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LEVEL 111
/ NOT MEASUlcERIENT
SENSITII'E
25 Januarv 1991
SUPERSEDING .
MILSI7D-410D
23 JULY 1974
MILITARY STANDARD
NONDESTRUClTVi? TESTING PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION AND
CERTIFICATION
1. This military standard is approved for use by all Departments and Agencies of the
Department of Defense.
Product form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Specific examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Test samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Training ......................................... 4
iii
MILSTD-310E
CONTENTS
PARAGRAPH PAGE
4. GENERAL F?EQUlREMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1 Certification procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1.1 Levels of qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1.2 . . duties and responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Perso'nnel 5
4.1.3 Tralnrng program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1.4 Experience requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1.5 Examination practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1.6 Records and documentation administrative practices ..... 5
4.1.7 Recertification requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.4 Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.5 Outside agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. DETAILED REQtJIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.1 Levels of qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.1.1 Trainee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.1.2 Level I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.1.3 Level I1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.1.4 Jnstructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.1.5 . .ID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Level
5.2 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.1 Specialist personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.2 Exams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.3 Minimum required training hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.4 Previous training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.3 Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.3.1 Previous experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3.2
5.4
. . experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Equivalent
Exam~natlons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.4.1 Physical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.4.2 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.4.3 Specific . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.4.4 Practical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.4.4.1 Level l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.4.4.2 Level II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.4.4.3 LevelIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.4.5 Administxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.4.6 Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.4.7 Re-examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.5 Designation of instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.6 Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.6.1 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
MILSTD-410E
CONTENTS
PARAGRAPH
Loss of certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Reinstatement of certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Recertification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Level1 Special ..................................... 14
Intended Use ....................................... 14
Subject tenn (key word) listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Changes from previous issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1. SCOPE
1.1 Pumose. This standard establishes the minimum requirements for the qualification
and certification for personnel involved in the application of nondestructive inspection
WI) or nondestructive testing (NDT) personnel. These requirements include training,
experience and examination.
1.2 ~oplicability.This standard applies to personnel using NDI or NDT methods to
accept materials, products, subsystems, components or systems for the Government,
prime contractors or subcontractors. It also applies to those individuals directly
responsible for the technical adequacy of the NDI and NDT methods used as well as
those providing the technical training or supervision for NDI or NDT personnel. This
standard is not intended to apply to individuals with administrative authority only over
the above identified personnel or to research personnel developing technology for use
by qualified and certified NDI or NDT personnel.
1.2.1 Common methods. This standard contains detailed requirements for the
applicable training, experience, and examination for the following methods:
Liquid penetrant (pr)
Magnetic particle 0
Mdy current m)
Ultrasonic m
Radiography (RT)
Acoustic emission (AE)
Neutron radiography (NRT)
1.2.2 Other methods. This standard may apply to other NDI or NDT methods such as
leak testing. thermography, holography, computed tomography. or any other method
that can determine the acceptability or suitability for intended service of a material,
part, component, subsystem, or.system without impairment of the intended function.
The requirements for personnel training, experience, and examination for these other
methods shall be as established by the contracting agency and shall be in accordance
with the guidelines established for the methods listed in 1.2.1.
1.3 Levels of The levels of qualification established by this standard
are:
Trainee
Level I
Level I1
hstructor
Level III
1.4 Levels of certification. The levels requiring certification in accordance with this
standard are:
Level I
Level I1
Level Lll
2. APPUCABLE DOCUMENTS
2.1 Non-Government ~ublications.The following documents form a part of this
document to the extent specified herein. Unless otherwise specified, the issues of the
documents which are DoD adopted are those listed in the issue of-the DODISS cited in
the solicitation. Unless otherwise specified, the issues of documents not listed in the
DODISS are the issues of the documents cited in the solicitation (see 6.2).
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDBTRUCTIVE TESTING
ASNT-CP-189 - ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive
Testing Personnel
AShT Recommended Practice No. ShT-TC-1A - Personnel Qualification and
Certification in Nondestructive Testing
(Applications for copies should be addressed to the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, 1711 Arlingate Plaza, Columbus OH 43228-0518.)
2.2 Order of ~recedence.3n . the event of a conflict between the text of this document
and the references cited herein, the text of this document takes precedence. Nothing in
this document, however, supersedes applicable laws and regulations unless a specific
exemption has been obtained.
3.20 Prime contractor. The organization having responsibility to the government for a
system, component, or materials.
3.21 Procedure. A detailed, written instruction for conducting NDI or NDT or certifying
personnel. All procedures shall be approved by a Level ID.
3.22 Product form. Materials, parts, or components having similar NDI or NDT
characteristics. Examples of individual product forms are: castings. extrusions, plate,
aeldments, pyrotechnics, bonded assemblies, composite materials, and printed circuit
boards.
3.23 Oualification. The skills, training, knowledge and experience required for
personnel to properly perform to a particular Level.
3.24 Soecific examination. The written examination to determine an individual's
understanding of procedures, codes, standards, and specifications for a given method
used by the employer.
3.25 Techniaue. A category within a method, for example: ultrasonic immersion testing
or fluorescent dye penetrant inspection.
3.26 Test samples. Parts containing known defects and used in the practical
examination to demonstrate the candidate's proficiency in using a particular method.
Test samples will not be production parts unless the Level ID has previously
investigated the parts and documented all abnormal or out of specification conditions
within the samples. Alternatively, test samples can refer to images of actual hardware,
i.e.. radiographs, when the candidate's required proficiency is in the interpretation of
the image rather than the generation of the image.
3.27 Training. An organized and documented program of activities designed to impart
the knowledge a n d skills t o b e qualified to this standard. This program may be a mix
of classroom, laboratory, programmed self-teaching and on-the-job training as
approved by the appropriate Level III.
4 . GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
5.1.5 Level JD. Level III individuals shall have the skills and knowledge to interpret
codes, standards. and other contractual documents that control the method as utilized
by the employer; select the method and technique for a specific inspection; and
prepare and verify the adequacy of procedures. Only individuals certified to Level I II
shall have the authority to approve procedures for technical adequacy in the method to
which they are certified. The individual shall also'have general knowledge of all other
NDI or NDT methods utilized by the employer. The individual shall be capable of
conducting or directing the training and examination of personnel in the method
certified. The individual shall nor conduct NDI or NDT for the acceptance of parts
unless the demonstration of proficiency in this capability was included in the practical
examination upon which, in part, the certification is based.
5.2 Training. Candidates for certification as Level I or Level II shall complete
sufficient organized training to become familiar with the principles and practices of the
applicable test method and techniques. The training shall be conducted in accordance
with a detailed course outline approved by a Level El. The training shall cover basic
principles, products, equipment, operating procedures and techniques, and the
applicable specifications, codes and instructions used by the employer. The
supplements to SNT-TC-IA may be used to develop the training outlines. Subjects
not covered in the instruction shall not appear on the training outline. The training
outlines shall include the list of references from which the training material is derived.
5.2.2 Exams. An individual must pass-a final exam in order to receive credit for a
block of training hours. Such examinations given in conjunction with training shall not
be used to satisfy any of the qualification examination requirements of section 5.4.
5.2.3 Minimum required trainine hours. The minimum training hours for Levels I and
In are given in table I for a variety of NDIMDT methods. The minimum training hours
for those methods not covered by table I shall b e as determined by the Level III and
agreed upon by the facility's customer. There are no additional training requirements
to transition from Level II to Level ID nor can an individual have sufficient training to
allow certification to Level IU without prior certification as a Level 11 or performance
equivalent to a Level II.
RIILST?)-4 IOE
CONDITION
~ O D [I1 I21 I31
-
Penetrant 8 8 16
Magnetic particle 12 8 20
Eddy current 12 40 52
Ultrasonics 40 40 80
Radiography 40 40 80
Acoustic Emission 40 40 80
Neutron radiography 28 40 68
[I ] k v e l I
[2] Level 11, with prior Level I Certification
131 Level 11, no prior Level I Certification
5.2.4 Previous training. Training obtained from a prior employer must be documented
and verified by the previous employer in order to be accepted by the current employer.
For personnel credited with training from a prior employer or those not certified within
6 months of their training, refresher training must be provided. The refresher training
shall cover the following subjects with the depth of coverage of each subject
determined by the Level III responsible for the employer's certification program:
CONDITION
Eddy current 130 hrs 1200 hrs 1330 hrs 4 yrs 2 yrs 1 yr
Ultrasonics 400 hrs 1200 hrs 1600 hrs 4 yrs 2 yrs 1 yi
Radiography 400 hrs 1200 hrs 1600 hrs 4 yrs 2 yrs 1 Yr
Acoustic Emission 400 hrs 1200 hrs 1600 hrs 4 yrs 2 yrs 1 Yr
Neutron radiography 800 hrs 2400 hrs 3200 hrs 4 yrs 2 yrs 1 yr
[2] Level I experience for Le\.el II. Experience in method must be at least
half this time.
[4] Level Il experience required for Level III with no college degree.
[5] Level II experience required for Level III with technical associate
degree.
[6] Level II or equivalent work experience required for Level E
l with technical
bachelors degree. Equivalency of the work experience shall be determined and
documented by the Level III responsible for the employer's certification program.
5.3.1 Previous ex~eriencc.A candidate's experience with a previous employer may be
accepted by the current employer only if that experience is documented and verified by
the former employer.
5.3.2 Eauivalent ex~erience.For personnel certified under previous revisions of this
document or other qualification/certification programs, the equivalency of their
previous experience to the requirements of table TI will be determined and documented
by the Level III.
5.4 Examinations. The examinations to verify the physical and technical qualifications
of candidate personnel shall consist of a physical examination. a general examination,
a specific examination, and a practical examination. The requirements for the physical
examinations; the questions utilized for the general and specific examinations and the
checklist for the practical examination shall be available for review by the facility's
customers. If the actual test questions given during certification examinations are not
kept in each certified individual's records, then the listing of questions from which
examinations are derived shall be available for review by the facility's customers. The
questions shall be made available to certification candidates only during administration
of the examinations.
5.4.1 Phvsical. The physical examination shall assure that the applicants near vision
and color perception meet the following requirements. Near vision tests shall be
administered annually and color perception tests shall be administered prior to
certification or recertification. These tests shall be administered by an individual
approved by the Level III responsible for the maintenance of the certification program
or by the outside agency utilized for the examination of personnel:
Near vision - Jaeger #I test chart at not less than 12 inches, or equivalent with one
eye, either natural or corrected.
Color oerception - Distinguish and differentiate between the colors used in the methad
for which certification is sought.
5.4.2 General. The general examination for all levels shall be a closed book
examination consisting of questions that cover the cross-section of the applicable
method at the appropriate level. The questions, answers, and references in the
appliixble SNT-TC-IA supplement and other publications may be used to develop the
general examination. A minimum of 40 questions shall be used for the general
examination at each level. For Level IlI. the general examination questions will
address the general knowledge of other methods as well as the method for which
certification is sought. Possession of a current ASNT NDT Level III certificate by the
candidate shall be satisfactory evidence that the general examination requirement is
satisfied.
5.4.3 Suecific. The specific examination for all levels shall be a closed book
examination and shall cover the specifications, codes, equipment, operating procedures,
and test techniques the candidate may use in the performance of his duties. A
minimum of 30 questions shall be used for the specific examination at each level.
5.4.6 Grading. The candidate for certification must achieve a minimum grade of 70%
on the general and specific qualification examinations. The candidate must detect all
discontinuities or conditions specified by the Level HI during the practical examination
and achieve a minimum score of 70% on the remainder of the practical examination.
The candidate must have an average score of no less than 80% in order to be eligible
for certification. All examination scores shall be of equal weight in determining the
average score.
5.4.7 Re-examination. Candidates failing any examination (general, specific or
practical) shall receive additional training or wait at least 30 days before attempting
re-examination. The additional training shall be documented and shall address those
areas found deficient in the candidate's skills or knowledge. The re-examination shall
not utilize the same questions or specimens that were used in the initial examination.
5.5 Designation of Instructors. Instructors shall be designated by the Level JJ3
. -
responsible for the employer's certification .program
- and shall meet a least one of the
following criteria:
a. Be certified to Level in the method for which they will be designated Instructors
6.1 Level I Soecial. The Leve! I designation in this revision is equivalenL to the Level I
Special designation of MIL-STD-410D. The MIL-STD-4IOD Level I Special was
limited to the ultrasonic and eddy current methods. Experience has shown that the
Level I Special designation is an effective way of designating the entry level
certification for nondestructive inspection and that it should be allowed a for all
methods; thus the change was made in this revision. Because of the increased
responsibilities assigned to the Level I, minimum required classroom training hours are
no? specified (see table 1).
ur
6.2 Intended use. When invoked in a Request for Proposal (RFP),lnvitation for Bid
m), of other similar document, the contracting agency should request that a copy of
the offeror's existing qualification/certification procedure for NDI o r NDT personnel be
included with the technical proposal. If the offeror has no existing procedure or if the
existing procedure does not comply with this standard, then the contracting agency
should request that the offeror's approach for establishing a procedure that complies
with this standard b e included in the technical proposal. In addition, if the contacting
agency intends that personnel using methods other than those listed in paragraph 1.2.1
be qualified and certified to this standard, then details on the offeror's approach to
conducting such an effort should be requested as part of the technical proposal.
Reierencc number
is0 9712:1992(E)
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD I S 0 97121992(E)
personnel
This lnternational Standard establishes a system for For the purposes of this lnternational Standard, the
the qualification and certification, by a cenlral inde- following definitions apply:
pendent body, of personnel to perform industrial
nondestructive testing (NDT) using any of the fol- 3.1 authorization: Permission to work. issued by
lowing methods: the employer or responsible agency and based on
the individual's suitability for a specific job. In ad-
a) eddy-current testing; dition to the certification. amongst othels the job-
specific knowledge. skill and physical ability could
b) liquid-penetrant testing; be assessed.
5.4 Examination c e n t r e s
1 Eddy-current testing 1 40 +._ 80 (
Examination centres established by the national
1 Liquid-penetrant testing
1 l6 1 40 I
certifying body o r through authorized qualifying
bodies shall, as a minimum requirement.
1 Magnetic testing
6.3.2 Level 3
6 Eligibility for examination
Taking into account the scientific and technical po-
tential of candidates for level 3 certification. it i s
6.1 General considered that preparation for qualification could
be done in dilierent ways: by taking training courses.
Candidates shall have a combination o f education. attending conrerences o r seminan such as organ-
training and experience adequate to ensure that ized by industrial or independent associations, and
they have the polential t o understand the principles
studying books. periodicals and other specialized
and procedures o f the applicable NDT method.
printed matter. No training hours have therefore
been specified in table 1, although references cited
6.2 Education in annex B do suggest course content and duration.
6.3 T r a i n i n g
6.4.1 Levels 1 and 2
four-year accred-
ited science or en-
gineering mllege
or university pro-
gramme
Successful mm-
pletion of at leas1
Wo years of en-
gineering or sci-
ence study at an
accredited college.
I NOTES
I
university or tech-
nical school
I
1 Work experience in months Is based on a nomlnal No degree 48
40 hlweek (175 h/month). When an lndivldual Is work- I I
Ing more lhan 40 hlweek. helshe may be credited wilh Direct access lo Graduate of a
experience based on the total hours. but helshe shall level 3 by a now four-year accred-
be required lo produce evidence of this experience.
2 For level 2 certification, lhe.intent of lhls Inter-
national Standard is lhat work experience consists of
time accrued as a level I . If the individual Is being
ceriilied -&rator
wilh experience
euuivalent to level I ited science or en-
gineering college
or university
gramme
. pro-
.
For level 3, however, besides the written general j) the cold seal of the national certifying body o r the
approved qualifying body cancelling the pholo-
examination. the specific examination shall consist
graph to avoid falsification.
of two written tests t o b e respectively designated
'specific (seclor)" and "specific (procedure)'. No
NOTE 4 By issuing the certilicale and/or the mrra
level 3 practical test as such is required. sponding wallet card, the national certifying body or the
qualifying body attests lo the qualification of the individual
In the general examination, the candidate shall but does not give any authority lo operate. There may be
demonstrate sullicient proficiency in performing the a special space on both lhe certilicale and lhe wallet card
NDT method. In the specific examination, he shall for ihe signature of the employer or responsible agency
demonstrate his ability t o use the same NDT method authorizing the holder of the cwtificale lo operale and
In the industrial sector concerned. taking responsibilily for leal results. This authorization
also serves as testimony of aclivity of the certified lndi-
vidual.
-2 Administration o f examinations
This simplified examination shall consist of: 3) renewal documents, including evidence of
physical condition and continuous activity.
a) Level I and level 2: a practical examination or-
. ganized in accordance with a simplified pro- 4) reasons for any withdrawal of certification
cedure: and details of any further penalty inflicted.
b) Level 3: a written examination which includes 20 Individual liles shall be kept under suitable con-
questions on the application of the test method ditions of safely and discretion for a period at least
in the industrial sector concerned and 5 equal to the total of the initial period of validity plus
questions on this International Standard (the the renewal period.
Annex A
(normative)
Administration of examinations
Radiographic testing 40 40
Ultrasonic testing 40 40
A.1.2 Examination content
If the practical test in the specific examination cov- A candidate for a practical examination may use his
ers two o r more industrial sectors, the number of own apparatus. The examiner shall investigate the
specimens to be tested shall be increased pro- reliability o f the test apparatus made available to the
portionally to examine the candidate's competence candidate. and unreliable apparatus shall be re_
in each of the industrial sectors concerned. placed. as well as any apparatus that may be ren-
dered unserviceable during the course of the
examination. Any item of apparatus brought by a
Table A.2 - Required number of questions - candidate that i s unreliable o r rendered unservice-
Specific examlnation able during the examination shall be replaced by the
Number of questions candidate himself.
NDT method
Level 1 Level 2 A.1.4 Grading
Practical
1
Written Practical Written
Any candidate who, during the course of the exam-
ination, does not abide by the examination rules o r 1 0.2 to 0.4 0.2 to 0.4 0.2 to 0.4 0.2 to 0.4
who perpetrates, o r is an accessory to, fraudulent
conduct shall be excluded from further participation. 2 0.2 to 0.4 0.2 lo 0,4 0.2 to 0.4 0.2 to 0.4
If the candidate is not certified to NOT level 2 at the Each examiner shall correct and grade separately
time of application, then helshe shall also success- the dillerent parts of the examination i n accordance
fully complete the level 2 practical examination in with procedures established by the national certify-
the relevant NOT method. ing body. During a meeting, each o f the examiners
shall present and explain his grades, and a n aver-
age grade shall be calculated for each part o f the
examination.
The general examination shall include only
l~iultiple-choice questions, selected from the
national certifying body's collection of basic-
knowledge questions valid at the date of the exam- The written general examination shall be graded
ination. The number of questions shall be as follows: separately so that the candidate may be examined
later for certification in another branch o f industry
a) 30 questions on the main test method and ma- without having to repeat the general examination.
terials, processes and discontinuities:
To be certified, the candidate shall obtain a grade
b) 10 level 2 questions on each of at least two ad- of at least 70 % in each part of the examination and
ditional test methods; a composite grade o f at least 80 %.
c) not less than 5 questions o n the personnel- The composite grade for the respective level shall
certification scheme. be determined by adding the weighted marks ob-
tained from multiplying the test marks in each part
of the examination by a weighting factor to be se- minimum percentage (70 %) was obtained in each
lected from tableA.4. The total of the selected part and that retesting takes place within 12 months
weighting factors shall equal 1.00. of the first failure. In the case of a second failure to
obtain the pass grade, the candidate shall be re.
examined in all three Parts.
Table A.4 - Weighting factors for grading -
Level 3 A candidate for re-examination shall apply for and
take the examination in accordance with the pro-
cedure applicable to new candidates.
A certified operator changing from one industrial
sector to another, but who keeps using the same
NDT method, retains the benefit of the general
examination and shall be required to take only the
two specific (sector and procedure) examinations
concerning the new industrial sector.
A special procedure may be apptied in the case of
A candidate failing for reasons of unethical behav- a candidate taking examinations for certification in
iour shall wait at least 12 months before reapplying. several testing methods within a period of one year.
to avoid the duolication of level 2 ouestions relatino
A candidate who fails to obtain the pass grade for to the additiorial test methods & well as thos;
the whole examination may take one, and only one, questions relating to codes or standards and the
retest in a maximum of two parts, provided the certification scheme.
Annex B
(informative)
8.2 References
[3] ASNT recommended praclice SNTITC-IA 1988
C13 Technical Document IAEA-TECDOC-407 (1987). Edition. Tables I-A l o I-H (recommended
Training guidelines in nondestructive testing training courses). Published by the American
techniques, International Atomic Energy Society for Non-destructive Testing. 1711
Agency, WagramrnerstraCe 5. P.O. Box 100. Arlingate Lane, P.O. Box 28518. Columbus.
A-1400 Vienna. Austria. Ohio 43228-0518. USA.
LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING JpJ")' At.(
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Liquid Penetrant testing is a quick and reliable nondestructive test method used for detecting various
types of discontinuities which are opened to the surface of a material or part.
During normal operation, critical components of aircraft engines, airframes, missiles, space vehicles,
nuclear reactors, and other modern machinery, are often subjected to extreme loads and vibrations. In
time, these extreme loads and vibrations may cause a component to develop an intemption in its normal
physical structure or configuration. This is called a DISCONTINUITY.. Although the discontinuity may not
affect the usefulness of a part when it occurs, or even alter the parts appearance to the naked eye (since
the discontinuity may be minute) repeated stresses or overloading may eventually cause that part to fail. It
can be seen therefore, that detection of small discontinuities before they progress into a DEFECT, which
is detrimental to part serviceability, is of vital importance to prevent loss of equipment and personnel.
