks third in the world as soybean oil exporter [17]. The
oil in the city of Candeias in the state of Bahia, northeastern region of high quality of Brazilian soybean seeds (Fig. 3) and its high protein
Brazil. The varieties of castor bean that are used commercially in content make it an excellent export product [70]. Brazil exports
Brazil are BRS188 and BRS149, developed by Embrapa Corporation most of the grain to be used mainly as animal feed, with the oil
and are ideal for altitudes between 300 and 1500 m and temperatures being less economically valuable [17]. The increase in soybean
between 20 1C and 30 1C [59]. The castor bean seed (Fig. 3) has production in Brazil is related to the increase in number of cattle, as
approximately 39.6–59.5% of oil [60], but the yield is only 470 of oil/ soybean is the main ingredient in cattle feed in Brazil [17].
ha (Table 1) [34]. Castor oil has unique chemical properties: high A major problem with soybeans as a crop used for biodiesel
viscosity, physical and chemical stability and solubility in alcohol at production is its low seed oil content (i.e., only 18%) if compared
low temperatures [61]. Castor bean oil is composed mainly (90%) by to others oil seeds. If alternative crops with higher oil yield do not
ricinoleic fatty acid that has a hydroxyl (OH) group largely responsible become more important in the next few years, increasing demand
for the oil’s chemical properties. Ricinoleic acid is unsaturated and has for biodiesel production will require more soybean to be planted
a low fusion point ( 5 1C) [6]. These properties make it difficult to in Brazil. In this scenario, it is estimated that by 2020/2021, the
separate the glycerol from castor bean biodiesel in the final stage of planted area in Brazil dedicated to soybeans will have expanded
the process [62]. Despite these difficulties, in 2009, Petrobras to 30 million ha [71].
announced that it has established a biodiesel production process
from castor oil [63]. 4.10. Cotton
production system. Tucuma~ leaves can be used for its fibers and On the other hand, it is expected that seeds with higher oil
its fruits have culinary applications. The fruits present an oil yield than soybeans will increase their participation as feedstocks
content of approximately 47% and are rich in vitamin A [74]. The for biodiesel production. As discussed previously, it is difficult to
oil content in the mesocarp is 30%, while 40–50% oil is found in compare different crops and many factors can contribute to the
the endocarp [75]. The fruiting of the tucuma~ palm tree occurs best regional alternative. Therefore, a diversification of the oil
throughout the year. There are no data about the production crops used for biodiesel production in Brazil is desirable. Research
system of this palm tree. Studies show that tucuma~ seeds take leading to improved crop varieties, domestication of more exotic
more than 1000 days to germinate, but with proper handling this species, information about pathogens and optimization of crop
time can be reduced to 3 or 4 months [76]. management practices will likely play a significant role as to
Inajá (Attalea maripa), a palm tree also known as najá or which oil crops will become important biodiesel feedstocks in the
coco-inajá, is found throughout the Amazon region, especially in future. Ideally, each region of the country will plant its own
the states of Pará and Maranha~ o. Maranha~ o is a state geographi- feedstock and produce biodiesel from it in local industrial plants.
cally in the Northeast region (Fig. 3) but it is a transition between Today Brazil is an important producer and consumer of
the Amazon and Caatinga biomes. This palm tree reaches 20 m in biodiesel. It also has a tradition in producing ethanol from
height and is highly resistant to fire. The Inajá fruit is appreciated sugarcane sucrose. The size of the Brazil’s bioethanol and biodie-
for its sweet flavor. The seeds are rich in oil, about 60% of its sel industries alone, make it a world power in sustainable biofuel
content, being a potential source for biodiesel production [77]. production. The ability to produce affordable biomass in large
However, a production system is not yet developed. quantities and Brazil’s large unused industrial capacity for bio-
The macaúba (Acrocomia spp.), sometimes called Macaw palm, diesel production make it likely that it will continue to play an
reaches 10–15 m. Different species of this palm tree are found important role in this sector. Companies that use new technolo-
throughout South America. In Brazil, macaúba is found in the gies such as synthetic biology that allow the conversion of sucrose
states of Pará, Mato Grosso do Sul, Rio de Janeiro and Sa~ o Paulo. into hydrocarbon molecules including a renewable diesel are
The fruits present a yellow-greenish color; its pulp is used in taking a special interest in Brazil. In this scenario, Brazil may be
culinary applications. The seed has high amount of high-quality an early adopter of green technologies at industrial scale.
oil: 20–30% oil content, rich in of lauric acid, which accounts for
45% of its oil content [78].
Licuri (Syagrus coronata), also known as ouricuri, is a palm tree
with 8–11 m. The licuri plant produces up to 8 clusters with about Acknowledgments
1357 fruits 1.4 cm in diameter [78]. This palm tree is found in the
states of Minas Gerais, Bahia, Pernambuco, Sergipe and Alagoas. We would like to thank Bruno Laviola, Cláudio Bezerra, Goreti
The licuri palm tree seed has 49% of oil content and the palm Braga, David Bertioli, Gilberto Omar Tomm, José Reynaldo da
produces fruits year round [79]. Hitherto, there are few studies Fonseca, Patrı́cia Barbosa, Siglia Souza, Soraya Bertioli and Daniela
about the cultivation of this palm tree. Collares for crop pictures from the Embrapa-Agroenergy archive;
Buriti (Mauritia flexuosa), also known as muriti, is a palm tree FINEP (Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos), CNPq, (Conselho
found in Amazonian region. This palm tree reaches 20–25 m, with Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientı́fico e Tecnológico), FAPDF
several branches supporting the fruits. The elliptical fruits are (Fundac- a~ o de Apoio a Pesquisa do Distrito Federal) for financial
4–7 cm long. The pulp of its fruits has 19% oil content, predomi- support. J.C. Bergmann and O.Y.A. Costa were supported by CNPq
nantly oleic acid [80]. fellowships.
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