Failure of the part may cause one of the following: $-~)s&~2 P-0
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1 ._Maior Repair: "Down %me" for major repair caused by part failure is expensive inc_;u) &&& ,A \
, (2 terms %st time.
2. Lpss of Eclui~meG:Total loss of equipment due to part failure is expensive in terms of
'"7%
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\o\\,2 . 7 lost time and equipment.
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3. Loss of Personnel: Total loss of the equipment may result in the loss of operating
personnel. -3 t
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PENETRANT INSPECTION CAPABILITIES
Penetrant inspection can detect open to the surface discontinuities, such as:
I- p +6+.r.~
23 f ~ r a c k s Laps
. yoPorosity --:I' Leaks
" (hole through a wall)
,*'- Seams <& Pits + ,
,')
,X.&
bD ~ndercut.~ /"
Note: This is only a partial listing. A listing of all discontinuities caused by metal and non-metallic material
preparation, material forming, and material processing would be too unwieldy for this study guide.
Penetrant inspection can be used w$h reliable accuracy on the following nonabsorbent materials:
Caution: As some plastics, rubber, and synthetic products may be affected by oil, tests should be made
before penetrant inspecting such materials to avoid damaging the part under test.
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PENETRANT INSPECTION
The basic principle of penetrant inspection is capillary action. Capillary action is the action by which the
surface of a liquid, where it is in contact with a solid, is elevated or depressa The materials, processes,
and procedures used in liquid penetrant testing are all designed to facilitate capillarity and to make the
results of such action visible and capable of interpretation.
The forces of capillarity, or capillary action, may be obsewed when a plastic straw is inserted into a glass of
water. When the straw is inserted, the water molecules enter the straw and begin to attract other nearby
molecules, pulling them up the straw by cohesion. This process continues as the water rises higher and
higher. The water continues to rise until the pull of the surface tension is equalized. Cohesive forces
prevent the water from falling back down the straw. Capillary action as applied in n O n d e S t ~ ~ ttesting
i ~ e is
somewhat more complex, since various surface conditions hindering or assisting the action are
encountered. Liquid penetrants in nondestructive testing have low tension and high capillarity. Capillary
action is illustrated in Figure 1-1.
$6
WATER LEVEL IN STRAW
WATER LEV€!.IN GLASS (_I*
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There are several methods by which the basic principles of penetrant inspection can be administered. -In .-
each method, however, there are certain general procedures which must be followed.
, ,
The following are general procedures for penetrant inspection:
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1. Selection of the Aoorooriate
,, lnsoection Process: L. o&/'( ,,
The appropriate inspection process shall be determined by the testing facilities b,;
available, the type and amount of parts to be tested, and the results anticipate
desired.
2. Pre-Testing: If the material to be tested could be affected by oil, sulphur or c
tests shall be performed to ensure that the parts are not damaged, when placed
under penetrant inspection method test.
3. Pre-Cleaning: The part to be inspected shall be pre-cleaned in order to remove any
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24
cleaning material. j
5. Penetrant Application: Penetrant shall be applied to a part under test in a manner c&'d \
appropriate to the type of part or facilities available. Sufficient dwell time shall be /.-
allowed for optimum penetration. Figure 1-2. 7 -@ . \ fee +
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Fguro 1-2 PENETRANT APPLICATION AND DWELL TIME
6. Penetrant Removal: Penetrant shall be removed from the surface of the part under test
in the manner dictated by the type of penetrant used. Figure 1-3.
7. Developer Application: Developer shall be applied to the part under test as appropriate
to the process being used and the configuration of the part under test. Sufficient dwell
time shall be allowed for optimum results. Figure 1-4.
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9. Post-Cleaning: The developer shall be removed after inspection interpretation and
prior to returning the part to service.
PENETRANT SELECTION FACTORS
The proper selection of a penetrant to be used for penetrant inspection is dependent on many factors
such as penetrabilu visibility, particular type of discontinuity sought, configurationof part, surface
conditions, facilities and equipment available, etc. Selection of the proper penetrant, therefore, should
be based on penetrant sensitivity.
PENETRANT SENSITIVIPI: Penetrant Sensitivity is herein defined as the ability of the penetrant, along
with compatible family items in its group, to effectively find discontinuities of the type sought under the.
penetrant inspection circumstances involved. Using this definition, the penetrant most adaptable to the
majority of penetrant inspection conditions that will exist, is the proper penetrant.
Dry powder I
;./
Water soluble
Water suspendible
Nonaqueous
Specific application (i.e.Plastic film)
All penetrant materials are supplied in either bulk form or in small pressurized canisters. ,-'
r /Y
SELECTION OF LIQUID PENETRANTTEST METHOD F
When a specific liquid penetrant test method is not specified by the contract, the selection of a suitable
penetrant inspection process is made by the Level Ill who makes this decision based on seven basic
factors.
1. Requirements previously established by component drawings applicable documents on
material or Darts to be laced under examination.
2. Type and siie of disc&tinuity to bGetected.
3. Suriace c ~ n d i t i gof - - jw;bc4, 'mih)
i part to be examined.
4. Configuration of part to be examined.
5. The number of parts lo be examined. -+ f %.iY.3
i .
6. Facilities and equipment available. i
7. Effect of the penetrant chemicals on material being examined.
PT Ill BASIC
TABLE 1
PT Ill BASIC
TABLE 1.a
MIL STD 6866 CLASSIFICATIONOF LIQUID PENETRANT METHODS AND TYPES
TYPE
Type I Fluorescent Dye
Type II Visible Dye
Type Ill Dual mode (visible and fluorescent dye)
METHOD
Method A Water-washable
Method B Post emulsifiable, lipophilic
Method C Solvent removable
Method D Post emulsifiable, hydorphilic
SENSITIVITY
Level 1 Low
Level 2 Medium
Level 3 High
Level 4 Ultrahigh
DEVELOPERS
Form a Dry powder
Form b Water soluble
Form c Water suspendable
Form d Nonaquesous
Form e Specific application
SOLVENT REMOVERS
Class (1) Hologenated
Class (2) Non-halogenated
Class (3) Specific application
METHOD A TYPE 1 INSPECTION PROCESS
The Method AType 1 Penetrant Inspection process uses a water-washable fluorescent penetrant and a
dry, wet, or non-aqueous wet developer. The penetrant has self-emulsifying properties to make it water
removable. -
Method A Type 1 Process is generally used when:
1. Examining large volume of parts.
2. Discontinuities are not wider than their depth. .
3. Surfaces are very rough (i.e., sand castings, rough weldments).
4. Examining large areas.
5. Examiningthreads and keyways.
6. The lowest fluorescent penetrant sensitivity is sufficient to detect the discontinuities
inherent to the part.
7. Removal of excess penetrant may be difficult due to rough surfaces.
8. Sulphonates in emulsifying agents will not affect nickel bearing
PT Ill BASIC
METHOD A TYPE 2 INSPECTION PROCESS
The Method A Type 2 Penetrant Inspection process uses a post-emulsifiable fluorescent penetrant, a
lipophilic emulsifier, and a dry, wet, or non-aqueous wet developer. The materials used in this process are
very similar to that described for Method A Type 1 process, except that these penetrants are not self-
emulsifiable. A lipophilic or hydrophilic emulsifier is used to make the penetrant water washable.
-
TABLE 3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
METHOD A TYPE 2 INSPECTION PROCESS,/"
ADVANTAGES
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DISADVANTAGES--
d@+4{ 'IJ
PT Ill BASIC
METHOD A TYPE 3 INSPECTION PROCESS
The Method A Type 3 Penetrant lnspection process uses a solvent-removable fluorescent penetrant, a
penetrant remover (solvent) and non-aqueous developer. The penetrant is not water-washable but is
removed instead with the solvent remover.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. Process can be used for spot inspection 1. Use of solvent to remove penetrant
on large parts. prohibits inspecting large areas.
2. Process can be used when water-rinsing 2. Sensitivity can be reduced by the
methods are not feasible. +- application of excessive amounts
of remover.
PT Ill BASIC
TABLE 5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
METHOD B TYPE 1 PROCESS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. No blacklight or darkened area required. 1. Process is not reliable in finding scratches.
2. Process can be considered as a one-step 2. Process is less sensitivity for fine
process and, therefore, fast and economical. discontinuities.
3. Process can be used for detecting a wide 3. Penetrant can be affected by acids and
range of discontinuities. ch-omtes.
4. Penetrant used can be easily washed off 4. Process is not reliable on anodized surfaces.
with water. 5. Process is susceptible to over-washing.
5. Process is easily adaptable to a large 6. Water contamination may destroy usefulness
volume of small parts. of penetrant.
6. Process is excellent for rough surfaces, 7. Not good for wide shallow discontinuities
keyways, and threads. (widlh greater than depth).
7. Process is relatively inexpensive.
As shown in the previous paragraphs, the test method is dependent upon the materials used. It should
be obvious that in order to achieve the desired results.the proper selection and use of materials is of vital
importance , and mandatory that the written procedure be followed to the letter.
Figure 1 TYPICAL PENETRANT INSPECTION EQUIPMENT
ULTRA VIOLET
INSPECTION BOOT11 , LIGHTS 7
N0TE:WHEN THE EQUIPMENT IS USED FOR A TYPE 2 INSPECTION PROCESS, THE EXTRA TANK
(SHOWN BY THE DASHED LINES) WlLL BE USED FOR M E PENETRANT. IN M I S EVENT, THE TANK
IDENTIFIED ABOVE AS THE PENETRANT TANK WlLL BE USED FOR M E EMULSIFIER. WHEN THIS
EQUIPMENT IS USED FOR THE TYPE 1. PROCESS, THE ADDITIONAL TANK IS NOT REQUIRED.
PT Ill BASIC 14
PENETRANT INSPECTION KITS.
Penetrant inspection is practical for field use, because these materials are supplied in the form of portable
kits. Both Fluorescent and Visible Dye Penetrant inspection kits are available, but it is essenlial that only
the complete family of penetrant inspection materials be employed for these field kit inspection
operations.
PORTABLE VISIBLE DYE PENETRANT KITS. Portable Visible Dye Penetrant Kits are available for field
inspection. A typical Visible Dye Penetrant Kit is illustrated in Figure 2.
BRUSH A N D WIPES
PENETRANT
CLEAN
PENETRANT
DEVELOPEfi
\
PORTABLE
BLACK L I G H T
PT Ill BASIC
In summary, let's consider the advantages and limitations of the liquid penetrant test method
LIMITATIONS OF PENETRANTTESTING
This learning module describes the interpretation and evaluation phases of NDT, discontinuity
characteristics. and the classifications of indications and discontinuities.
THE INSPECTOWEXAMINER'
Since correct evaluation of a discontinuity depends on accurate interpretation the inspector is the key in
the inspection process. The success and reliability of any NDT depends upon the thoroughness with
which the inspector conducts the examination from the initial step all the way through to the final
interpretationof the indications. The inspector must carefully follow the procedure, search out indications
and then decide the seriousness of discontinuities found to determine the disposition of parts according
to the severity of the flaw indications. Remember poor processing can be worse than no inspection,
because, if improper processing yields no indications for the inspector to interpret the part would be
considered acceptable whether it is or not. In some cases, the inspector may perform only the inspection
phase of the process. At other times, the inspector may perform all phases of the process. In either case,
the success and reliability of the inspection depends on the thoroughness of the inspector, and proper
processing of the part.
f-
The" inspector* as used in this learning module is referred to as the "examine? in the ASME Code.
PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION
The personnel performing the liquid penetrant test must be qualified and certified in accordance with S M -
TC-?A. A review of the company's "Written Practice" would be necessary to determine the specific
requiiements for qualificationto any level of competency as recommended by SNT-TGIA
- . . ..
TERMINOLOGY . .
Quite often inspectors will confuse the various terms used and will use them incorredly. Therefore, it is
important that the inspector have a clear understanding of the terms relating to liquid penetrant testing.
DISCONTINUITY: a broad term relating to a condition that is foreign to the normal structure of a material. A
discontinuity may or may not be detrimental to the intended service life of a part and must therefore be
evaluated.
INTERPRETATION: the action performed by the inspector in determining the cause of an indication.
EVALUATION: the action performed by the inspector in comparing the magnitude and severity of an
indication to a predetermined acceptance criteria in order to determine acceptance or rejection of the part.
1. False Indications
2. Nonrelevant Indications
3. True or Valid Indications
. Usually there are specik differences between all three and a well-trained inspector should be able to
determine into which of the three categories an indication is to be classified. Qualified inspectors, using
acceptable procedures and codes, can usually determine the cause and category of the penetrant
indication.
FALSE INDICATIONS
In nondestrudiwe testing, an indication that may be interpreted erroneously as a discontinuity is
considered a false indication. In all NDT disciplines, false indications can become major pmblems in the
.- . . .inspection process. Usually a thogugh knowledge of the manufacturing processes ,involved,
. the NDT
process, and previous experience of the inspector is necessary to readily and accurately classiiy a false
indication.
The most common causes of false indications are the improper or inadequate precleaning of the part, and
the improper or inadequate removal of the excess surface penetrant. If all the surface penetrant is not
completely removed in the removal process, the remaining penetrant may produce false indications. This
is true for both the fluorescent and visible penetrant methods. The use of the black light during the
removal of fluorescent penetrants is very helpful in determining that adequate removal has been achieved.
The danger of poorly cleaned parts, which produce the false indications, lies in the fact that there may be
actual discontinuities in the improperly cleaned areas which would be masked by the false indications. If
false indications interfere with interpretation of true indications found on the parts complete reprocessing
of the parts would be required.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS
Non-relevant indications are true indications produced by uncontrolledtest conditions. However, the
conditions causing them are present by design or accident, or other features of the part having no relation
to the damaging flaws being sought. The term signifies that such an indication has no relation to
discontinuities that might constitute defects.
CWUliUOW: Where penetrant bleed out may mask discontinuities on press-fit parts, the time between
application of developer and inspection should be held to a minimum to prevent excessive bleed out.
True indications can be further classified into four major groups. They are: inherent, primary processing,
secondary processing, and service discontinuities. These are covered in detail in another module.
Three basic questions must be answered to facilitate proper interpretation of the flaw indications:
NOTE: The answers to the first two questions are the prime responsibility of the inspector. The answer to
the third question, unless specific acceptance criteria are specified, usually requires special assistance.
f 1 Fine, Tight Surface Cracks. Such cracks may be shallow or deep, but their most
signifmnt characteristics is their very small and tigM surface opening. Deep
cracks of this type, once well penetrated, may provide a reservoir of penetrant, and
therefore, may be easier to show than shallow cracks.
2. Broad, Open Surface Discontinuities. Discontinuitiesof this type may be shallow
or relatively deep. Their significant characteristic is their width which tends to
permit penetrants to be removed from the discontinuity, especially when water
spray removal techniques are employed. Care must be taken to ensure this does not
occur.
3. Porosity. Generally speaking, porosity is a discontinuity having a cavity below
the surface which is connected to the surface by a very small channel. Porosity is
typically found in castings and welds and is sometimes referredto as gas holes.
4. Shrinkage: Micro or sponge shrinkage in castings which is opened to the surface
by machining and etching may be hard to differentiate from cracks. Much care
must be used in evaluating this type of indication.
5. Leaks or Through Cracks. Discontinuities of this type are cracks or openings
which pass from one surface to another.
The vividness of the visible dye penetrant on the contrasting white developer or the brilliance of the
fluorescent dye penetrant will give some indication of the discontinuity's depth. Deekdiscontinuities will
hold penetrant and therefore, will be broader and more brilliant. Very fine discontinufies can hold only
small amounts of penetrant and will therefore appear as fine lines.
In many instances, more accurate flaw evaluation may be obtained by removing the indications and
f-
! reapplying nonaqueous wet developer so that the rate and amount of penetrant bleed out can be closely
observed to facilitate the interpretation of the flaw discontinuity.
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CONTINUOUS LINEAR INDICATIONS
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INTERMITTENT LINEAR INDICATIONS
-
ROUNDED INDICATIONS
Rounded indications generally indicate porosity caused by gas holes or pin holes or a generally porous
material depending on the extent of the indication. Deep crater cracks in welds frequently show up as
rounded indications, since there is a large amount of dye penetrant entrapped.
The indications may appear rounded because of the volume of penetrant entrapped, ailhough the actual
defects may be irregular in outline.
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ROURDED IRDlCATlOMS
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NOTE: Internlittent dot indications, or even a generally heavy background may also result fmm surface
corrosion pining, general intergranular surface corrosion or even an excessively mugh surface. This type
of indication may obscure indications from genuine cracks.
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.... . . .
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SHALL DOT IRDIEATlOMS
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PRlNClPLES OF MAGNETISM
In order to understand how and why a magnetic particle test works it is necessary to understand the
principles of magnetism.
HORSESHOE MAGNET The most familiar type of magnet is the horsehoe magnet shown
in figure 1-1. It will attract magnetic materials to its ends where a leakage field occurs. These ends are
commonly called "north" and "south" poles, indicated by N and S on the diagram. There will be no
attraction except at these poles. Magnetic flux lines, or lines of force flow from the north to the south pole
. as long as they are external to the magnet. Since these lines of force always form a complete circuit, they
also pass through the iron or steel of which the magnet is made. Note thatwithin the magnet the lines are
Ifthe ends of the horseshoe magnet are bent so that they are close together, as shown in figure 1-2, the
ends will sti!l attract magnetic materials. However, ifthe ends of the magnet zre benl closer together, and
the two poles completely fused or welded into a ring as shown in figure 1-3, the magnet will no longer
attract or hold magnetic materials because there is no longer a leakage field. The magnetic field remains as
shown by the arrows, but without poles there is no attraction. Such a piece is said to have a circular field,
or to be circularly magnetized, because the magnetic lines of force are circular.
MT MOD 1
Any crack in the fused magnet or cicularly magnetized part which crosses the magnetic flux lines will
immediately create noflh and south poles on either side of the crack. (see figure 1-4). This will lorce some
01 the rnagnetic flux (lines ol force) out of the metal path and is referred to as lluxleakage. Magnetic
materials or particles will be attracted by the pole created by the crack, forming an indication of the
discontinuity in the metal part. This is the principle whereby rnagnetic particle indications are formed by
means of circular magnetization.
BAR MAGNET If a horseshoe magnet is straightened, a bar magnet is created a s shown in figure
1-5. The bar magnet has poles at either end and magnetic lines of force flowing through the length of it.
Magnetic particles will be attracted only to the poles. Such a piece is said to have a longitudinal field, or to
- -
be longitudinally magnetized.
MT M O D 1
A slot or discontinuity in the bar magnet which crosses the magnetic flux lines will create north and south
poles on either side ol the discontinuity (see tigure 1-6). These poles will attract magnetic parlicles. In a
similar manner, if the discontinuity is a crack even though it is very fine, it will still create magnetic poles as
'
indicated in figure 1-7. These poles will also attract magnetic particles. The strength of these poles wiil be
a function of the number of flux lines, the depth of the crack and the width of the air gap at the surface.
The greater the pole strength, the greater the leakage field. The strength of this leakage field determines
the number of magnetic parlicles which will be gathered to form indications: strong indications at strong
fields, or large discontinuities, and weak indications at weak fields of small discontinuities.
MAGNETIC PARTICLES
-7
TMAGNETIC PARTICLES
I \ I
CRACK
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
All materials read to a magnetic field in one of three ways. They are. therefore, classilied as diamagnetic,
. paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic. When made into a rod, a diamagnetic material is repelled by a magnetic
field and will align itself at right angles to the field. When a paramagnetic or a lerromagnetic material is
made into a rod, it will be attracted by a magnetic field and will align itself parallel to the field.
1. Diamagnet~cmmaleria!s have permeabilities slightly less than unity. Bismuth has the iowest
permeability known (.9998).Other diama~neticmaterials are phosphorus, antimony, flint glass, and
mercuky. Such materials are usually consideredto be nonmagnetic.
2. Paramagnetic materials have permeabilities greater than unity. Those whose permeablities are
only slightly grealer than unity such as platimum (1.00002), are called paramagnetic and are usually
considered to be nonmagnetic.
3. Ferromagnetic materials have permeabililies great than unity and are usually Considered to be
magnetic. Ferromagnetic materials are iron, nickel, cobalt, and many alloys such as permalloy, alnico,
permivar, elc. Usually materials wiih permeabilities of 1.1000 or greater aree referred lo as lerromagnelic.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
High Smaller grain size; the structure is more complex for added strenth
Low Carbon
Figure 1-8
ATOM ARRANGEMENT
Hiah Carbon
Figure 1-9
When a magnetizing lorce is applied to low carbon content steel, the aloms align easily.
F i g u r e 1-10
More magnetizing force is required to align the atoms of high carbon steel into magnetic domains. As
illustrated in figure 1- 9, the atom directions are more disarranged than low carbon content in figurel-8
I
magnetizing
F i g u r e 1-11
force
When the magnetizing force is removed from low carbon content steel, most of the atoms return to their
normal orientation (figure 1-8), leaving little magnetism. High carbon content steel is different. Because it
is much harder to align the atoms; when the magnetizing force is removed many atoms will stay aligned
and the material will retain a greater amount of magnetism as shown in figure 1-12.
Figure 1 - 1 2
You will notice thal a malerial of high reluctance has:
1. Low permeability
.. .
2. High retentivity
1. High permeability
2. Low retentivity
/-
MAGNETIC FIELDS
PERMANENT MAGNETS
Permanent magnets are sometimes used to induce magnetic fields within a test specimen. The use of
permanent magnets for magnetization has many limitations and they are, therefore, only used when these
limitations do not interfere or prevent the formation of adequate leakage fields at the site of a discontinuity.
ELECTRIC CURRENTS
Electric currents can be used to create or induce magnetic fields in ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic
lines of force are always at right angles (900) to the direction of the magnetizing current flow. Therefore,
the direction of the magnetic field can be altered, and is controlled by the direction of the magnetizing
current. It is important to know how to use electric currents to induce the magnetic lines of force so that
they intercept and are, as near as possible, at right angles to the discontinuity. Eiiher circular or
longitudinal magnetic fields can easily be created in a test specimen. The strength of the magnetic field
can be varied, and through the use of several types of current, variations in field strength and distribution
can be accomplished.
There are basically two types of electric current used as a magnetzing force. These are alternating current
(AC), direct current (DC). Alternating Current or AC is current that reverses its direction of flow at regular
intervals. Such current is frequently referred to as AC. Direct Current or DC, as the name implies, refers to
an electric current flowing continually in one direction through a conductor. Such current is frequently
referred to as DC.
AC VS DC
The magnetic fields created by alternating current and by direct current differ in many respects. The most
important difference in magnetic particle testing is that the magnetic field created by alternating current is
confined near the surface of the part referred to as skin effect, while the magnetic field created by direct
current penetrates below the surface of the part.
MOD 2
Although different types of magnetizing current can be used in magnetic particle inspection only one
type is generally best suited for each type of inspection to be performed.
Alternating current (AC) is used for the detection of surface discontinuities only, due to the skin
affect.
Direct current (DC) or Halfwave direct current (HWDC) is used for detection of either surface or
subsurface discontinuities.
Regardless of the type of current used for magnetization, the magnetic field created in the test part will be
either a circular field or a longitudinal field.
CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION. Circular magnetizationderives its name from the fact that a circular
magnetic fiekl atways surrounds a conductor such as a wire or a bar carrying an electric current (see figure
. 2-1). The direction of the magnetic lines of force (magnetic field) is always at right angles to the direction of
the magnetizingcurrent. An easy way to remember the direction of magnetic lines of force around a
conductor is to imagine that you are grasping the conductor with your hand so that the extended thumb
points parallel to the electric current flow. The fingers then point in the direction of the magnetic lines of
force. Conversely, if the fingers point in the direction of current flow, the extended thumb points in the
f
. direction of the magnetic lines of force.
MAGNETIZING CURRENT
When a part made of magnetic material is placed inside a coil as shown in figure 2-7, the magnetic lines of
force created by the magnetizing current concentrate themselves in the part and induce a longitudinal
mangetic field. Inspection of a cylindrical part with longitudinal magnetizationis shown in figure2-18. If
there is a transverse discontinuity in the part, such as that in the illustration, small magnetic poles are
formed on either side of the crack. These poles will attract magnetic particles, forming an indication of the
discontinuity. Compare figure 2-8 with figure 2-3 and note that in both cases a magnetic field has been
induced in the part which is at right angles to the defect. This is the most desirable condition for reliable
inspection. The strength of the magnetic field within a coil is dependent upon the current flowing through
the coil, the number of turns in the coil, and the diameter of the coil.
,-WIRE COIL
LM,*GNETIZING CURRENT
. INDUCED CURRENT MAGNETIZING. When a direct current in a circuit is instantly cut off, the field
surrounding the conductor collapses, or falls rapidly to zero. The rapid change of field tends to generate a
voltage (and current) which is opposite in direction to that which had been established in the circuit. When
ferromagnetic material is under the influence of such a collapsingfield, the effect is greatly increased.
I Under certain conditions the rapid collapse of the field can generate very high currents inside
ferromagnetic material, and the phenomenon can be made useful in some magnetizing problems. An
extremely useful application of a collapsing field method fo magnetization has been developed for the
magnetizing of ring-shaped parts such as bearing races, without the need to make direct contact with the
surface of the part. Regardless of the type of magnetizing current employed, whether DC, AC or half-
wave, the induced current method is usually faster and more satisfactory than the contact method. Only
one operation is required and the possibility of damaging the part due to arcing is completely eliminated
since no external contacts are made on the part.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
INSPECTION METHODS
CONTINUOUS METHOD. This method implies that the magnetizing force is acting while the magnetic
particles are applied. When the current is on, maximum flux density will be created in the part for the
magnetizing force being employed. In some cases, usually when AC or half-wave DC is being used as the
magnetizing current, the current is actually left on, sometimes for minutes at a time, while the mangetic
particles are applied. This is more often needed in dry method applications than in the wet. Leaving the
current on for long periods of time is not practical in most instances, nor is it necessary when using the wet
method. The heavy current required for proper magnetization can cause overheating of parts and contact
/ burning or damage to the equipment if allowed to flow for any appreciable length of time. In practice, the
magnetizing current is normally on foronly afractiin of a second at a time. All that is required is that a
sufficient number of magnetic particles are in the zone and free to move while the magnetiiing current
flows. The bath ingredients are so selected and formulated that the particles can and do move through
the film of liquid on the surface of the part and form strong, readable indications. The viscosity of the bath
and the bath concentration are important, since anything that tends to reduce the number of available
particles or to slow their movement tends to reduce the build-up of indications.
RESIDUAL MRF1OD. The residual method is a method of inspection in which magnetic particles are
applied to parts after the parts have been magnetized. The residual method is used only when parts are
magnetized with DC and the parts have sufficient retentivity to form adequate magnetic particle indications
at discontinuities. Usually the use of the residual method is limited to the search for discontinuities which
are open to the surface, such as cracks.
WET VS DRY M E M O D
The magnetic particles may be applied to the surface of the test part in the form of a wet suspension, in
which the magnetic particles are held in suspension in a liquid vehicle, which is flowed over the test part,
or in the form of dry powder which is dusted over the test part. The particular method to be used would be
determined by the test conditions, or dictated by specification. Each method has distinct advantages and
limitations.
WET METHOD ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS. As is true of every process, the wet method has both
good points as well as less favorable characterisitics. The more important good points of the wet method,
which constilute the reason for its extensive use, as well as the less attractive characteristics are tabulated
as follows:
a It is the most sensitive method for very fine surface cracks.
b. It is the most sensitive method for very shallow surface cracks.
c. It quickly and thoroughly covers all surfaces of irregularly-shaped parts, large or small, with
magnetic particles.
d. It is the fastest and most thorough method for testing large numbers of small parts.
e. The magnetic particles have excellent mobiliy in liquid suspension.
f. It is easy to measure and control the concentration of particles in the bath, which makes
for uniformity and accurate reproducibility of resuls.
9. It is easy to recover and reuse the bath.
h. It is well adapted to the short, timed shot technique of magnetization for the continuous
method.
i. It is readily adaptable to automatic unit operation.
j. It is not usually capable of finding defects lying wholly below the surface if more than a few
thousandthsof an inch deep.
k. It is messy to work with, especially when used for the expendable technique, and in field
testing.
I. A recirculatingsystem is required to keep the particles in suspension.
rn it sometimes presents a post-inspection cleaning problem to remove magnetic particles
linging to the surface
Fluorescent magnetic particles used in suspension in liquids have the same unfavorable characteristics
-
which go with the usual wet visible method techniques. There is the additional requirement for a source of
black-light, and an inspection area from which the white light can be excluded. Experience has shown that
these added special requirements are more than justified by the gains in reliability and sensitivity.
GENERAL. The dry powder method is primarily used for the inspection of welds and castings where the
detection of defects lying at or very close to the surface is considered important. The particles used in the
dry method are provided in the form of a powder. They are available in red, black, yellow and gray colors.
The magnetic properties, particle size and shape, and coating method are similar in all colors making the
particles equally efficient. The choice of powder is then determined primarily by which powder will give the
best contrast and visibility on the parts being inspected and the degree of sensitivity desired.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS. The dry powder method has good points and less favorable
characteristics. These advantages and disadvantages which may influence its use for a specific
application are summarized in the following list:
Excellent for locating defects wholly below the surface and deeper than a few
thousandths of an inch.
Easy to use for large objects with portable equipment.
Easy to use for field inspection with portable equipment.
Good mobility when used with alternating current (AC) or half-wave direct current
(HWDC).
Not as messy as the wet method.
Equipment may be less expensive.
Not as sensitive as the wet method for very fine and shallow cracks.
Not easy to cover all surfaces properly, especially of irregularly-shaped or large parts.
Slower than the wet method for large numbers of small parts.
Not readily usable for the short, timed shot technique of the continuous method.
Difficult to adapt to a mechanized test system.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
EQUIPMENT
GENERAL. Considerations involved in the selection of magnetic particle inspection equipment include
the type of magnetizing current and the location and nature of inspection. Magnetic particle inspection
equipment serves two basic purposes, which dictate requirements for the size, shape and functions.
These two purposes are to provide convenient means for accomplishing proper magnetization and to
make possible, rapid inspection of parts, with assurance that the inspection results will be reliable and
reproducible.
STATIONARY EQUIPMENT. A typical stationary horizontal wet magnetic particle inspection unit of
intermediate size is shown below. The unit has two contact heads for either direct contact or central
conductor, circular magnetization using a copper rod between the heads or a cable connected to a
contact block between the heads. Units contain a coil used for longitudinal magnetization. The coil and
one contact head are movable on rails. The other contact head is iiied; the contact plate on it, being air
cylinder operated, provides a means for clamping the part. The unit has a self-contained power supply
with all the necessary electrical controls. Magnetiuing currents are usually three phase full-wave DC or AC
depending upon usage requirements. The units are made in several different sizesto accomodate
different length parts and with various maximum output currents. A full length tank with pump, agitation
and circulating system for wet inspection media is located beneath the head and coil mounting rails. A
hand hose with nozzle is provided for applying the bath. On special units automatic bath application
facilities are provided.
Direct current up to 6,000 amperes, derived from full wave rectified three phase AC, is delivered to the
adjustable contact heads, for circular magnetization. A built-in coil is provided for longitudinal magnetiza-
tion. This unit is equipped with the infinitely variable current control by means of a saturable core reactor,
and also with the self-regulating current control.
A great number of variations of these typical magnetizing units is available. These variations are in size, in
current output and kinds of current, in the methods of current control, and in numerous types of fittings to
expedite magnetization of odd-shaped parts. In addition there are many accessories, such as contact
pads, automatic bath applicators, contact clamps, leech contacts, steady-rest for heavy shafts, prod
contacts. special shaped coils, powder guns, etc.
MOBILE EQUIPMENT A versatile mobile inspection unit is shown below. These units are available in
several sizes ranging from 2000 to 6000 amperes of AC and HWDC oulputs. The units have remote con-
trol current out-put, ONIOFF and MAGlDEMAG controls which permit one-man operation at the site of the
inspection. The units are used with either rigid or cable wrapped coils for longitudinal magnetization and
demagnetization. Cables connected to a part or passing through it are used for circular magnetization or
demagnetization. Mobile units can be easily moved to any inspection site where suitable line input
voltages and current capacity are available.
MOI7 7
PORTABLE EQUIPMENT A small portable unit which can be handcarried is shown below. These
units have both AC and HWDC outputs and must be used with a portable coil or cable wrapped coils to Ion
gitudinally magnetize, or with prods or clamps for circular magnetization. The units usually have a remote
ONlOFF control permitting a one-man operation for many applications. They can be used wherever an
adequate 115 volt AC power source is available. A
MAGNETIC YOKES Magnetic yokes are small and easily portable. They are very easy to use and are
adequate when testing small castings or machined parts for surface cracks and for weld inspection. They
induce a strong magnetic field into that portion of a part that lies between the poles or legs of the yoke.
The induced field flows from one leg of the yoke to the other in an orientation as shown below and yokes
and probes are available with either fixed or articulated legs, also shown below. Yokes are available for
operation from a 115 volt, 60 hertz AC outlet, and some are equipped with a rectifier so HWDC may be
used. A permanent magnet yoke is also available, permitting inspections to be performed without the use
of electric current.
INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION OF INDICATIONS
DEFINITIONS
in order to properly and accurately intrepret and evaluate magnetic particle indications the magnetic
particle inspector should understand certain definitions which are used in connection with this inspection i
method. Since these terms are used frequently in this learning module, the inspector must fully
understand the meaning of each of the following.
DEFECT. A defect is a discontinuity which exceeds the limits of the acceptance criteria and, therefore,
interferes with the usefulness of a part.
BASIC STEPS OF INSPECTION. Magnetic particle inspection can be divided into these three basic
steps:
INTERPRETING THE INDICATION. After the indication is created, il is necessary to interpret that
indication. Interpretation is the deciding of what caused that indication, what magnetic disturbance has
attracted the particles in the particular pattern found on the part. If the operator knows something about
metal processing, it is possible to determine from the appearance and location of an indication the cause
of the indication.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS
NATURE AND TYPE. It is possible to magnetize parts of certain shapes in such a way that magnetic
leakage fields are created even though there is no discontinuity in the metal at the point. Such indications
are sometimes called erroneous indictions or false indications. They should be called "non-relevant
indications" since they are actually caused by distortion of the magnetic field. They are real indications but ..
since there is no interruption in the metal they do not affect the usefulnessof the part. It is important that
the operator know how and why these non-relevant indications are formed and where to look for them on
the parts being inspected.
COLD WORKING. Cold working consists of changing the size or shape of a metal part without raising its
temperature before working. When a bent nail is straightened by a carpenterwith a hammer the nail is
being cold worked. Cold working usually causes a change in the permeability of the metal where the
change in size or shape occurs. The boundary of the area of changed permeability may attract magnetic
particles when the part is magnetized.
HARD OR SOFT SPOTS. If there are areas of the part which have a different degree of hardness than the
remainder of the part these areas will usually have a different pemteabirQ. When a part w l h such areas of
different permeability is inspected with magnetic particle inspection, the boundaries of the areas may
create local leakage fields and altract magnetic particles to form indications.
MOD 2
ABRUPT CHANGES OF SECTION. Where there are abrupt changes in section thickness of a magnetized
part, the magnetic field may be said to expand from the smaller section to the larger. Frequently
thiscreates local poles due to magnetic field leakage or distortion. These leakage fields will attract
magnetic particles thereby creating an indication. The non-relevant indication will usually be "fuzzy" like an
indication which is produced by a discontinuity beneath the surface.
INTERPRETATION. It may at first appear to the operator that some types of non-relevant indications
discussed and illustrated in the preceeding material would be difficult to recognize and interpret. For
example, the non-relevant indications shown in figures 9-5 and 9-6 may look like indications of subsurface
discontinuities. However, there are several characteristics of non-relevant indications which will enable
the operator to recognize them in the example cited and under most other conditions. These charac-
terisitics of non-relevant indications are:
a. On all similar parts, given the same magnetizing technique, the indications will occur in
the same location and will have identical patterns. This condition is not usually en-
countered when dealing with real subsurface defects.
b. The indications are usually uniform in direction and size.
c. The indications are usually "fuzzy" ratherthan sharp and well defined.
d. Non-relevant indications can always be related to some feature of construction or cross
section which accounts for the leakage field creating the indication.
In most cases non-relevant indications occur when the magnetizing current is higher than necessary for a
given part. consequently, these indications will disappear if the part is demagnetized and reinspected
using a sufficiently low magnetizingcurrent.
TRUE OR VALID INDICATIONS. If the indication is caused by a discontinuity it is termed a true indication
or a valid indication.
If the indication is caused by a discontinuity at the surface of the part the particles are usually tightly held to
the surface by a realtively strong magnetic leakage field. The line of particles is sharper and well defined
and there is a noticeable "build-up" of the particles. This build-up consists of a slight mound or pile of
MOD 2 15
particles which on deep surface cracks is sometimes high enough above the surface of the part to cast a
shadow. If such an indication is wiped o f f the discontinuity can usually be seen.
Ifthe indication is caused by a discontinuity below the surface it will be a broad fuzzy looking accumulation
of particles rather than being sharp and well defined. The particles in such an indication are less tightly
held to the surface because the leakage field is weaker.
After the indication has been formed and has been interpreted, it must be evaluated. It is necessary for
the operator to decide whether that indication in that particular location on that particular part will affect the
usefulness of the part.
Evaluation is the determination of whether the part can be used in spite of the indication, whether the
cause of the indication can be removed without affecting the strength of the part, or whether th epart must
be scrapped.
As a guide, the following basic considerations may be used in conjunction with the operatoh knowledge
and experience to help in the evaluation of indications.
a. A discontinuity of any kind lying at the surface is more likely to be harmful than a
discontinuity of the same size and shape which lies below the surface
b. Any discontinuity having a principal dimension or a principal plane which lies at right
angles or at a considerable angle to the direction of principal stress, whether the discon
tinuity is surface or subsurface is more likely to be harmfulthan a discontinuity of the
same size, location and shape lying parallel to the stress.
c. Any discontinuity which occurs in an area of high stress must be more carefully con
sidered than a discontinuity of the same size and shape in an area where the stress is low.
d. Discontinuities which are sharp, such as grinding cracks or fatigue cracks, are severe
stress-raisers and are more harmful in any location than rounded discontinuities such as
scratches.
e. Any discontinuity which occurs in a location close to a keyway or fillet must be considered
to be more harmful than a discontinuity of the same size and shape which occurs away
form such a location.
LEARNING MODULE 9
In order to properly and accurately interpret and evaluate magnetic particle indications the magnetic
particle inspector must understand certain definitions which are used in connection with this inspection
method. Since these terms are used frequently in this learning module, the inspector must fully
understand the meaning of each of the following.
So we should be careful to refer to a discontinuity as a defect only when it makes the specific part in which
. occurs unsuitable for the purpose for which it was designed and manufactured.
... . it
P
Magnetic particle inspection can be divided into these three basic steps:
a. Producing an indications on a part.
b. Interpreting the indication.
c. Evaluating the indication.
INTERPRETINGM E INDICATION
Aiter the indication is created, it is necessary to interpret that indication. Interpretation is the deciding of
what caused that indication, what magnetic disturbance has attracted the particles in the particular pattern
found on the part. If the operator knows something about metal processing, it is possible to determine
from the appearance and location of an indication the cause of the indication.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS
NOTFFThe use of fluorescent magnetic particles on parts with non-relevant indications is recommended
since they emphasize the contrast between the particle build-up at a relevant discontinuity and that due to
the non-relevant field.
.. .-...
Non-relevant indications are divided into the following five classes depending upon their cause:
a. Magnetic writing.
b. Cold working.
c. Hard or soft spots.
d. Boundaries of heat treated sections.
e. Abrupt changes of section.
On parts with keyways a circular magnetic fieki can also set up non-relevant indications as in figure 9-3.
Particle accumulations may occur at A where there are leakage fields. A keyway on the inside of a hollow
shaft may also create indications on the outside as indicated at area B in figure 9-4. Here the magnetic
field is forced out of the part by the thinner section at the keyway.
Figure 9-3 Concentration of Field in a Keyway Figure 9 4 Exlernal Leakage Field Created
by an Internal Keyway
Fgure 4 5 Gear and Shaft Showing Non-relevant lndicalions Due to Internal Splines
Figure 9-6 shows a non-relevant indication on the under side of a bolt head. The indication here is caused
by&e slot in the head.
Figure 9-6 Non-relevant indications under head, created by slot on top of head
INTERPRETATION
It may at first appear that some types of non-relevant indications discussed and illustrated in the
preceeding material would be difficult to recognize and interpret. For example, the non-relevant
indications shown in figures 9-5 and 9-6 may look like indications of subsurface discontinuities. However,
there are several characteristics of non-relevant indications which will enable the operator to recognize
them in the example cited and under most other condiiions. These characteristics of non-relevant
indications are:
a On all similar parts, given the same rnagnefiing technique, the indicationswill occur in the
same location and will have identical patterns.
b. The indications are usually uniform in direction and size.
c. The indications are usually "fuzzy" rather than sharp and well defined.
d. Non-relevant indications can always be related to some feature of condruction or cross
section which accounts for the leakage field creating the indication.
In most cases non-relevant indications occur when the magnetizing current is higher than necessary for a
given part. consequently, these indications will disappear if the part is demagnetized and reinspected
using a sufficiently low magnetizing current. Under most conditions the value of magnetizing current
which is low enough to eliminate non-relevant indications will still be sufficient to produce indications at
actual discontinuities. This will be true where the non-relevant indication is magnetic writing, and for
. sewml other types, but may not hold where there are abrupt changes of section. It is therefore desirable
to determine whether the non-relevant indication was caused by an abrupt change of section before
reinspecting.
The proper procedure is to demagnetize and reinspect using a lower value of magnetizing current,
repeating the operation with still lower current if necessary until the non-relevant indications disappear.
Care must be taken not to reduce the current below the value required to produce indications of all actual
discontinuities. Where there are abrupt changes of section two inspections may be required: one at a
fairly low amperage to inspect only the areas at the change in section, the other at a higher current value to
inspect the remainder of the part.
If the indication is caused by a discontinuity it is termed a true orvalid indication. Ifthe indication is caused
by a discontinuity at the surface of the part the particles are usually tightly held to the surface by a relatively
strong magnetic leakage field. The line of particles is sharper and well defined and there is a noticeable
"build-up" of the particles. This build-up consists of a slight mound or pile of particles which on deep
surface cracks is sometimes high enough above the surface of the part to cast a shadow. If such an
indication is wiped off the discontinuity can usually be seen.
If the indication is caused by a discontinuity below the surface it will be a broad fuzzy looking accumulation
of particles rather than being sharp and well defined. The particles in such an indication are less tightly
held to the surface because the leakage field is weaker.
The difference in appearance between indications of surface and subsurface discontinuities is clearly
shown in figures 9-7 and 9-8. Notice the sharpness and definition of the line of magnetic particles in figure
9-7. The pattern in figure 9-8 is much broader than that in figure 9-7 and is quite typical of the indications
formed over subsurface discontinuities.
Evaluation is the determination of whether the part can be used in spite of the indication, whether the
cause of the indication can be removed without affecting the strength of the part, or whether the part must
be scrapped.
As a guide, the following basic considerations may be used in conjunction with the operator's knowledge
and experience to help in the evaluation of indications.
a. A discontinuity of any kind lying at the surface is more likely to be harmful than a
discontinuity of the same size and shape which lies below the surface.
b. Any discontinuity having a principal dimension or a principal plane which lies at right
..
angles or at a considerable angle to the direction of principal stress, whether the
discontinuity is surface or sub-surface is more likely to be harmfulthan a discontinuity of
the same size, location and shape lying parallel to the stress.
c. Any discontinuity which occurs in an area of high stress must be more carefully
considered than a discontinuity of the same sue and shape in an area where the stress is
low.
d. Discontinuitieswhich are sharp, such as grinding cracks or fatigue cracks, are severe
stress-raisers and are more harmful in any location than munded discontinuities such as
scratches.
e. Any discontinuity which occurs in a location close to a keyway or fillet must be considered
to be more harmful than a discontinuity of the same size and shape which occurs away
form such a location.
LIMITATIONS OF RAIIIOGRAPW
RadiographiciDspection has s e v d inhumtlimhtions:
Beam of radiation
Film in a caswttc
. . I
~ hcomponent
t to be tested orinpxted is placed betweenaliadiation s o m and a speiAIY
prepared film Precautions are taken to wure that unauthorized persons are kept away from the
area to.preventU n I l M a r y exposnre to radiation.
When the equipment is operated some radiation penetrates the component and is recorded on the
film.After cxposnre the film is p e in a darkmom m M o p the image.
RT LESSON 101
.,- -.
INTRODU&'~ON TO IONIZING RADIATION
T H E STRUCTURE OF MATTER
AU matter whether solid, liquid or gas consists of elements, or combiinations of elements. . '
:.'
An element is a substance which cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical m a s . . -
. .
. .
.
, .,..
. . - ...........
.. . . . . .,..
.,.: . charged Whirling around .
'. - n u c l e u s i. nthep ~ ~ ... ..
i m ~ ~
. . . . . .
. . .
. . . . . ::" .: .- .4d&&& *. *& are & & ~ Y Y . "-;i>:... ...
I .. s! .. .. .. . . . ...,
.
. . a . :. .. ... . , ;:jr;.;
'charged !'> -.:...;; . ': .: ,
, -. . --...?,. ..
.. . . . ->c.
,,
.... .. . . . \ ..
Prolon +vc
. - . - Prolor6
Eloarnil-vc
charge charge
.
The nucleus itselfis EIelectrons are 1840 ?he total negative charge of all
made up of two types timeslighter than h e elelectrons orbiting the
of paaicles of protons or neutrons, nucleus balances the positive
appro-Y equal and have negligible. m e o f theprotonsin the
mass: 'protons' . mass. nucleus. The atom as a whole
which are positively therefore has no e l d c a l
charged and charge.
'neutrons' which
cany no charge.
Thechemicalpro~ofatomsarc~odbythenumbaofelectronsindx:outn:shelL
A . t m of a particuk clementhave a fixed andequal nambcrofelectrons and protons Mdanormal
ciratmma The numbm of protons in the n u d w of aparthhclanent is known as tfie
atomic number of the clrmcnt
MASS NUMBER ("A" number)
_ -,.
? h e m s of an atom is fix& by the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
L .
13 Protons
2 Neutrons 14 Neufrons
00
00
Hydrogen Helium
1proton + 0 neutrons s 2 neutrons
2 p ~ t o nt 13protons t 14neutrons
Mass number = 1 Mass number = 4 Mass number =27
Hydrogen
Helium
AlmDinium
ISOTOPES
The atoms of each elemerit kiitain aJe6nite number of protons but may have a different
number of neutrons. The& atoms are called 'isotopes' and are given an identifying number
related to the weight of the nucIeus. Such atoms have the same chemical properties, but
have different weights and radiation properties.
The three different isotopes of hydrogen are an example. These isotopes are chemically .: ...
identical but are written:
.Th& arc isot~pcswfiich;givt off some form of ionizing radiatioa In the process they
may themscva be mnsfhmd into otfierelements by lmingpartides.fromthtnuclcus.
1sornpcs chat have a @eat& number of neutrons than pmmns in tfie n&cIeusan said to be
'unsta&'. Unstable isotopes try to s t a b i i themselves spontaneously by a nnmba.of
diffwprocesses:
1) -
by nlcasingneutrons .thatis ejectingneutrons frmnthe nucleos.
2) by s p W g neutrons into anew proton plos an electron, which fIies off at hi&
speed.
The isotopes which arc usefnlforradiography give offgmmaradiation as a aof some
of these spontaneouschanges. Gammamdiation is vay pen- and affects i
photographic fiIa - hence its uxfdness.
TYPES OF RADIATION
- . - - '
Dlning the radioactive decay process, caused by the splitting of the neutrons, radiation is
released in three different forms:
1) alphapdcles (a)
2) betaparticles (p)
3) gamma rays (Y)
Alpha particles - are 2 neutrons and 2 protons (helium nucleus) bound together to
behave as one fundamental particle. Alpha particles are emitted from heavy nuclei
containing a large number of nucleons (neutrons and protons) such as Americium 241, an
anificial elment
Beta particles - arc high speed elecEons which are emitted from the nucleus. Beta
particles are emitted dlning the decay of Iridium 192 and Cobalt 60.
-
Gmitna rays are electromagneticradiations (as are radio waves and Light waves)
that are emitted from the nucleus. After the emisdon of alpha and beta particles, the
nucleus can re-adjustits ehergy still fkther by the emission of gamma rays. This emission
does not ftnther change the element These gamtna rays are used for radiography.
Apart fromxntudy oarnringradioisotopes, it is also possible to produceradioactivity in
n d y stable elements by the use of a nuclear reactor,or a high energy particle
amelemlor. This is done by introducingenergy into the stable nucleus in the form of an
energetic paaide such as a neutron. The nuc1ev.s then loses this excess energy by giving
off radiation in the form of gamma rays
Radioisotopes are producbi in nuclear reactors by twomethods:
1) They can be sepaiatedout of fission hgments, ifenemfedwhen afnel element like
uranium 235 is used E m m ~ l of - rxoducedin
e ~comma nidioiitopes . this manner
are cesium. 137, strontium90 and krypton 85.
2) '~$ble~ents&bcmaderadi~by~adngthrmina~e~d~onina
ndearreactor, shieldtd by specially designed aaxssholes. Nentrons originating
f h m the mxta are used to irradiate thcsestable clancats. Examples of
mdioisotopes prodnced by this m&od am cobalt60 from cobaIt59, iridium 192
fromiridium 191,'and thulium 170f r o m t h h 169.
All these radioisotopes may be used for i n d d radiography. .
RT LESSON 102
'RADIATION SAFETY
DANGERS OF IONIZLNG RADIATION
It is vital thatpeople who use and operate X-ray and gamma-ray equipment obsave the
proper safety standards. Radiation may damage your health and shorten your Iife. Your . ;
safety is of utmost importance.
- -
Employers and employees are rcqkedto do aIl t h i s rmsonably praaicablc m restrict the
extent to which people an:exposed to ionizing radiations.
?he unit of mdiation dosc is the REM Forpractical~nrposcs when measming X and
gamma &on the rem can bc considered to be apvahu to the RAD or the Rocntgeo
j-j
\ -:
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DOSES
?he statutory regulations'sI;ecify' h<hurndose of ionizing radiation you may receive
from any fadioaaive substanceor any machine or apparatus which pmduces ionizing
radiation
The permitted levels are dependent upon the parts of the body expsed to the radiation. To
controI doses within the permitted levels, dose rates are nx%mredin the wo*g -
environment. If the relevant dose rate is exceeded,appropriate action, such as restricting '.
access or opemtional time,must be taken. - -
MEASURING RADIATION
. . ..
~adiationdoseratr:ismwsm?edwidi.'. .: .. . Thtaccnmnlatedwllo'lebody
aradiationmetcrorm o n k S o q ' ... dose of ionizingradiation
typesuseGdga:m~tnbcstodetcct ~ rnonimnd
I X W ~ V Cby
gamma or X-rayi o n i d o n and m pmsoPQM)nnel must not ex&
battayoperatcd. 'Ihtrcadontscalc 125 remiper calendar quarter
i s i n r ~ ~ t g u i s p e r h o n r, .a n d ~ t g e 'n s ..
' - or 5remiper year.
per hour. . :.. . .
SAFETY EQUDPMENT AND REQUIREMENTS
. . - _ -._
PERSONAL PROTECTION
To ensure that you are efEectivelyproteaed from ionidngradiaton ahd that the ma%imum
dose rates are not wrceedwi, statutory @tiom appIy to aU industrial radiographic
options.
These legularions are cantakedinthe Ccde of Federal Regulations and State Regulations.
This is the most important item of eqnipmcnt far yoar safety and protection. .Thesnrvcy
- per
nebx is a dclicatc inshmnmt usually calibrated in milliroentnens
.. - hour (mdhr).
~ndicationofthe dose ratcisdirect-it is used to:
1) . Check theposition at which bmim should be set up.
A m e y meter shouId always be available to each nvliogaphy team.
The survey meter s h o d be a p p r o p for
~ the type of radiation in use. Where necessary
scale conversion data s h o d be available.
Survey mters should be tested by a qualifiedperson before use. niey must be calibrated
at 90 day intends and afta: dl repairs. Rtconls of calibrations must be kept by your
employer.
AUDIBLE ALARM D O S l M E T m
Theseinstrwnentsindicatethcprcse~xof~onbyanaudibIehignaL w a n d e r
and Wter thanthc smvey m e and an designed to be canid on your paw& They
. gi~cwamiogofhighdoselatc~~mustbenvirdrcdondrtrSngchewhokpaiodof
ps@leep~sure.l k y m p a r t i c n l a r y v a h a b I e w h e n u S i n g X - ~ ~ y m ~ ~ o n
kisdtotesttheuuits~~y
eqmp~becaasefheZrgiwaaimmtdiaawamiog.
tbensmtthatthtyanmgoodworIdngorder,andthatthe~~~icatestht~~~of
. ionizingradiatioa
FILM BADGES AND THERMO-LUMINESCENT DOSIMETERS ,--.%
Regulations require you to wear a H.mbadge so that thc amount of radiation you are
exposed to is documented Thc f%n badge consists of a photomphic film in a special
holder, which you should attach to your trousers belt or to the outside of your normal
clothing.
QIP
mhLORPLLSIXCLSE
OWVESLSBETA6HIEU)l
RU8
Atthccndofthcase~thcfilmkpnxxssedandassesscdtod~ethcamo~of
radiation received. The film badge pmvidcr a -record of your dose. Your
p a x d radiation dose noprdis kzpt by yonr cmploya. Yon may ask to see it at any
misonable time.
~ ~ ~ 6 ~ n a , ) m a y b e n s e d ~ o f a f i l m b a a g e t o m a &
your personal dose. A TLZ) is a phosphor in a solid cyrstd shactnre that, when cxpostdto
lonizlngradiationsbncs~~ergy. W h W h e n h e a t c d t h c ~ i s n l ~ i n & e f o r m o-f.
Wwhich is p e o n a l to tkc exposing radiation. ..
Always wear your film badge or TLD on the outside of your normal clothing, at the fmnt
of your body. - . .- ^ 2
1 '00
. :p-
If you remove your coat or coverall when wotking,.make sare that you W e r the film
- badge to either your shirt or tronsem.
Dating "offwork" paiods keep your film badge away fium high tcmperahncs, such as hot
pipes andradiators. Protea it frompssibIe ch* attadc,and do not keep it near
. luminous articles sach as alarm docks,watches, compasses,and mdhtion sources.
wear y o u r f i badge dming6e If yo0 notice any defects in the film
whole w0rki.a~M o dincIuding badge holder, partiaxlady if any of
preparation 6tmnspt, d g themctaIinserts aremissing, orif
up and storing equipmat you 10%or damage it, inform your
snpavisor at once.
R+hnn yoor film badge pmmpfly at
thetimespccifie& Alwayscnsore
thatyou have a new badge to wear
before giving up the old one.
POCKET DOSIMETER
ex& must be worn in addition the the film badge and direct reading pocket
500 mR&rmWhr
dosimeter.
SAEETY WITH RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT
Allequipment must be maintained in a good, cIean, safe, working order. It must be '[
chccked b e f q and afteruse by the raaiographer at each site. A record of these checks
shouId be kept showing details of any defects, and the action taken to remedy them. In the
case of ga& expos& devices, a &ey meter must be used during the exinination.
reading, check with another survey &w.Report a~unwual readi;lgs.
- no
This will aIso confirm that the survey meter is wod6.u~.Ifthe survey meter pives
-
The Radiation Safety Officer is usually a supervisor appointed by the Licensee who . ..
has the knowledge of, responsibility for, and authoriey to enfom appropriate radiation
protection rules, standanls, and practices on behalf of the liceme.
- -
-
The Radioeraoher is an individual who perfom or who, in attendance at the site
where the &tion exposure device or sealed source is being used, personally supervises
radiographic operations and who is responsible to the licensee for assuring compliance with.
the re-dati~niand conditions of the license.
-
The Radiographer's Assistant & an individual who, under the personal supervision
of a radiographer, rises radiographic wgosme devices, sealed sources or related handling
tools, or radiation survey instruments in radiography.
STORING AND TRANSPORTING SOURCES
When a sourceis not in usc or in transit.you must cnsunthat it is kept in a secure storaEe
a m . Ihestorage area m& be ~ d et r h c ~ ~ ofoan nddperson, who keeps a
record of thc utilization of somces, and who has castody of the keys.
Waming notices mnst be fixed to the ootdde of the storage area. Tne notices mast include
L. the internationally agreed symbol for ionizing radiation.
EAUTIDN
-
W D E[AT110N
*
AREA n
TRANSPORTING A SOURCE
X-RAY EQUIPMENT
PRODUCTION X-RAYS
-
l-7
Whm electrons travelling at bigh speed collide wit&rnattcrin any form, heat and X-rays are
produced. To do this the following are nccdcd:
I) a source of ibe elections.
2) a rneans of acoclera(ing them to high s p e d
3) a m&od of stoppingthua
This is done within the modem X-ray tube - a glass or ceramic tube or envelope in which a i
vacuum has been produced- Two e l d e s are placed inside the tube: an anode or
positive electrode and a cathode or negative electrode. These are connected to e l e a r i d
circuits with a Iow voltage and a u m ~flow
t on the cathode side and a high voltage induced
into the anode by a transformer. Electrons are produced by:
Heating the &ent of the cathode with an decwic current libxxtes the electrons.
-
Increasing the cunrent raises the temperam of the £ilamentand hence increases
the number of electrans liberated.
Electrons
Cathode &ode
2) Applying a high voltage across the anode and cathode a beam of electrons
from the cathode towards a target faceon the anode.
Electrons
Cathode h d e
3) The electrons arc stopped by ailowingthrm m hit the target hon the an& Whcn the
cleumns are brought to an abmpt halt by the target Eacc a BnalI amomof their energy
(about1percent)isnalizedasX~ays.Thercmainiog99percentisdissipatedasheat
CONTROL PANEL
All the controls necessary for the 6puadon of the X-ray tube head are collected together in
a control box or in an operating paneL
?he diagram shows an example of a portable conlroIarrangement that 'Alows the
mdiogmpher to carry it to a convenient, safe opemting position It is made of sheet stwi,
has a lid and wxyhg handle and is weatherproof. It includes the following f e a m . . -.
-
RcmovabIe safety Ley vhi& bm&s the p o w happy to give the ~ o g r a p h s
control against accidentalradiation.
X-rays on button
X-rays off button.
Delay light
CabIe connector to power supply.
CaJdeconnector for anxiIiary powcr to warning system.
CabIc conneaor to mbe head
MiEmpaage control to alta the quantifyof radiatian.
MiIIiammctcrtokdimemk~
Kilovoltage control to aZtapeeetratingpowaof racktion.
Rilovoltagc metawhi& may also indicate the line voItagc
T iwith automatic wtposm\: met ,
Hellier, Inc.
TUBE HEAD
,. - L
The x-ray tube is enclosed in a metal cannister, connected to gcounci, and f i e d with an
insulating liquid (oil) or gas. It also houses a aansformer, supplying high and low voltage,
and a cooling system (as a lot of heat is generated). The tube head provides shielding
against unwanted radiation.
.X-rays emerge from a window made from a material which allows the passage of most of. ...
the radiation Some windows on low kiIovoltage units are made of BeryLIium which has a
low rate of absorption of X-rays.
- -
A red light may be incorporated in the head which flashes a warning when X-rays are
W i g generated
I
The X-ray tube is made of a toughened glass such as pVrex. It is shielded to restrict the
'
o$
escape of radiation and contains an anode and a cathode seaIed in a vacuum
VYl
The calho& is connected to the ncguivcpole of the high voltage circuit At the end of the
tube there is a fiIament madcof tungsten as it ha5.a high melting point
~ hnumber
c of electrons c&tted depends on the Wqemimereached by the filament on the
cathode, when it is heated by the eI&c ammt Varying the cumnt varies the
tcmpaahne and So in tmn controk the emission of elabnns.
The m&is co~ccted to the positivepole of thc voltage Wt, ?he anode usually
consists of a solid block of coppawith its end cnt away to form an an& of about 709
Thisprovides a focal spot of &dent size, and spreads the heat so that the target does not
mcIt Thetarget is made of tungsten set into tfic faceof the anode. As much heat is
. generated at thc anode, a large area of impact is desirable.
U~lliorIn-
The elecrron beam of negativeIy charged electronsi s accelerated towards the anode by
appIying a very high voItagc to the cathode. This voltage is rimmedin kilovolts 0.
The tube c m t from the cathode to the anode is low and is measured in x d J i a n ~
(dl.
The impact ofdeamns on the target faceof the anode generafesxgys. Theinteaityo£
the X-rays emitted by the Eube are in proportion to the tube current
Note: only thew&X-ray shown. X-rays are hawever ememrned
b m i% in all directions
. from rhe uugetface.
Hellier, Inc.
RT Lesson 103
RT LESSON 104
GAMMA RAY-SOURCES AND EQUIPMENT
ww 1) -
Portability gammaradiography is
paaiahdy Snitable for use on site
2) Accessibility - gamma-ray
source containas are
locations, becansc it is portable and genaallysmallandcanbe
requires no power supply or cooling takEninto places which are
system. lnacccssibleto X-ray
@p-t
3) -
SmaIf source-to-film distance a gamma-ray somce is suitable where a small source-
to-filmdistance is necessary, such as when radiographing weMs on small diameterpipes.
-- - IIC.
Hellier, ~n
-
High penetrating power some gamma-ray sources have a very high energy
(penetrating power) which makes it possible to reduce the time of l e exposure, and obtain
satisfactory radiographs of very- metal components.
I
-
Capital outlay Iow ove& cost compared to X-ray equipment
6) -
Scatter less scatter compared to X-rays.
DISADVANTAGES OF GAMMA-RAY EQUIPMENT
1) Gamma radiation cannot~bkwitchedoff. Thereforeradiographers need to be
protectad at all times from these penctratingrays by c o d y designed equipment
and procedures.
2) The quality of the radiograph cannot be readily controlled as it can with X-rays.
The gamma-ray wavelength caonot be altexed using the same isotop~
3) Gamma rays give a higher energy r a w o n than X-rays, with less contrasting
images. This makes the radiographs more difficult to interpret . -
4) The activity of some radioactive isotopes with a shoa haJf-life decreases quickly in
a short time. It is therefore necessary to periodically replace thc source.
1) Front shutter
The radiation beam is exposed by raising theh n t shutter. These containers are
mggcd,rcliab1e and s u i t a b 1 e f o r r m o s t ~ otedniqoes,
n exceptpipewelds.
2) Rotating shutter
In this type the s
ow is exposod by rotating the shntttr by hand, or by ranotc
cable o p d o a When s o m of high adivity are used the shutter should be
o p t e d by remote w n t d
Care must be taken to ensure that the source is exposed away frorn the radiographer.
Rotating shutter type devices are us& for radiography of pipe and other applications
qujring a directiondl exposure.
PROJECTION TYPE DEVICE (CABLE OPERATED)
The s o w is moved along a guide tube to an external working position by means of a
cable. The cable is driven forward bv the radiomphu. using a hand&& wind-out
gear. At the end of the exposure the &ble is retfaced to &the source to its shielded
position. . -
Exnose
8----
Projector I
Control Cable
/ Lbl Source i n Transit
I I
(c) Source at Radiographic Site
I
Scurce
I
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR USERS OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES
-2
To protect radiographers, 0the.r workers on the site and the public, there an:a number of C
regulatory agency reqkments that must be compIied with by anyone usingradioactive
sounzs. In addition, each lecensee must prepare an Operating andEmergency Prowdim
Manual which contains deiailed instruction for the operation of the equipment, safety
p&m, anddetailed instructions in the event an equipment malfunction, an accident or
other unusual incident occurs.
6) They must use a qxkymeter to checkthe level of radiation at regular intervals, and
at source contajnm after every exposure.
7) - - Thcy must ensm~ that gamma radiation cxpmx~ devices arc kept locked at all
times except when acmally bdng used for radiographic q o m m .
Hellier, Inc.
RT LESSON 105
RADIOGRAPHI~FILM$ AND INTENSIFYING SCREENS
RADIOGRAPHIC FILMS
Most Nms used for radiography have emulsion on both sides, however, films with emulsion on
only one side are availble. Single-sided &requires much longer exposure times than double-
: <
sided films.
. -
An x-ray film is made up of seven layers:
1. The super-marum which is a thin layex of clear hardened gelatin which protects the
underlying emukion from damage during normal handling. (a)
2. The &ion which is sensitive to X-rays, b r a y s , light, heat, pressure and some
chemicals. The mulsion consistsof a large nnmbw of minute grains of silver *bromide
(silver halide) embedded in a supportingmedium of gelatin. When radiation strikes the
emulsion a change takes place kihe physical stTuctme of the grains. effed:is called
' which is invisible.untilthe filmis chemically p~~ @)
&\"@
protective coating (a) # , -53
..-..-
..
THELATENTIMAGE
. - . . -
The word 'latent' means hidden and it is used to It is these grains,suspended in the
indicate the invisiblephysical change that takes gelatin on both sides of the pliable
place when the grains of silver bromide base, that form the image that is
suspended in the gelatin are affected by light, visible after the frlm is processed
X-rays, gamma rays or other radiations. This
small physical change is then exploited by
development, the farmaton of tiny grains of
black, metallic silver, to produce a visible image. . -
RcMive Relative
speed expo-
d-- -gcain
(mediumhigh speed)
The nature of the emnIsion, and the onxxssin~of the film. moduces a 'imkiness'
" in the imam=
which is the random clnmphg of G s i l v a ~&IS. The &a t.t&i&b.d @VQbromide
~
6
the less graininess t h a t will be in the image. The grain s i z is dated m the smsitivirv ofthe film
to radiati0~& d y , fine grain is associatedw& slow speed films. and & wibhip$
g
-films. i
FILM CASSETTES
Fdm cassettes can be flexible, &-h*d or rigid The flexible cassette is made fmrn strong, vinyl
and is used extensively for site radiography because it can be readily adapted to various shapes and
sections, such as pipework and circumference welds. There are two designs:
1) Double envelope cassettes 2) Single envelope cassettes
These have an inner and outer envelope. ?hex have a nylon press . .
The outer envelope is closer to the film down fastener which gives
size than is possible with a rigid cassette. good light-tight sealing. It
- This makes accuratepositioning of the also enables the-cassetteto be
film for exposure easier. opened or closed at a touch.
3) Semi-rigid cassettes
Theseconsistof a cardboardfront and back hinged together with flaps on the inside that are
folded ovetthe filmto pmduce aligkt-tigfitmvclope. Although not as flexible as the
previously desuibed cassettes they can be formed around a large -ex pipe or casting.
4) Rigid cassettes
T~.CFCcon& of a thin albminiuinot had plastic front andbackwiih a felt prcssmr:pad
attachedta thehideof th'ebackto'keepthcfiImandscrceztmdkces ininbmtecontact F.,.3
.:.<..
Thcsc a m used when farming tfie film.mundthe part is not nqoinxl. :..-...
Hellier, Inc.
RTLesson IOS
INTENSIFYING SCREENS
The d e w of photographic effect of X-rays and gamma rays depends on the amount of radiation
enerm that is absorbed by the sensitized C O ~ M ~of: the f i This is about 1 per cent for radiation
of m7&um penebrating power. The remaining % per cent of radiation pass&through the fh and
is not used. To overcome this. the film mav be sandwiched between two intensWnt! - - meens. .
Under the action of X-rays and gamma rays
these screens either emit electrons (lead screens) or '
fluoresce (fluorescent screens) which results in an e m photographic effect upon the film emulsion
layers. Intimate contact between the f h and the screens is necessary to obtain sharp images.
. -
There are three main types of screen in general use: lead foil, salt or fluorescent and fluorometallic.
These are used extensively for industrial radiography. The intensifying effect is caused by the
liberation of electrons fium the lead foil under the excitation of radhion. These electrons strike the
film creating and intensification of the photographic action in the emulsion of the film. This
intensifying actions results in a reduction in exposure t h up to 75 per cent ?he lead screens also
absorb the low energy smaer &tion resnlting in improved contfdst
Lead screens art made np from thin Flaws on scrtens,.such as scratches or mcks
sheets of lead foil, which is d~ in the d a c e of the metaL are visiile on the
uniform in stcuc& and stu& on t6 radiographic image. T h d o r e damaged
a thinbase, such as stiff paper or card. m n s shonId not b c ' d
Narmally two lead screeos are nsed. The thickness of the front screen mustbe matched to the
M e s s of the radiation used Thisis to allow the primary radiation m pass throur31, while
stouuing as much as ~ossib1eof the secondanr radiation k . which h&i a Ionm&veheth
The front screen is usually 0.005" thick, and the rear screen about 0.10" thick. It is however
possibIe to use two screens of the same thickness.
Lead i u t a s i f y k g scnens arc not particulariy effective w i t .x-ray equipment below about 120 kV.
FLUORESCENT SCREENS (OR SALT SCREENS) \
. . -
These consist of a thin flexible. base coated with a fluorescent layer made up from fine crystals of a
-
suitable metallic salt usually calcium tungstate. Two main types are used in industrial
radiography:
1) high definition (fine grain) screens, made of small salt c~ystals
' 2) screens giving Figh intensification (rapid or high speed screens) made of larger salt
crystaIs.
Hellier, Inc.
RT T~.v.vnn7nF
FLUOROMETALLIC SCREENS
- -..
These meens are a combination of &&I& screen and the salr screen giving the elecmn emission
effect and the fluorescent effect They consist of pairs of s m m s made up of flexible or mrd
support thin lead foil layer of fine grain fluorescent salt They are normally used with fine grain,
high conblast direct type fikn giving an i n t d c a t i o n which can reduce the exposure by a s much
as nine times, yet without losing too much sensitivityof flaw detection They are made in different ,
..
grades to suit different X-ray and gamma-ray energies.
Their use is largely confined to routine inspection when speed of exposure is essential but when
ordinary salt ScTeens would give too great a loss in critical inspection. . -
With salt screens the maximum &&is o b ~ e atdabout 200 kilovolts. With I& screans the
inleosification dfect is only obtained above 120kilovolts.
~ellier,Inc.
R T T ~ r m n1 n F
RT LESSON 106
PRODUCING THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
IMAGE FORMATION
A radiopph is a shadow picture of a component which has been placed between an X-ray tube,or
a gamma-ray source and the film. The appearance of the shadow picture produced is influenced by
the relafive positions to each other of the items in the diagram
I
If a beam of light firoma fh&@t shines through a hole in a card onto an object placed between
the card and a screen,then aprimary shadow image of the o b j a wilI be formed on the s a e u ~
This primary shadow is r c f d to as the umbra.
T3e sharpness of the shadow image of the object depends on the items in the diagram.
. - .. ..
. .
Ethcseitems or factors are not correctthe wnbra will bG surroundedby a secondary shadow
refened to as the penambra, The width ofthc nmXnalW o w is n : f d to as g e o d e
m s If the width of thc pea&
~ ~ t ~ h a r p(Ug. shadow docr not exceed 0.020.. the image
will. appear sharp to the unaided eyc In practice, since the source always has sorne dimension
there will always be sorne peII~bra1 shadow.
. 3) ~nsartthe&possib~e~Ct~~somccandthe~(~)
FACTORS THAT AFFECT IMAGE FORMATION AND PENUMBRA
.- *. .
SOURCE SIZE
If the size. of the sourceor focal spot is inaeased from a small source to a larger source,the
resulting shadow image of the object wiU be less sharp, (ie. the penumbra increases).
SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE
The distance betweenthe sornrr.ar focal pint and the film is known as the s ~ m t o - f i l m
distancc Kthe s o m is moved farther away from the film the amoont of shadow ovcdap - or
puuunbra is nduoed. t h d y pmkcing a sl'larper image.
This is always calculated as the distance berwmthe s o w side of the object aridthe film It is
essential that the image of any discontinuitiespresent in the objectshould be as sharp as possible.
A space b e ~ e the n objea and the film.should be avoided as this has an adverse effect upon the
sharpness of the irnage.
OTHER FACTORS
C o n s i d d o n of other factors such as source-to-film distance, film-type,intensyfing screens, and
processing would be the same as4&scu.sed with an x-ray exposure.
3. ..
Trialandemx:althougIrthis~odkoftcnnse&,itisnsnalIyvaywastefuIandcostly
both in teams of time and tilm. This method of demmmng an exposure is not
recommended except in u n d W.
USE OF AN X-RAY EXPOSURE CHART
To detemine the proper exposure,enter the chart at the base for the thichess of the specimen and
move vertically to intersect the desired Kv. Move horizontally to the left h r n this intersection
point and read the required exposure in mAS or mAM
X-ray Exposure Chart- 160 KvP Unii
USE O F A GAMMA RAY EXPOSURE CHART . - .%
;
These cham are used although sbnie&hii't&s to x-ray exposure charts are different in that the
exposure time must be determined using the formula shown on the chart
Iridium 192 f3pasure Chart
I I I I
I
IRIDIUM 192 EXWSURE FACTORS FOR I
I
t
1 ,
/
/ I
I - -
INCHES OF STEEL
RT LESSON 107
After exposing the film to radiation rhe hlm must be processed (developed) to make the latent
image visible. This is carried out in a darkroom under subdued light (safelight) of a color and
intensity that will not affect the film.
High quality results depend upon deanIiness, the quality and concentration of the processing
solutions and the c o w combination of temperatme, time and agitation.
There are two main methods of pmxssing, manual and automatic, which incolporate the essential
steps oE ---" i'&b-d"k~?
ep e\
+,!$I ;ki. development
s i l v r ~J t ; l - ' + @ ~ g
/lAex& wrc 4
6%
-5'r'q
b
.
@ washing
(Jdrying
MANUAL PROCESSING
The filmsare suspendedvertically in the tanks on suitable hangers or clips so that s e v d films can
be processed together. The operator agitates the films and transfers thuniium one tank to another.
PREPARING FILM FOR PROCESSING
Check that the developer solntiou'is nady and at the right n o d y 6S°F (2O0C).
Check that the darkroomis seam, the white light off and a n d m safety Light on.
UNLOADING THE CASSETTES
FLEXIBLE CASSETTES
- ., - RIGID CASSETTES
Undo the £41 of the cassette carefully. Place the cassette on a bench with the
W~thdrawthe film.and screensfrom the backside up. 0p.u and careNly pick
. cassette, slowly, to <void excess friction. up the 61mby its edges. T d e r the
Remove the lead d place them on film into avatical position with a
one side. Handle the film by one comer flowing motion, avoiding bending it.
or by the edges and not by the emulsion
surface.
Radiographic films are sensitiveto pressme, acashg, kinking and friction. Friction may produce
an clectdcal dkharge known as 'static' which causes marldngs on the film.
Aaach the film to the hanger, asming that the clips hold it m t l y and GY
on the hanger.
-
Whcn the film is pnxxssed,it is i m m d in each of the tanksfor artcommended period of time. i- 1
A timer.isused to control the time.
Film processing comprises five stages which are numbered in the iUustradon.
. . - . .. -.
1) Immerse the f h fully in each tank in ',
sequence for the time periodrecoq~n~ended
by the manufacturers of the p&sing
chemicals.
5) 'Ihn&erthcfilmfromthe~~
tankand place in a drying cabiiet for
approximately.twenty minutes, or .
nnriIit is dry. Do not placc wet films
over or near films already drying. Do
not place films too close together as
hey may touch and stick togethir as
they dry.
AUTOMATIC PROCES
This allows radiographic films to be processed and dried automatically, without constant operator
attention It is quicker than manud pnx~ssingand can be kept working for 24 hours a day if
require&. .
-.
It is important that radiographs b&kc of in the arm ofintarst as they may bt cause for rejection
of the radiograph. It is important not only to rtcognizc film aaifacs,but to also undastand their
cause and how to remedy them. . '
UNSUTrABLE SMRAGE OR CARLESS HANDLING OFFKMS ATTIME OF EXPOSURE
-$43
fim t r y t o m
film a t h i .about
thteemonths
2)Storeinacooldry
P- 9
3
I/
bf,
&Y
o@
b/
>/-
C I '
Note: thisfbr@ab is rare $hameacalEy sakipackage is unbroken.
\
\9 .&
i
MIS-HANDLING THEF E M AND FAULTY DARKROOM EQUIPMENT
As above but dark areas As above but caused after As above. This is a
Cyi'mb W r K expoSnE fairly rare fault
D& cr&ceat Lhumb nail' Heavy prcssmc or kink marks Avoid 'czimpii or
marks, often s m u n d e d by kinking fiIm while
lighter areas hmdhg. This fault is
more likely with large
filmsor whith long
lengths of film
.
Uneven development Patchy.
streaky and mottled @ns.
k g e s on both sides
"
e/\ d).A
2 9
3'
4- 1) Lack ofagitation
2) Overshortdevelopment
in wann soIutions
3) Attanpfingto
over-sure conpeaate
by under
md -
1) Asitate adequateIy
as recommended
2) Give coma time
for development
inspCCtion1is bad
3) 'Developmeat by
Hellier. Inc.
ARTIFACTS OCCURRU\TG DURZNG PROCESSING - CONTlMJED
FAULT - -CAUSE llFMEDY
-
AR.TFACI' CAUSE REMEDY
- -
Patches of density change Density change due to uneven Avoid placiog films
usndlIy darkerand in
central area of film ( 2 2 * W g
$\
too close tog&er in
hot air c a b i i In
,$'j\
\ '
/y d i. ,,(
extremccasesfib
may stick together
Hellier, Inc.
RT T-evnn ln7 60
4m Designation: E 748 - 90
ATOMK NUMBER
FIG. X1.2 Calculated Themal Nwlron and 100 & 500 KEV X-Ray Linear AHenuation Coefficients as a Fundion of Atomic Number
/,lo
= p-~w~e~ox (1) X1.3 For neutrons, it is more convenient to have the
relationship between attenuation coellicient and cross sec-
.=
ere:
ratio of emergent radiation intensity to the intensity
incident on a material,
lion, as rollOws:
11= +
Po, = 40, 0,) (2)
= linear attenuation coefiicient, where:
= density, and
P = number of nuclei per cm3 o i attenuating material,
= thickness.
I., a,""
- 01NI.'10".1WI
--1,. m,."l*F,,,,.WUI.U."rEIn
*.".I_
c0,,w,,0 UYO( ,*I-
.,'1II1*",ru.c+tr.ic.u.
U",.OII,LO*I*,rn'", r.. ' C . C l U 1 . 3 . <,I
..Y,m*UOnUI..",$. I,,"
.#.n"rn.'"olwi<lr8w, lo 0I.tDl.Oi.
*I1CILi( ".,lxtl"C. M U ~.0,,"0,^U "Uannr.l~l*;i
@
'. ' " .",U'"*<rn"'<".". "A,?" U u U l l . ,mu,-
*.".L
a, = total cross section (cm'), equal to the sum ofabsorption XI .4 In radiologic situations, radiation that is transmitted
and scattering moss sections (a, = a%),and through the object being examined is recorded so that those
p = the linear attenuation coefficient (cm-I). areas in which radiation has been removed, either by
A tabular listing of linear attenuation coefficients is shown in absorption or by scattering, may be observed. Equations (I )
Table X1.I and a comparative plat is given in Fig Xl.2. The and (2) are valuable in assessing the relative change in
data presented in fig. XI .3 give half-value-layer thicknesses transmitred radiation intensity for several materials and
for thermal neutrons for many materials. thicknesses within an object of interest.
X2.1 Ifthe material under examination contains only one )1 = linear attenuation coefficient of the compound, cm-'.
element, then the linear attenuation coefticient is as follo\vs: p = compound density, g.cm-',
A'o
A' = Avogadro's number = 6.023 X LO2' atoms.g-mol-'.
fl = P -
A
A4 = g n m molecular weight of the compound,
u , = number of absorbin2 .atoms of ith kind uer compound
where: molecule. and
p = linear auenuation coefficient, cm-I, a , = total cross section of the ith atom, cm'.
p = material density, grn.cm-', X2.3 As an esample. consider the calculation of the linear
N = Avogadro's number = 6.023 x 10'' a1oms.g-mol-'. attenuation coeflicicnt. p. for the compound polyethylene
a = total cross section, cm', and Cliz:
A = gram atomic weight of material.
X2.2 If on the other hand, the material under cxarnina-
tion contains se\ceral elements, or is in the form o i a
compound, then the linear attenuation coefficient is as where:
iollows: p = 0.9 l g.crn-'.
N = 6.023 x 10" atonis,g-mol-I,
A4 = 14.0268 g.
where:
Lecture Guide: UT Basic Principles
INTRODUCTION
Ultrasonic testing
- introduces high frequency sound waves into test object
- to obtain information about object
- measures two quantities
- time for sound to travel
- amplitude of received signal
Primary Applications
- Thickness measurement
- Discontinuity detection
- Material properties
Advantages
- deep penetration
- portable equipment
- pulse echo testing requires access to only one side of test object
- accurate for thickness measurement and discontinuity location
- permits volumehic examination
- suitable for go / no-go testing: audio and visual alarms
- no known hazards
Limitations
- solids
- liquids
- gases
. Ability to propagate depends upon:
- type of sound wave
- material composition
- sonic wavelength
GENERATION OF SOUND
Damping >;
!;:
Block
i/i
8
8 Wear
i Plate
$
*
ii
I I
Electrodes
. Types of Transducers
- delay line: high resolution for near surface flaw detection, plus thickness
gauging on thin materials
roo i -
90
............3..................................
i
..............>.............:..............:
............. :..............:..............:..............:............. .............:..............:..............i:..............:..............:
i
.
.
.L
-
70
............. ...........:....
3". ' Ti. ......"!..............................:........ :
i i -'
. . . .'..............
. . . . . ............. . . . . '. 5.. ..........:.............:............ :..............
. :
........................:..............6............!..............j
1.............i..............1........... i -
40 .... ..".'"............:..............:i..............:..-.........i.............i'."........ ........:.............. ...........:
" .L i""" f.
I/..'..........!
.
20 i... ..........i..............'..............:.............. ...... .............! ............:............ ..... :..............:
.......... ..............'..............
IIIII~IIII~IIII~IIII
.L
j
.
.i
.............:..............:...-.........:..............'
i
I I ~ I ~ ~ I I I ~ I I I I ~ I I I I ~
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
- i.e., the number of complete waves that pass a given point in one second
- a wave is generated from one full cycle of transducer vibration
- frequency depends on the number of cycles per second
- frequency units
- Hertz (Hz): cycles per second
- Kilohertz (KHz): thousands of cycles per second
- Megahertz (MHz):millions of cycles per second
- also defined as the distance sound travels within the duration of one complete
cycle
. Acoustic impehnce is the opposition that a material offers to the passage of sound
s The greater the acoustic impedance difference, the greater the percentage of
reflection
. Echo performance also affected by size, shape, orientation, and texture and
thickness of reflector
Coupling Technique
Thru-transmissiontechnique
. Liquid couplant is needed to exclude air and act as medium for hansmitting
ultrasound into test material because:
- wavelength is too short in air at the high frequencies used for testing
. Couplant considerations:
-Wetting ability
- Viscosity
- Ease of removal
. Typical couplants:
-water
- oil
- grease
Contact testing technique: couplant is applied to test surface
- portability
SEARCH
IBI COUPLANT
TEST
. Immersion testing technique: transducer and test object are immersed in water
- uniform coupling
. Surface Condition
. Plate waves
1-25
Sound Travel Geometry
n /1
Display presentation techniques
- A-scan
. Introduction
- Clock initiates the chain of events that results in one complete cycle of an
ultrasonic test
- Dead zone is the depth range in test material from which no indications can
be displayed
- The end of the near field (and the beginnjmg of the far field) is called the
- Point sources: Sound originates on the crystal surface as a number of
individual point sources radiating spherical waves
- As the waves progress outward from the transducer, they interfere with
each other
- the interference in the near field causes varying wave amplitudes
- Infinite reflectors
- Small reflectors
(2) Near Field Len&: As near field length varies, the position
of a reflector relative to the yo point likewise varies.
Sensitivity is optimized when the reflector is positioned near
the beginning of the far field.
Straight beam transducers are only effective for detecting flaws parallel to the test surface
. Angle beams are required for detecting flaws obliquely oriented to the test surface
Angle beams are produced in the test material using the principle of refraction
Refraction is the bending of a sound beam when it passes through an interface between two
materials of different velocity
1-44
Sound beam approaching interface is called incident beam
. Sound beam is reflected at the interface
:Mode Converted
. Refraction
- When a sound beam passes at an angle other than perpendicular to the interface,
between two materials of different acoustic velocity, a change in beam direction
called refraction occurs
:Mode Converted
Shear Beam
. Snell's Law defines the relationships between incident and refracted sound beams:
: Mode Converted
: Beam
- The second critical angle is the incident angle that causes the refracted
shear wave to be refracted 90 degrees
I Mode Converted
: Surface Waves
Overview
Conductivity variations
Material thickness
Permeability variations
2.
-,*-
.
Test material must be electrically conductive
- 4---
Flux Field
- the secondary flux will therefore cancel some of the primary flux.
- this reduces the amplitude of peak primary flux
- which reduces the rate of variation of primary flux
- less variation of primary flux results in reduced back voltage
- which results in a reduction of inductive reactance
- when the coil is moved toward a more conductive portion of the test
material test coil inductive reactance decreases
. Electromagnetism
- Lenz's Law
eddy-like pattern
The frequency of the eddy currents alternating in the test material depends on the
test instrument's ac frequency generator
- the primary flux induces a back voltage into the coil, causing
inductive reactance
- which reacts with the primary field that the coil is generating
* Flow Patterns
- They flow in closed loops
- They flow in concentric circular paths
the flow paths are circular as long as the eddy currents are
undisturbed by nonconducting material boundaries and
discontinuities
the skin depth formula applies to thick materials only (t > 56)
* Phase Lag
- Eddy currents experience a linear phase lag with depth
phase lag in the test material proceeds at the rate of one radian
(57.3") per standard depth of penetration
Test Output
- During an eddy current test, a primary circuit (the test coil) induces
eddy currents into a secondary circuit (the test material)
- The test material behaves the same as a single turn secondary coil
- Variations in the test material change the test coil's inductive
reactance and effective resistance, producing indications on the
instrument display
21
Copyright 1993 Hcllier Associntcs. Inc.
- Note the use of the term effective resistance
Resi s t a n c e
- This is the impedance point for a coil whose flux is not near any
conductive material
Res i s t a n c e
I Resistance
i.e., the flux lines entering the material, as well as the eddy
currents that they generate are not touching the bottom surface
of the material
d Rir Point
U
C
t
i
v
8
R
8
a
C
t
a
n
C
Resistance
I
$ R i r Point
U
C
t
I
v
e
R
e
a
C
t
a
n
C
Resistance
Coil Diameter
- Increases in coil diameter move the display dot clockwise on the
conductivity curve
- Decreases in coil diameter move the display dot counter-clockwise
on the conductivity curve
.
- .,
4
I t
L"r=
Resistance
Explanation:
J I. Conductivity
2. Geometry
J
3. Permeability
!
,
7! ~ 5 ; -fiw rC
e /'
s~c..y-o...<a_J
b
~4~ii
C o m p l e t e d H y s t e r e s i s Loop
B
Saturation
Residual
Magnetism
Instrument Overview
- Surface Coils are built into probe type housings for scanning
material surfaces
- In addition, the coil can be wound around a ferromagnetic core for
even more field strength
- Wide surface coils permit rapid scanning and deeper penetration, but
cannot pinpoint the-location of small discontinuities
both coils are coupled to the test material, with one portion of the
test material being compared to another
c Display
p'.
a," \,\-
I
Defiaai.tion - NDT method used:
1) for the detection and location of leaks
and 2) for the measurement of fluid leakage
in either pressurized or evacuated systems
or components
Disadvantages
contamination of test spechan surfaces
improper temperature of part surface
contamination or foaming test liquids
improper viscosity of test liquids
excessive vacuum over surface of test
liquid
low surface tension of test liquids
leading to clogging of leaks
prior use of cleaning liquids that might
clog leaks
* air in test liquids or outgassing from test
surfaces causing bubble formations
R- 12 Dichlorodifluoromethane CC12F2
R-22 Monochlorodifluoromethane CHClF2
T w Amer~canSmrly tor Tesl,ng an0 IAalerfiJlrIJhcr noposn.on nupenmg 11s *Jlldfly ot a n / p l e n l ngatr S e n e a .o cannecr.on
wnh any .lcm mnl.oncd .n lhsr rieoaard Urcn 01 Inn rtandara ale erpesrty aavaw lnal dererm rwl on 01 the talo!ly 01 an, such
plmt n(mlz. me rrsX 01 mlr~ngemenlor sucn rqhlr. ore cnllretf I e s r own reSpn%b Icy
Thk slandard ir subjen to revision a1 any time by the respansible lechnical and m M be reviewed evwy five years snd
ilmt rsvirw: eilhvreapprovedor wllhdrawn. Ywrmments are invilw'eilherlor rwtsion 01lhk standardor far edd8b.d standards
and should be addressed to ASTM Headquarlers. Ywr mmmenls wiN receive carefulamideration a1 a meeting ot the responrlblc
t&nical cammhee. which yw may attend. 11 yw 1-1 lhal yaur ramments have nol received e fair hearing you lhwld make y w r
vkw Wown to the ASTt.4 Cammatee M Slandards. 1916 Race St.. Philadelphia, PA 19103.
d STb Designation: E 427 - 94
HALOGENLfiAKTESTREPORT
Tester
Tesl witnessed by
Dale al Test -
TeslW per ASTM Sld. Melhcd -
Oevicelested
No. accepled
-
- NO. pieces -
NO. rejected -
- ..
Mar. kakuge, acn?(lledpa. x 10 Sld, cm31s
TOM -a eachwl- leakage
Device evacualed belae chaiging -
-
II evawaled, pessuie T
Test pessure- psg
Tesl gas: - -
I _ Tram: - g a s
Atmospheric h&gm equivaienl -
x 10 -
Leak Denectw SeMl No.
Leak Standard S e a No.
J n e h r . w n Soc,c!y i m Tallog and Malcrrsls lanes ncposllmrespMmng Ih€v a l d i f 01 any wren1 r ~ g n :arrcncdm cmnmlao
ant, any ncm mcnlsonw in rncs s t m a d U s m a1 l h n slamiad z e w a d y Z O d r s M lnal aclcrm n.?l,oo 01 ine ,~l,dby 01 on, swn
palcnl r,ghlr and the r d r ~ol mlr ngcmcnl d s w h ngnlr am eNlrely tiwr a n rcspwibla,
This slmdard is subjecl lo revision e( any lime by lhe mpmsible lachnicalmmhee wd mosl be reviewed every live y e u s and
Nnol rwised, &her reappoved or wahdrawn Your m m m m s ere imiled &her lor revision 01l h k srandard or lor sddifiwldmdards
&shooM be addrerred lo ASTM Headquarrers. Your mmmems will receive carefulm i d e r a l i o n a1 a meeling o( Lhe rerpwr;lble
IRhnM emmillee, which you may Mend. H you feel the1 yaur m m M s have md received a lab hearing you should make your
view known lo <heASTM CNnmineo on Standards. 1916 Race St.. Philadelphia, PA 19103.
451b Designation: E 499 - 94
Elecrricrl
Pawcr
Trap
FIG. 1 Method A
,n<
Helium
I
I 9" Dctecror
I-
I I
Probe
Prerruri2ini)
Connection
when an inert gas and a tracer gas are added separately, this 8.1.5 Sfabilify of Zero and Sensifivily-A maximum
may not be true. D e v i w in which the effective diameter and variation of &5 % of full scale on the most sensitive range
length are not greatly different (such as tanks) may be tested while the probe is active; a maximum variation of 2 2 % of
satisfactorily by simply adding tracer gas. However, when full scale on other ranges for a period of 1 min.
long or restricted systems are to be tested, more uniform NOTE I-Variations may he a funmion of cnvironmenwl interfcr-
tracer distribution will be obtained by fim evacuating to less cnm rather than equipment limiulions.
than 100 Pa (a few tom), and then filling with the test gas. 8.1.6 Conrrols:
The latter must be premixed if not 100 % tracer. 8.1.6.1 Range, preferable in scale steps of 3x and lox.
7.4 Dirt and Liquih-As the orifice in the detector probe 8.1.6.2 Zero, having sufficient range to null out atmos-
is very small, the pa- being tested should be clean and dry pheric helium. Automatic null to zero is preferred.
to avoid plugging. Reference should be frequently made to a 8.2 Heliltnz Leak Sfandard-To oerfonn leak tests as
standard leak to ascertain that this has not happened. specified in this standard, the leak standard should meet the
following minimum requirements:
8. Apparatus 8.2.1 Ranges-1 x to Pa.m3 (lo-' to lo-%
8.1 Helium Leak Defecfor, equipped with atmospheric standard cm3/s) full scale calibrated for discharge to atmo-
detector probe. To perform tests as specified in this standard, sphere.
the detector should be adjusted for testing with helium and 8.2.2 Adjusfabilify-Adjustable leak standards are a con-
should have the following minimum features: venience but are not mandatory.
8.1.1 Sensor Mass Analyzer. 8.2.3 Accuracy, &25 % of full-scale value or better.
8.1.2 Readour, analog or digital. 8.2.4 Temperalure Coeficienf, shall be stated by manufac-
8.1.3 Range (linear)-A signal equivalent to 1 x lo-' turer.
Pa.m3/s (1 x standard cm3/s) or larger must be 8.3 Helium Leak Sfandard, as in 8.2 but with ranges of
detectable. iOmRor Pa.m"s (lo-' or lo-% standard cm31s).
8.1.4 Response lime, 3 s or less. 8.4 01Aer Apparalus-Fixtures or other equipment spe-
increasing the prL.rsurc u.!iil : I ~ , , I Ilrss
, c ~r.,l,cns,ve &35. such 2s air. 11.2.2.1 1 At cornplelton of thc test evacuate or purge tesl
gas from the device. if required.
11.2 Tesr Mmhod A (refer to 4.3 and Fig. I): 11.2.2.12 Write a test repon or otherwise indicate test
I 1 .2. 1 Apparart~s: results as required.
I 1.2.1. I Tesr SpeciJkorioi~. NOTE 5-lr neceswry l o obwin a rwronablc inslmmcnl deflecrion.
11.2.1.2 Nclitrm Leok Derecror. with atmospheric de- adjusl range, rczero if nccesww, and reapply s;lmpling probe lo leak
tector, sampling probe. slandard.
1 1.2.1.3 Heliu~vLeok Slandard, discharge to atmosphere. 1 1.3 Tessr A4erhod B (refer to 4.4 and Fig. 2):
Size equal lo helium content of maximum leak rate per 11.3.1 ilppara1li.r-Same as for Test Method A. except
specification. that equipment for enclosing all or part of the item to be
1 1.2.1.4 Heliuti~Leok Srandard. discharge to vacuum. tested is required as shown in Fig. 2.
Size: anywhere between I x lo-' and I x Pa-m3/s ( I 1 I .3.2 Procedure:
x and 1 x lo-' standard cml/s), unless otherwise I 1.3.2.1 Ser-up-Same as I 1.2.2.1 through 1 1.2.2.7, Test
specified by maker of leak detector. Method A, except that somewhat larger variations in atmos-
11.2.1.5 Tesf Gas, at or above specification pressure. pheric helium can be tolerated due to the isolation of the pan
1 1.2.1.6 Pressrrre Gages. I/alves, and Piping, for intro- during test.
ducing test gas, and if required, vacuum pump for evacu- 11.3.2.2 Sensitivirj~Setring-In general, it will be advan-
ating device. tageous to use the maximum stable sensitivity setting on the
11.2.1.7 Liquid Nirrogoi. if required. leak detector, in order to reduce the accumulation time to a
1 1.2.2 Procedure: minimum.
11.2.2.1 Set helium leak standard at maximum helium 11.3.2.3 Insert the pan to be tested (unpressurized), the
content of specification leakage. Example: leak standard ( 1 1.2.1.3), and the detector probe in the Fig. 2
Maximum leak rav: I X lo-' Pa.m'/s ( I x lo-' standard cm3/s). enclosure.
Tat gas I lo helium in air, w1 the standard a1 11.3.2.4 Note the rate of increau: of detector indication.
1 x 10-'XU.01 or I X 10-'Pa.m3/s(I x 104cm'h). 11.3.2.5 Remove the leak standard, pressurize the pan
11.2.2.2 Start detector, warm up, fill trap with liquid with test gas, and again note rate of rise. if any. If 11.3.2.5
nitrogen if required, and adjun in accordance with manufac- exceeds 1 1.3.2.4, reject part.
turer's instructions, using leak standard 11.2.1.4 attached to 11.3.2.6 Remove the part from the enclosure and purge
vacuum system. out any accumulated helium.
11.2.2.3 Attach atmospheric detector probe to detector 11.3.2.7 Evacuate or purge test gas from the pan, if
sample port in place of leak standard and open valve of required.
detector probe, if adjustable type is being used, to maximum 11.3.2.8 Write a test report or otherwise indicate test
leak rate under which detector will operate properiy. results as required.
11.2.2.4 Rezero detector to compensate for atmospheric 12. Precision and Bias
helium. 12.1 Precision
11.2.2.5 With orifice of leak standard (1 12.1.3) in a 12.1.1 Tesr Melhod A-No statement on precision is
horizontal position, hold the tip of the detector probe made.
direaly in line with and 1.5 +. 0.5 mm (0.06 k 0.02 in.) away 12.1.2 T a r Method B-Replicate tests by the same oper-
from the end of the orifice, and observe reading (Note 5). ator with the same equipment should not be considered
112.2.6 Remove probe from standard leak and note suspect if the results agree within j125 %. Replicate tests
minimum and maximum readings due to atmospheric from a second facility should not be considered suspect if the
helium variations or other instabilities. results agree within +SO %.
11.2.2.7 If 11.2.2.6 is larger than 30 % of 11.2.2.5, take 12.2 Biax
steps to reduce the helium added to the atmosphere, or to 12.2. t . Test Merhod A-Due to the nature of the test no
eliminate other causes of inskbility. If this cannot be done, statement of bias is possible. Calibration standards are used
testing at this level of sensitivity may not be practical. only to ensure that the leak detector is funciioning properly.
11.2.2.8 Evacuate (if required) and apply test gas to device No leak measurement is intended.
at specified pressure. 12.2.2 Test Method B-Bias of leak rates between lo-'
11.2.2.9 Probe Areas Stcrpecred of haking-Probe shall and Pa.ml/s (lo-'' to 10-I standard cm3/s) are typically
be held on or not more than I mm (0.04 in.) from the surrace +25 %.
of the device, and moved not faster than 20 mm/s (0.8 in.1~).
If leaks are located which cause a "reject" indication they 13. Keywords
must be repaired before making final acceptance test. 13.1 bell jar leak test; bomb mass spectrometer leak test;
11.2.2.10 Mainrain an orderly procedure in probing the helium leak test; helium leak testing; leak testing; mass
q u i r e d areas, preferably identifying them as rested, and spectrometer iwk testing: sealed object mass spectrometer
plainly indicating points of leakage. leak test
~ 0 1 6 1vd 'e!ydlapq~qd"IS a x # 9161 'rp,eouelS uo w U 1 w w a 3WLSV aqlol omoux sma!iio
mo.4 avew ornaur ooA Gur,eau se, e ojmrezw, ,ou aneu r1uawwo3 mo.4 leu1 i w l nod I, puane Aew noA q?ym 'ajlj~!wwo?l e ; l l u y x ~
Aa~q!ruadra,umo ,!a41 Ala~!lu!)va ale 'sI~G!,43nr 10l u a w ~ G w l~o~y1r ! ~aql pue 's~qG!,waled
43"s due ,O Allpilen a", lo uoileuiw,ajap ley1 par!hpe Alssa~draale plcpuelr r j y l l o ma9n 'Pleouels s!ul ul pauo!luaw wat! Aue yl!m
, ~ B U ~ S ES ~ S ~ Gluaied
, , o , I M ~ ~ oQ II ou saxe, sle!,al,alc8v Due 6ulrsal lo1 Ala!aos ue3rraruv a q l
Aur l o Al,ptlen JOI Gutl>adss~u o ! ~ r o d
66P 3
rlSb Designation: E 1 6 0 3 - 94
Background
I/;; I
t I
level 'c Sr
T e s t Time
LR = indicated LD reading (0.63 SS or SS) at the end of the tion. All connections should have as high a conductance as is
test period (T or 57 respectively), and practical.
BR = background reading (initial reading). 12.2 Attach the standard leak to the vacuum chamber of
10.5 Set the LD on the appropriate range. the object to be tested and as far as practical from the inlet to
10.6 Close the valves to the roughing pump(s) if they were the pumping system. Refer to Fig. 4.
opened to expedite the reduction of the helium background. 12.3 Operate the equipment until equilibrium vacuum is
10.7 Fd the test wmponent/system enclosure with he- reached in the vacuum chamber.
lium or place the test patt in the enclosure. Large, enclosures 12.4 Slowly open the inlet valve to the LD. Do not allow
should be purged sumciently to remove the trapped air. For the LD pressure to exceed the manufacturer's recommenda-
any concentration other than 100 % helium atmosphere, the tions.
system aoxptance level should be adjusted for the reduced 12.5 if the inlet valve can be opened fully without
sensitivity. exceeding the safe LD operating pressure, close the equip-
10.8 Keep the test wrnponent/system in the test enclo- ment roughing pump valve slowly. If this valve can be closed
sure for the test period established in accordance with 10.4.5 completely. the maximum sensitivity of the test will be
and record the LD reading at the end of the period. achieved.
N m 4--The system time raponst may be longer than tile innru-
men1 rapomtime. 13. instrument Glibration
13.1 See Section 9.
10.9 Calculate the system leakage by multiplying the LD
reading by the C F to obtain the corrected system leakage. For
14. System Calibration and Test Procedure
tests in which a system calibration was not performed (that
is, test volumes less than a few litres), use a C F of one. 14.1 See Section 10.
10.10 Write a test report. or otherwise indicate the test
results as required. TEST hlETl1OD C-USE 01:RCA OR OF HELIUM MSLD
SPECTRORlETEl TUBE AND CONIROL IN LEAK l T S n S C
(NO VACUUM SYSTEM IN THE LD)
TEXT MEITiOD B-HELIUM LEAK TESTING OF VACUUM
E O U l P M E M AND SYSTEMS THAT HAVE INIECRAL
PUMPING SYSTEMS OF THEIR OWN
15. Apparatus
15.1 RGA or lCfSLD and Cottlrols. tunable to the tnce
11. Apparatus gas.
15.2 Standard Leak, of approximately the size of the
11.1 Helium LD-Same apparatus as Section 8. minimum leak to be located.
15.3 Slrirable Filling and Isolaling Valves, for attachment
12. Preparation of Apparatus to the hi&-vacuum chamber.
12.1 Connect the inlet valve of the LD of the foreline of 15.4 Liquid ~ i t r o g e nCold Traps, to be used if the system
the object to be tested. If possible, insert a valve in the conta~nscondensable vapors harmful to the RGA or the
foreline between the mechanical pump and the LD connec- MSLD
16. Preparation of Apparatus to he left in place. Refer to Fig. 4 for the calibration setun
16.1 Attach the RGA or the MSLD tube to the high-
vacuum section of the test object to he tested. The connec- 17. Instrument Calibration
lion should be located near the pumped end of the system 17.1 See section 9.
and attached with as short and as lame a diameter tube as
practical. Maximum test sensitivity & obtained when the 18. System Calibration and Test Rocedure
high-vacuum pumps are throttled, by means of the high- 18,1 seesection
vacuum valve. so as to maintain as hi& a oressure in the
volume under'test as is safe for the LL
~n'imlationvalve 19. Precision and Bias
may be used between the detector and the system to allow
servicing the detector without loss of vacuum in the system 19.1 Precision-The precision of these test methods..will
and to protect the detector from contamination when nor in vary with each instrument and the sensitivity level of the leak
use. When a liquid nitrogen trap and isolating valve are both test.
being used, the cold trap should be located between the test 19.2 Biu-The bias of the leak t a t will be equal to that
ofthe standard leak used for the system calibration when test
object and the isolating valve.
16.2 Attach a standard capillary or permeation leak to the conditions are the same as the system operating conditions.
system as far away from the pumps as possible, using the
lowest conductance path. A small high-vacuum valve should 20. Keywords
be used between the standard leak and the system, and a dust 20.1 helium leak test; helium mass spectrometer leak test;
cap should be provided for the capillary standard leak if it is hood leak test; leak testing; mass spectrometer leak test
Ths nK1ric.w W r y lor Testing and Malerials lakes m p a r h ~ q € c I i n gthe validi7y dany w e n 1 righls asserted in mnnedion
wifh any i(Mt memiaoed in lhb standad. US- d l h b slandard are eqx€dy advised lhal delenniMiion ol the validify d any such
wen(righls, and ihe rirk d i n f r i m olslhh rigMs, are €direly their avn respnsibil#y.
Thb slandard is sobjeQ 10 revision al any W-9 by ihe respririMe l & n b l m m i n e e andmusl be rev- wew live yesrs and
fndrrnired, ei7herresppro"edorwilhd-. Y o u r c ~ m w m a r e i n u ~ e d ~ I ~ ~ r ~ o l l h i
and shooM ba a d d w lo ASTM Hea+&es. Ywr cMmwm wiilreccire M u 1 m M e ( a l i o n a1 a meeling d lhe r s s p ~ ~ i b l e
l&nW m m e e . Which you may anand. H you lee1 lhal your mmmnls have nd mceh'ed a fair hearing you shwld make your
views kMwn lo Uw ASTM Commnec an Si&s. 1916 Race Si. Philad#@ia. PA 19103.
THERMOGRAPHY
Introduction
. all methods in which heat sensing devices are used to measure temperature variations in
components, structures, systems or physical processes
. used for detection of subsurface flaws or voids, provided depth of flaw is not large
compared to its diameter
. can inspect complex shapes or assemblies of similar or dissimilar materials
. need only one side accessibility
visible
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
. involves the measurement or mapping of surface temperatures when heat flows from, to or
through a test object
. thennograph - map of isotherms or contours of equal temperatures, over a test surface
. examples of detectable changes - heat leaking out of a component causes a hot spot on the
part surface or unbonded area on a component which so uniformly heated will produce a
hot spot since the heat does not flow to the substructure compared to the normal area
the larger the imperfection and the closer it is to the surface, the greater the temperature
Merentid
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
. heat flows from hot to cold within an object by conduction and between an object and its
surroundings by conduction, convection and radiation
. electromagnetic radiation is emitted from a heated body when electrons within the body
change to a lower energy state. Both the intensity and the wavelength of the radiation
depend on the temperature of the surface atoms or molecules
Material Heat Transfer Characteristics
. Material characteristics that affect conduction and convection
1) Specific heat (c) - the amount of heat a mass of material will absorb for
a given temperature interval.
2) Density (p) - the mass per unit volume of the material
3) Thermal conductivity Q - the amount of heat that flows in a given direction
when there is a temperature difference across the
material in that direction
4) Thermal diffusivity (a)- the speed at which the heat flows away from a region
of higher temperature to the surrounding material
5) Convection heat transfer coefficient @) - a measure of how efficiency heat is
exchanged
. between a surface and a flowing - gas
- or
liquid
6) Temperature Q - a measure of the heat energy ( local thermal agitation)
contained at each point in the test object
. Important material characteristic in radiation heat transfer is the emissivity (E) of a test
surface
. Emissivity indicates the efficiency of a surface as a radiator (or absorber) of electromagnetic
radiation
e blackbodies, the most efficient radiators or absorbers of electromagnetic radiation, have an
emissivity of 1.0, all other bodies have an emissivity less than 1.0
o emissivity is a function of several variables such as color and surface roughness
e variations in emissivity change the power of the radiation emitted at given temperature and
thus affect infr-dlwl.temperature measurements
Surface Preparation
e surface condition can affect test results i.e. roughness, cleanliness, foreign materials,
uniformity and condition of paint or other surface coatings
Establishing Heat Plow
. test piece to be inspected by thermography are considered to be either active or passive
. passive - test pieces are artificially heated or cooled during the inspection to obtain a thermal
profile
. active - test pieces that use the heating or cooling effects inherent in normal service durini
inspection
Inspection Equipment
. Temperature sensors used in thermal inspection can be separated into two categories:
noncontact temperature sensors (used for thermography) and contact temperatures sensors
. Noncontact sensors depend on the thermally generated electromagnetic radiation from the
surface of the test object This energy is typically in the infrared region
TYPES OF NONCONTACT SENSORS
A. Infrared imaging svstems
1) hand held scanners - respond to wavelengths (h)of 8-12 pm emitted by objects
at or near room temperature but have poor imaging qualities and are not suitable for
accurate measurement of local temperature differences
2) high resolution infrared imaging systems - these systems use either pyroelectric
vidicon cameras with image processing circuitry or cryogenically cooled mechanical
scanners to provide good image resolution (150 pixels, or picture elements per scan
line)
. Temperature sensitivity to 0.1" C (0.2" E)
[some claim down to 0.001" C (0.002 " F)]
. Response time < 0.1 second to detect transient temperature changes or
differentials
. Systems use either a gray scale or a color scale which are correlated to
temperature ranges to depict the temperature distribution within the image
3) the& wave interferometer systems - use modulated laser excitation with rapid
phase and amplitude sensing that can be scanned across a surface to produce an
image
. system senses the interaction between the thermal waves of the laser and the
thermal variations from coating defects and thickness variations
B. Radiometers and pyrometers
Devices for measuring radiation, or spot or line temperatures, without the spatial
resolution needed for an imaging system usually have slow response time, so they
are good for monitoring constant or slow varying temperatures
Pyrometers - used as noncontacting thermometers for temperatures of 0" - 3000" C
( 32" - 5400" F)
Both radiometers and pyrometers are low cost devices that can be, used for long
term monitoring of processes
. Contact Temperature Sensors - include material coating an thermoelectric devices
. advanta~es- usually low in cost
. disadvantages - provides qualitative temperature measurements which can show
small changes in temperatures and coatings can change the thermal characteristics of
the past surface
TYPES OF CONTACT SENSORS
A. Cholesteric liquid crystals
. greaselike substances that can be blended to compounds hive color
transition ranges at temperatures from -20 to 250 " C (-5 to 480" F)
. Compounds can have a color response for a particular temperature range and
differentials of 1' - 50" C (2' - 90" F)
B. Thermally quenched phosphors
. organic compound that emit visible light wwhh excited by ultraviolet light.
. brightness of phosphorus inversely proportional with temperature over a range
from room temperature to - 400' C (750" F)
. some can change as much as 25% / "C or 14% 1 "F
. other coatings - heat sensitive paints, therrnochromic compounds, heat sensitive
papers, meltable frosts and waxlike substances can indicate surface temperatures.
C. Thermoelectric devices
Thermocouples - consist of a pair ofjunctions of two different metals. As the
temperature of one of the junctions is raised, a voltage
relative to the other (reference)junction is produced that is
proportional to the temperature difference between the two
junctions.
Thermopiles - are multiple themocouples used electrically in series to
increase the output-voltage. They have greater output (which
results in greater sensitivity) but have a slower response time
due to the increased mass.
Thermistors - are electrical semiconductors that use changes in electrical
resistance to measure temperature
Acoustic emission
Reprinted from ResearchlDwelooment. May 1971, Volume 22, Number 5. oases 20-24
Acoustic emission
Does metal 'shriek' when it's under stress or strain? -.
Indeed it does. . . and instruments and methods have been developed
to 'listen in' on materials and predict failures before they occur
President, ~ u n e G nR e e a r d ~ o r ~ a r a t i b n
and A. S. Tetelrnan
Schwl of Engineering. UCLA
Acoustic emission &ling offen a new method for the opportunity to prevent (fie failure in such wses.
performing nondestructive tating of materials, manu- The family physician employs one form of acoustic
facturing processes and suuctural components. When emission Lcsting when he listens to the human heart-
a material is strained beyond its elastic limit, it emits a beat with a stethoscope. From the pulse rate and
characteristic noise signal thal is called ucomic c m b
sion. T h e total amount of acoustic emission increases
- amplitude of the e m i M sound, h e determines wheth-
er there are any defects in the heart However, the
until the material fractures. Detedion of acoustic sound emitted by a deforming metal o r nonmetallic
emission signals allows an engineer o r scientist to structure is much more difFicult to detect Sensitive
predict when a material is about to fail and gives him pieuxlearic transducers must be u t i i i i to hear the
key events o f deformation and fracture and convert
these p u b s to cleclmnic signals. Filters are required
to screen out unwarranted background o r extraneous
noise. T h e electronic signals need to he amplified,
pro& and presented to the user in a simple dis-
Digital printer play. Finally, the scientist o r engineer must have some
bo \ or computer understanding of the "software" of this technique if
he is lo use it efficiently.
A great deal of r and d effort has been expended on
cL
2
acoustic emission testing during the last several years.
Reamplifier An acoustic emission working group is in existence
and, in c a p e r a t i o n with ASTM, is sponsoring a two-
Transducer day technical conference on emission tesiing in Flor-
ida in Decemher 1971. Apart from the original efforts
Alarm of Kaiser in Germany. almost all of the work has been
performed in the U.S. Acoustic emission techniques
AJ haqe been fouhd to be one of the most informative
methods of determining material behavior and stNc-
Fig. 1. Simplified block diagram of acoustic emission
system. Sensing transducer in contact with structure turd performance. T h e techniques have been used
being investigated converts low-level stress waves to for nondesmctive inspection of ordnance and pres-
electrical signals that are amplified, filtered and pro- sure vessels, for determining the efficiency of welding
cessed in varietv of wan. and adhesive bonding processes: and for understand-
ing [he microscopic proccsscs o i iatiguc, slress corro-
sion cracking and composite failure. Malcrials such as
steel, titanium, aluminum. concrete, woad aod fiber
reinforced resins have been investigated.
How It Works
Acoustic emissions are the impulsively generated
small amplitude elastic stress wavcs created by defor-
mations in a material. T h e rapid release of kinetic
energy from the deformation mechanism propagates
elaslic waves from the source, and these arc detected
as small displacements on the surface of the specimen.
The emissions indicate the onset and continuation o f
deformation and may be used to locate the source of
deformation through Lriaugulation techniques. Strain
A particular feaNre which makes acoustic emission
analysis a most useful tool for the study of the beha- Fig. 2. Acoustic emission rate data observed fmm metal speci-
vior o f materials is that the pattern of emission u men pulled in tension. Note that emission rate is maximum
near yield strength and decreases in workhardening range.
determined by the lime distribution of the impulsive
deformations that occur within the material. Coose-
quently, the study of local defects can be carried out
without prior knowledge of their location, o r even
existence. In addition. emission data dscribe the vol-
umetric deformation p r o c m not adquately avail-
able from surface phenomena (such as strain), thus
permining a mom comprehensive insight into the
deformation p r o e s e s (such as plastic flow, fracture
and phase transformations) that occur.
The application o f acoustic emission technology
involves a f f i n g the senson to the article under i n v s -
ligation; the detected emissions are then amplified,
selectively filtered. and conditioned, and then counted
either on a periodic basis, as a rate of emission, o r as a
cumulative total. Typically. inflection points in the Renure
data curves obtained through either counting method
are used to determim such items as the onset o f Fig. 3. Typical summation of acoustic emission curves o h
tained from identical pressure vessels with different initial
plasticity a n d l o r crack growth, continuatioo of slow flaw sizes. Slopes increase rapidly prior to failure. Data can
o r stable crack gmwth. and .the transition to unstable be used to predict failures before they occur.
crack growth. Emission signals are frquently also
recorded on magnetic tape for post-test analysis.
Figure 1 is a simplified block diagram showing the
detector in cootad with a strudurc. T h e sensing
transducer is normally constructed from a piaoelec-
tric crystal that converts low level s t r w waves in the
structure to electrical signals that are amplified, band
pars filtered and processed in a variety of ways. T h e
signals are usually transient in nature and tend to ring
the detection transducer a t resonana. This rrcults in
an electrical signal that is a damped sinusoid with a
carrier frequency strongly dependent on the traosduc-
er characteristics.
In many cases the signals are counted with a digital
counter. This count is converted to a dc voltage and
displayed on an x-y recorder. The digital counting
technique has other advantages in the event one
wishes to process the data with a digital computer.
The use of several acoustic emission channels on a
large structure can be used lo triangulate to a source
and thereby locate a flawed area. This is accomplished
in much the same manner as louting sources o f
earthquakes.
.+Applications k e e p growing
Acoustic emission testing techniques are rapidly Fig. 4. Summation acoustic emission as function of time for
being used in many a r e a . Metallurgisls and materials three different heat treated specimens of an aluminum alloy
engineers are finding useful information concerning under load i n 3 per cent salt solution.
increase in cn~issionprior to failure was observed in
all cases for failures bclow general yield. Many limes
the beginning of this rapid build up in activity occurs
at approximately 70-80 per cent of [he failure pres-
sure. This allows failure to be anticipated in snme
cases.
Thin-wall vessels constructed from tough materials.
and containing small Raws often show a peak in the
acoustic emission data prior lo failure. similar to the
unflawed tensile specimen. It is then marc difficult to
make failurc predictions based on the slope of the
emission data. However, predictions can sometimes be'
made by periodically holding the vessel at constant
pressure on the increasing pressure cycle. Almost all
malerials 'containing flaws exhibit a creep effect at
some percentage of the critical stress where failure
occurs. This results in continuing acoustic emission
during t h a e constant-pressure hold periods. Labox-
tory tests on fracture specimens can determine at
what percentage of the critical stress intensity factor
this creep effect ocmm and the pressure vessel test
can be used to estimate wheiher the stress intensity at
the largest flaw is above o r below this value. In many
materials the stress intensity factor must be 89 lo 90
per cent of the critical value Kcbefore tnc c m p effect
crack area (square inches\ is observed.
Predicting suxrptibility to strm cormSon cracking
~ i g . 5 . Summation of awustic emission signals a s func- and hydmgen embritUemenL Many materials exhibit
tion of area of hydmgen-induced cracking for several susceptibility for subcridcal u a c k gmwth when cx-
values of stress intensity factor K.
posed to a combim~ionof certain environments, high
s@cscs. c, and pre-existing Ram of length a. This
phenomenon is known a s sires w m i o n cracking.
the deformation mechanisms operating in materials. Acoustic emission techniques can easily detect
These cover the gamut from glass and ceramics, st- corrosion cracking long before any visible evi-
through conventional metals, into the more modern dence of attack is p r e x n t To demonsbate ihu effect,
composites. three compact tension fradure specimens of an alu- -
Figure 2 shows the typical awustic emission re- minum alloy, containing sharp machined notches
sponse normally observed from a metal tensile speci- were loaded to the same value of Ncss intensity
m e n T h e eminion rate is maximum near the yield factor, K = (-)k, and subjected to a salt water
strength of the material and dsreases in the work- solution. Acoustic emision tranducers were at-
hardening range The type of activity observed from tached, and the notched region of the specimens were
an nnftawed specimen of this kind is related to micro- placcd in a 3 per a n t salt solution. The spacimem had
scopic dislocation pmcascs and requirs a high sensi- becn heat treated prior (D the test to such an extent
tivity instrumentation system to be detected. T h e sig- that one was s w r p t i b i e to strsr c o r n i o n cracking
nal levels can vary by orders of magnitude depending and the other two were n o t
on such factors as the crystallme sWclure of the The summation of acoustic erninion counts p r s e n t
materials, yield strength and past history. t o m each specimen was then plotkd as a function o f
Flaw de(ectioa The introduction of a Baw into a time for a n 8 h o u r period. The d t i n g curves are
material significantly changes the awustic c m k i o n shown in Fig. 4. Note that specimen A shows aaivity
pattern in comparison to the unflawed specimen. T h e after only 20 minufm in thesolutionand goes to 10,000
data in Fig. 2 are primarily due to a uniform, homo- counu in less than an hour. Specimens B and C
geneous yielding that occurs in the gage section; in were not expected to besusceptible to theenvironment.
this situation the emission incrcves to a maximum. As expected; C did not show any activity over the 8-
and decreases in the work-hardening region. When a hour period. In subsequent tesesIs,C was held for as
flaw is introduced, l o c a l i i yielding will occur in the long as 86 hours with n o activity occurring. Spetimen
vicinity of the Baw even though the gross stress in the B did showsome susceptibility to stress corrosion. a[-
specimen is weU below the yield stress. If the Baw is though in a much less dramatic manner Lhan A.
large enough to caw failurc below g e n e d yield, a Following ~e 8-hour test the spccirncns were re-
continuous build up of crnission will occur until the moved and examined a t 8 X magnification. No visible
specimen fails. difierenas were observed b e t w m the specimens. In
Any anomaly that will c m t e l o c a l i i yielding will subsequent 86-hour t a u . A began to show a small
result in awustic emission. Figure 3 shows typical crack in the vicinity o f the notch tip. Most p r s e n t
data from p r m r c vascls containing flaws o f suffi- . methods of determining stress corrosion suweptibiity
cient sizc to cause failure to c o x r below general yield. involves loading many specimqns simultaneously and
Note the large incrwwr in the Slopes of the summa- waiting for failures to occur. Thus. w n k s and months
tion of acoustic emission-prcnure curves prior to fail- are required to obtain the needed data. Acoustic
ure. Over 100 pressure vessels of different materials . emission techniques can shorten the time considerably
have been monitored over lhe past 8 years. This rapid and arc idcally suilcd for determining whether or not
a particular cnvironmunt is hostilc to a given m~lcrial.
The role or dissolved hydrogen in promoling (r;lc-
lure or high strength stecl components has been the
object o f numerous investications.
- The acoustic emis-
sion resulting from the initiation of microcracks and
crack propagation can be easily recorded, and a quan-
titative relationship has been established between the
acoustic emission data and the amount of crack area
generated.
Figure 5 shows the rclationshi~between the sum-
mation of acoustic emissions present as a function of
the amount of hydropen-induced crack extension in a
cathodically chirgedTspecimen of 4340 steel. Note
that the number of counts present for a given amount
o f crack area swept out is strongly dependent on the
stress intensity factor K present at the crack tip.
Acoustic emission testing can thus be used to con-
tinuously monitor slow crack growth in cadmium
plated steel fasteners, and predict when a bolt is
approaching failure (when K -tKJ.
Mevuring coating thickness. There are many coat-
ing processes for protecting materials from erosion o r 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 2.25
corrosion under dilierent environmental conditions. Hours
Anodizing is used by the aluminum industry. Thermal
oxidation can occur when materials such as titanium Fig. 6. Sqmmation acoustic emission as function of
time of exposure at 1500 F for 6A1-4V titanium dia-
alloys are subjected to high temperatures in the pres- phragms pressurized to 3000 psi.
ence of oxygen. Both of these processes result in the
formation of brittle coat on the surface of the mate-
rial. When the materials are deformed, the resulting
microcracks generated in this coating give rise to with little attenuation in most engineering materials;
acoustic emission signals that can he easily recorded. and therefore the transducers can be located at some
A technique has been developed for measuring ano- distance from the activity without a loss of data.
d ' i coating thickness. It involves recording the total One example of the use of this "wave guide" prin-
number of counts for a given pressure from clamped ciple is shown in Fig. 7. A Rene' 41 tensile specimen
diaphragm specimens of thin aluminum with varying containing a transverse weld was tested at 1400 F i n a
anodized coating thickness. gleeble machine. T h e determination of the on& of
Experiments have been performed recently on dia- microcracking was of ~ r i r n a r yinterest. The soecimen
phragm specimens of 6 A I 4 V titanium alloy sub- was heated ti 1403 F during ;he first three mihutes. a t
jectcd to IS00 F in air, for different lengths of time. which time load was applied until a preset stress was
The diaphragm specimens were clamped at the edges obtained. At this point constant displacement was
and subject2 to ;n increasing hydro&tic pnsrure>n maintained on the specimen. The signals from the
one side, while acoustic emissions were recorded from transducer (mounted on the water-uxrled grips exter-
the opposite s i d e The summation of acoustic emission nal to the hot environment) were accumulated and
counts were recorded up to 3M)O psi on each speci- plotted as a function of time.
m e n The total number of counts observed from each The acoustic emission data (Fig. 7) shows consid-
was plotted as a function of the time of exposure of erable activity during Load application; the emission
each diaphragm to the 1500 F environment These quiets down a s the displacement is held constant.
data. are presented in Fig. 6. Note that the longer After approximately 30 seconds at constant displace-
exposure results in a higher number of wunts to the menl, crack initiation begins and continues. amlcrat-
maximum prusure. Since the oxide coating thickness ing until complete failure occurs. The emission data
is proportional to some function of the time of expo- provided detailed insight into a time dependent phe-
sure, a test of this type can be used to determine the nomenon, controlled by applied stress, temperature
average wating thickness. The 3000 psi was not suffi- and material composition. The acquisition of these
cient lo plastically deform the diaphragm to such an data was conveniently accomplished even under fairly
extent that a noticeable dimpling occurred. It was severe elearical and thermal noise conditions.
determined that a few hundred psi was sufficient to
distinguish t h e difference between specimens; thus, a Future Applications
device can be envisioned that would pressurize a given
area on a sheet specimen and provide a measure of the All materials and structures contain defects of one
wating thickness in a nondes&ctive manner. sort or another. 'Generally, these defects wuse no
Delcctinc- hich
- temuenture failure. Many measure- reduction in the strength of a part. However, if the
ment techniques such as strain gaging, holography defects reach a certain range o f size, they become
and eddy currents, require access to the surface o f the dangerous and can cause a substantial reduction in
material. at o r adjacent to the area to be measured. strength. AET offers the possibility of detecting these
Thus, certain limitations are present when high tem- cracks before they reach this critical size range.
perature closed environmental conditions are present. TO understand how this is accomplished, it is neces-
On the other hand, acoustic emission signals gener- sary to digress a bit and consider the mechanics of
ated in materials will propagate for large distands crack growth. Briefly, a crack of length o residing in
10 applicd to thc dctcctlun ol cracks and their suhcritical
Crack ini!ia$ion
growth by continuous niunitoring oi a structure.
Holding conaant However, i n practical usage, cxccssive bockground
8 dirplocemcnt noise during service. such as accun in aircraft
. .. nuclear power generating facilities, eliminates this
7 ;, . . .. .
and failure procedure i n many cases. As a n allernative to contin.
.:...+:;,.<;'";,.i'
- , ... ..-.. ... .. . . - uous monitoring, a procedure lhat lakes advantage of
. . :, .,-. .
. , , the irreversibility of acoustic emission is possible.
For example, i f a cracked structure is loaded to a
5.: ." '- ,,~B W
x'
a i n =85 db
= 1W-300 KHz particular value of K and (hen unloaded, emission will
4 ' : ' Differential not occur during reloading until this previous value o f
transducer K is exceeded. I t is therefore possible to take advan:
3 tage of this irreversible nature to determine whether
or not a crack has grown during service loading, by
2 periodically overstressing the structure to a stress level
higher than the service stress and simultaneously mon-
, .. ,
,, itoring for acoustic emission. If Raws have grown
.... ... .. . since the previous overstress, then the applied stress
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 intensity factor during the new overstress application
Minuter will have increased. and emission will be observed.
Fig. 7. Summation acoustic emission as function of Alternatively, if no Raw extensions had occurred, the
time for welded Rene' 41 tensile specimen. Specimen applied stress-intensity-factor would remain as before
was heated to 1400 F in a gleeble machine loaded to a and no new plastic deformation, and hence no emis-
constant displacement and held until failure occurred. sion would occur. 1t is entirely f e G b l e that this
technique could be used to periodically overstress
selected structural components to determine if fatigue
a n elastic volume under a tensile stress s is described cracks are growing in critical areas.
by a stress-intensity-factor K. This concept of using.acoustic emission and a
K= (1) scheduled applicalion of stress to estimate service life
may be applied to the case of turbine discr. Many of
- ... K gives a measure of the local strain energy concen-
the discs that are retired after a specified life could
tration, G. at the crack tip. For example. K =
(EG)H, where E is the elastic modulus. Unstable undoubtedly experience further safe usage, provided
(rapid, final) crack propagation occurs when G nondestructive testing techniques couid reliably pre-
reaches a critical value, G,, such that K reaches a dict that any parricular disc would be safe for a
critical value specified period of additional service life.
During each cycle of loading. combinations of
K, = (EG,)" (2)
stress, time. and temperature produce some creep and
From Eq. 1. we see that the fracture s ~ e s or s is rhen fatigue damage which may, in turn, be accelerated by
given by metallurgical changes that occur during service.
eF = Kc/ (a~,)" (3) From Eq. 5 , we see that a certain number of
where a, is the critical flaw size. Kc is called the frac- acoustic emission signals, TN, (or also a certain
ture roughness. This key equation indicates that in acoustic emission rate, N) indicates that a crack is
brittle materials (K, low), small flaws will become approaching K c and that the disc should be removed
critiul a t a particular slress level, whereas a, will be from service. If the acoustic emission number is below
large in tough materials (Kc high). XN, then it is p w i b l e to guarantee that K is below a
Flaws that are smaller than critical size when intro- particular value and that the disc has a certain guar-
duced into the suucture (by poor welding) can sfill anteed lifetime remaining to it, depending on the
grow out to critical size under random loads (fatigue) exact form of equation (4).
o r in reactive environments (stress corrosion crack- The problem of estimating !he residual life of a
ing). Rare of slow crack growth also depends on K. turbine disc is but one of a number of problems that
da/dr = f(K) = ffd;io)*) (4) might be solved by AET. Consider weld cracking as
It is necessary to detect a crack when its K I K , ratio is another example. Many failures of welded high
low, if the stress is to be removed and brittle fracture strength steel p a m resulting from the growth of
is to be prevented. cracks are .difficult to detect by conventional NDI
Slow crack consis& of a series of dis- methods. However, it should be possible to detect the
crete movemenls within the structure. Each move- formation of a weld crack from the sound emitted
ment rapidly removes the strain energy G stored near during the growth of the crack. Continuous AET
the crack tip. A portion of this released energy is spent monitoring during welding should reduce the inci-
by the increased crack-surface area as surface energy, dence of undetected weld cracks.
while another portion is released as elastic waves in Bridges, dams and aircraft are all struc~uralsystems
the form o f acoustic emissions. The results of rising in which failure occurs by slow crack extension prior
load tests have shown that the total number of acous- to failure. If this crack growth can be monitored.
tic emission signals, ZN, can be directly related lo either periodically o r continuously, it should be pos-
the applied stress-intensity-factor K, through a re- sible t? determine when K approaches K,, and hence
lationship o f the form when'structural failure is impending. The one major
I N = AK- (5) problem thal remains involves the screening out of
where nr is a constant for a material and ~hickness. extraneous noise. but in many instances this is non-
Eq. 5 suggests thal acoustic enlission could be existent or can be ovcrcome with existing technique$. 0
121ACOUSTlC EMISSION TESTING
PART 1
INTRODUCTION TO ACOUSTIC EMISSION .
TECHNOLOGY
This is in contrast lo other i~>cthods or tnu~idest~uctiwtest- rlniissiu~itests. lbhle 1 gives all overview of tlie ,"anner by
ing, which depend on prior knowledge of tlie probable loca- \\*hicllv~riotts11i:tterial properties and testing conditions in,-
tion and orientation or a discclntinuit). in order to direct :I Ihtencr acm~sticel~iissionresponse arnplitnides.The Llctors
beam o l energv through the structure on a path tliet will ~liotlldgenerzilly be runsidered as indicative. rather than ils
intersect tine area or interest. nbsolttte.
'
c c a t a s t q h i c failure of systems with unlolown discunti-
nuities. and to limit the maximum pressure during
ited mne only. Although leak detection and amustic signa-
ture analysis do not involve acoustic emission in the shictest
containment system tests. sense of the tenn. amustic emission twhniques and equip-
/.y57? ment are used for these applications.
'4y'<~?
Amustic emission is a wave ohenomenon and acoustic
C I
. emission teaine user the amibutes of particular wdw to Structures and Materials
y help character& the material in which the waw are trawl-
A wide variety of structures and materials (metals, non-
ing. \ F z e n z l a n d _ - m p l i t u d @ are -pIez.of &eS-
f6rm paramete? that are +ady monitored in acoustic metals and various combinations of these) can be monitored
Factors That Tend t o Increase Acoustlc Factors That Tend t o Dmease Acoustic
Emlnlon R e y x x u e Amplitude Emblcn Reponre Amplitude
High mength LOW mength
High main rate LOW srrain rate
LOW temperature High temperature
AZ!imtrow tsotropy
Nonhomogeneity Homogeoeity
Thitk smiom Thin senions
Brittle failure [cleavage) Ductile failure (shear)
Material containing dixonunuities Material withwt dixoncjnuiries
Manemitic phaw rransformations Diffusion-controlledphase transformations
Crack propagation Plastic deformation
Casl materials Wrwghr materials
Large grain size Small grain size
Mechanically induced Thermally induced twinning
FROM IPANNER fiCOUmCEMLWON rECHNlOUESANDAPPUUnON~.R E P R I M E 0 WIIH PERMISSION.
14lACOUSTIC EMlSSION TESTING
method include those listed belmv. The preamplifier must be located J o s e to the sensor. Of-
ten it is actually in+rated into tbe sensor housing. T h e
1. Periodic o r continuous monitoring of pressure vessels preamplifier provides required filtering, gain (most corn-
and other pressure mntainment SFtems to detect and monly 3 dB) and cable drive ca&-&ty. F F i l t e ~ gin tbe
locate active dismntinuities. preamplifier (together with sensor selection) is the primary
2. Detection of incipient fatigue failures in aerospace and meam of defining the monitoring frequency for the amustie
other eneineerine
,. ..structures. ..
emission test. This may be suoolemented by additional fil-
3.' Monitorin materials behavior tests to characterize at the n'ainframe-
B
various fai ure meclianisms. Choosing the ~nonitoringfrequency is an operator func-
tion, since the acoustic emission wurce is esseniially wide
4. Monitoring fusion or resistance weldmen6 during band. Reported frequencies range from audible clicks and
welding o r during the cooling period. rnwxks
.7
.- .= to 50 MH-I
un ~~ ~ .~
5. Monitoring acoustic emission response during stress Although noTal\vaF fully appreciated by operators, the
cept~bilitytests.
J -
corrosion crackine.. and ii\drocen embrittlement sus- . ..
obsened frequr~icvspectrum of amustic emission sienals is
significantly ~ n f l t ~ r ~ i bv
-
c e dthe resonance and tnnsmission
FUNDAMENTALS OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING/ 15
om
SrORhGE
YREEN
MY'thY
-
MIA
BUFFEFS
- MlCllOCOMRmR
ORRIJOR
characteristics of both the specimen (geometry as well as emisdon. A widely accepted rimuktor is the Hsn-Xielsen
acoustic properties) and the sensor. In p h c e , the h r source. a modirted s-d n d &at prwide5 a re-
3 uency limit is governed by backgmund noise; it is unu-
to go below 10 kHz e~ceptin microseismic work f i e
upper frequency limit is governed by wave attenuation that
markably reproducible simulatdPamustic emission signal
when the lead is broken against the test structure.
restricts the uzehrl detection range; it is unusual to go above
1 M H z The single mcst common frequency range for Microcornputen in Acoustic
acoustic emission testing is 100 to 300 kHz
Emission Test Systems
' System Mainframe
The first elements in the mainframe are the main amplifi-
ers and thmholds, which are adjusted to determine the test
Signal Processing and Displays
Nearly all modem acuusiic emission Nstems use micm-
sensitiviv. Main amplifier gains in the range of 20 to 60 dB mmputen in various configurations. as determined by the
i are most commonly used. Thereafter, the available proc- system size and performance requirements. In e ~ i c a im- l
essin depends on the size and cost of the G e m . In a small plementations, each acoustic emission signal is meamred by
, portafle instrument. acoustic emission events or threshold hardware circuits and the measured parameters are passed
crossings may simply be counted and the count then con- through the central microcomputer to a disk fie of signal
verted to an analo voltage for plotting on a chart recorder. descriptions. The customary signal description includes the
In more a d v a n 2 hardware systems, pnnisions may be threshold crossing counts, amplitude, duration, rise time
made for energy or amplitude measurement, spatial filter- and often the energy of the signal, along with its time of oc-
ing, time gating and automatic alarms. currence and the values of slowly changing variables such a?
load and background noise l e d .
Acounic Emission System Accessories During or after data recurding, the mtem exiracts.data
for graphic displays and hardcopy report. Common displays
Accessory items often used in acoustic emission w r k in- include history plots of acoustic emission versus time or
clude oscilloscopes, transient recorders and s+wm a d ? - load, distribution functions, cmqlots of one signal descrip-
zrs, magnetic tape recorders, rms voltmeters, special cali- tor against another and source location plots. Installed sys-
bration instmnients, and devices for simulating acoustic tems of this t y p range in size from 4 to 128 channels.
IbIACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING
..4
..
, ; tions is the generally irreversible response from ~iiostmet-
the event of discontinuiy gr~nvilidunlig a uwrking peliid. that colitest. Btlt actuiilly. K~iscr'sidc:~;il)plies 1110ref~x~ida-
subsequent proof loading twuld s~~bject the inaterial at tlie mentally to stress in a 111:iterili. hiolcriols entit a,ily itnrlcl:
discontinuity to higher stresses tli;io I d o r e and tile discu~i- rrr~pircrdenle(lssfrer.7 is the root principle to wnsider. Eval-
tinuity would emit. Emission during the proof loading is uated point-hyimi~it tllro~tglithe threedi~nensionalstress
therefore a measure of damage eq~eriencedduring the pre- field witliin the structure. this principle h;u wider truth than
ceding working period. the statemelit that structures enlit only under unprece-
This socalled Dunegao wrollonj Ixrame a standard di- dented load. Pmided that tlie microstnictr~rehas not been
agnostic approach in practical field testing. Field operators altered between loadings. the Kaiser principle 1119 men
learned to pay particular attention to emission behueen the have the universal \.alidi? that the Kaiser eKwt evidently
w o h g p m r e and the pnmf pressure. and thereby made lacks. at l w t for acthe deformation and discontinuity
many effeaive diagnoses. A superficial &ew of the Kaiser growth.
eR& might lead t; the concluhon that practical application In composite materials. an important acoustic emission
of amustic emission technioua reauires a series of ever in- mechanism is friction b e b e e n free surfaces in damaeed
creving loadings. ~cnwwr,'effecti$ engineering diagnoses rrgions. Frictional acoustic emission is also p b s e d fGm
can be made by. repeated
- -.
applications of the same proof fatigue cracks in metals. Such source mechanisms contn-
prersure vene both the Kaiser eKect and the Kaiser princi~le,but
they can be important for p r a c t i d detection of damage and
discontinuitia.
The Felicity Effect
T h e second major application of the Kaiser effect arose
from the study of rases where it did not occur. Specifically
in fiber reinforced components, emission is often ob- . .
s e n d at loads lower ihylthe previous maximum, especially Overview of Acoustic
when the material is in poor condition o r close to failure.
l%s breakdown of the Kaiser effect war; s u d u l l y used to
Emission Methodology
predict failure loads in composite pressure vessels4 and
bucket huck booms.s . ?hir Nonderrrudice Testing Handbmk volume contains
The W was inhod'& to ddescribethe detailed descriptions of acoustic eminion sou-, a rich
breakdownof the Kaiser effect and thefeIi* was de-
topic that involves the sciences of material, deformation
vised as the d t e d quantitative measure The felicity ra- ,a fracture Another topic appwing in this ,,lume is the
tio has p d to be a valuable diagnostic too1 in one of the subject ofwax: propagation, the pmcerr shaper the sig-
most succeszful or emission a plicationr;, the nal and brings the information from source to sensor. Atten-
of fib*^ w s e l s and fionge d . 6 1' &ct- the uation d the wave d d e n n i n u .i d e t d h f i i t y and
Kaiser effect maybe as a caseof the
3
effect (a felidty ratio 1).
therefore be considered when placing sensors; howledge of
the wave> velocity is a h needed for precise source lacation.
The of cases where the Kaiser eKect breaks These are uncontrolled factors that must be avessed for
down was at firstquite confusingand contmrsial but even- tested,
some Furtherjnsighls emerged. The Kaiser Measurement and ana+& of the acoufic sig-
mo* no'iceabl~h situations where time dependent nals is another major component of tile tecllno\ogy -red
nisrns conmil the deformation. The rheological flow or re- this Acoustic emission from de-
kxation of the matrix in highly stressed mmposites is a fornation may be so rare that a single detectedevent
prime -pie. 'Iow of the matrix "lour the prwi- is enough to wanant rejeaion of the object under test. Or.
ous maximum can transfer stress to the fibers, causing them they may be so frequent that the acorntic signal is
to break and emit. Other cases where the Kaiser ellkct will continuous. Compoundin interpretation diflicul-
fail are corrosion processes and hydrogen embrittlement, ties are amplitudes of the reive% signals that range mer
which are also time dependent. five orders of magnitude. T h e time diflerenes used to
l o u t e acoustic emission sources range from less than a
microsffond to liundreds of milliseconds. In addition to
The Kaiser Principle handling all of these variables. an acoustic emission system
Further insight can he gained b!. considering load on a should allow any of several techniques for reducing back-
structure versus stress in the material. I n pnctical situa- ground noise and spurious sigoals that orten interfere
Hans, test specimens or eiigineerina structures e\-pcrience acoustic emission measurements.
loading and most discussiotis o f t h e kiiser erfect come from Tile acoustic emission t e c l w o l ~cwmprises
~ a ranee of
FUNDAMENTALS O F ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING1 19
1 INTRODUCTION
The oldest and most commonly used NDE method is Visual Testing (VT).
It may also be the least understood and least effectively used of all methods.
There is a difference between just looking at an object and really seeing it .
through a trained eye. VT may be defined as "an examination of an object using
the naked eye, alone or in conjunction with various magnifying devices,
without changing, altering, or destroying the object being examined."
In VT the most important tools are the ones you were born with, your
eyes. Visual acuity is of prime importance to the visual examiner. According
to recent stati~tics, at least fifty percent of the American population over
twenty years of age are required to wear some type of corrective lenses.
However, in the early stages of eyesight failure, either many persons are not
aware that they need corrective lenses or they just do not wear them.
Although the eyes are the most important tool, in many situations they
are not sensitive enough, not accurate enough, or cannot get to the area to be
examined. In those cases, the use of optical aids is necessary in order to
complete the visual examination.
2 BASIC PROCEDURE
1. The examiner
2. The test object
3. Illumination of the test object
4. Optical aids
5. Mechanical aids (measuring devices)
6. Recording method
2.1 Examiner
2 Jest Obiect
The test object's size, shape, and surface condition are important in
determining what optical aids and mechanical tools need to be used to
complete the examination, and what illumination will be required. Some of the
test object factors to be considered include the following:
2
2.3 Illumination
Mirrors
Magnifiers
Borescopes
Fiberscope
2.4.1 Mirrors. Mirrors provide the examiners with the ability to look
inside castings, pipes, threaded and bored holes, and around corners. The
mirrors most commonly used in VT include the dental mirror and the pivoting
end mirror.
2.4.2 fvlaanifiers. Magnifiers are used as an aid in almost every type .of . . .
VT: to b'rjng - out:sinalt details .and .for close 'ex.amiriati.on of discontinu[ties. :The.. ..'
magnifiers most commonly used in visual examinations include t i & fbllowing:
Single lens magnifier,
Headband magnifier,
Pocket comparator, and
Eye loupe magnifier.
Since Noah's time, man has been improving the science of measurement
(metrology). Today many different measuring instruments are used by the VT
examiner, some of which are very simple devices such as the &inch scale
while others ar.e more complex precision measuring devices. The following
.., are
examples of measuring devices used by the VT examiner:
Steel rules
Vernier calipers
Dial indicating calipers
Micrometers (OD, ID, and depth)
Dial indicators
Combination squares
Thread pitch gages.
Thickness gages
Levels
Weld gages (Fillet, Palmgren, Hi-Lo)
2.5.5 Dial Indicators. Dial indicators are the most commonly used
measuring devices for VT examinations. The dial indicator is an instrument
consisting of graduated dial, an indication hand, a contact point attached to a
spindle, and an amplifying mechanism. The dials, which are graduated"to
indicate at least 0.001 inch, are generally used with a base stand having an
adjustable arm or a magnetic base stand with an adjustable post and arm (see
figure 8).
2.5.7 B r e a d Pitch Gaaez. Thread pitch gages are used to determine the
number of threads per inch and the thread pitch on screws, bolts, nuts, pipe,
and other threaded parts (see figure 10). The teeth on the various leaves of
the thread pitch gage, which correspond to the standard thread forms, are used
like a profile gage.
2.5.10 Weld Gaoes. Weld gages come in a variety of designs either for
general purpose or for specific detail gaging. Some of the weld gages can be
used to make quantitative measurements while others are used for go-no-go
judgment only.
The Deerman Hi-lo'gage (figure 158) has functions similar to the Hi-lo
welding gage but it is mdie applicable to small diameter pipe. This gage can
provide measurement of inside diameter mismatch after fit-up, root opening,
undercut and pit depth, weld reinforcement height and outside diameter offset.
3 CONCLUSION
In summary, VT is the oldest, the first recorded, and the most commonly
used NDE method. It requires a high degree of training and skill on the part of
the visual examiner and should always precede any other NDE method to be
applied.
Simplicity
- Speed
Low cost (usually)
Extensive training usually not necessary
Minimal equipment needed
Can be performed while specimen is in use
3.2 Limitations
\ 4 /
\ ,' .- ,P
\
,'
.i3 '
.r,,
\ ,/
: cw\.
,$ .
\
'. (7
....
~ \
,\
'
''
?;/
.,6,
LL
L
. c)
8L
/
./
\
4
STEEL SHEATH
DIRECTION OF VIEW
0
FIELDS OF VIEW
FORE-OBLIQUE /
FIBERSCOPE
\\+
+"Y
/ ,\L'
'i . > 9
. ) '-
<yr,
13
. . . .
. , ,
:
. . . . . . .
.
. . . . . . ..
. . . .. . . .
.
Lamp . . .
. . \-
.'
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
,, F '
\..; c? . .
:.
.
, . .
( \,.
-
.G
.p "
P
e.'
Figure 2. Typical Borescope and Fiberscope
foot 1-
MEASURING LENGTH OF
SHOULDER CW TURNED
GRADUATED BAR
VERNIER R A T E
ADJUSTAELE JAW
DEPTH ROD
c.
ADJUSTING
DEPTH
OUTSIDE INSIDE
MUSUREMEN1
MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT
Figure 7. Micrometer
Figure 8. Dial Indicator
LOCATINGCENTER .
OF ROUND WORKPIECE
Internal Misalignn
Fit-Up or Alignment
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
GENERAL .....................
METHOD IDENTIFICATION .............
..........
NDT DISCONTINUITY SELECTION
............
DISCONTINUITY CATEGORIES
DISCONTINUITY CHARACTERISTICS AND
METALLURGICAL ANALYSIS............
...
NDT METHODS APPLICATION AND LIMITATIONS
BURST ......................
COLD SHUTS ...................
..............
FILLET CRACKS (BOLTS)
GRINDING CRACKS ................
CONVOLUTION CRACKS ..............
.........
HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE CRACKING
HEAT-TREAT CRACKS ...............
SURFACE SHRINK CRACKS.............
THREADCRACKS .................
TUBING CRACKS ..................
HYDROGENFLAKE ................
HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT ............
INCLUSIONS ....................
INCLUSIONS ......................
LACK OF PENETRATION ..............
LAMINATIONS ...................
LAPS AND SEAMS .................
LAPS AND SEAMS .................
MICROSHRINKAGE .................
GAS POROSITY ..................
UNFUSED POROSITY ................
STRESS CORROSION ................
HYDRAULIC TUBING ...............
MANDREL DRAG ..................
SEMICONDUCTORS ..................
HOT TEARS ....................
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION ...........
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
7-5 ..................
Radiographic Test 7-5
7-6 ................
Burst Discontinuities 7-9
7-7 ...............
Cold Shut Discontinuities 7-11 I
7-8 ..............
Fillet Crack Discontinuity 7-13
7-9 .............
Grinding Crack Discontinuity 7-15
7-10 ...........
Convolution Crack Discontinuities 7-18
7-11 ......
Heat-Affected Zone Cracking Discontinuity 7-20
7-12 ...........
Heat-Treat Crack Discontinuities 7-22
7-13 .........
Surface Shrink Crack Discontinuities 7-25
7-14 .............
Thread Crack Discontinuities 7-27
7-15 ..............
Tubing Crack Discontinuity 7-29
7-16 .............
Hydrogen Flake Discontinuity 7-32
7-17 .........
Hydrogen Embrittlement Discontinuity 7-34
7-18 ..........
Weldment Inclusion Discontinuities 7-36
7-19 ...........
Wrought Inclusion Discontinuities 7-38
7-20 ..........
Lack of Penetration Discontinuities 1-40
7-21 ..............
Lamination Discontinuities 7-43
7-22 .....
Lap and Seam Discontinuities in Rolled Threads 7-45
7-23 ....
Lap and Seam Discontinuities in Wrought Material 7-47
7-24 .............
Microshrinkage Discontinuity 7-49
7-25 ..............
Gas Porosity Discontinuity 7-52
7-26 ............
Unfused Porosity Discontinuity 7-54
7-27 ............
Stress Corrosion Discontinuity 7-56
7-28 ...........
Hydraulic Tubing Discontinuities 7-57
7-29 .............
Mandrel Drag Discontinuities 7-59
7-30 ............
Semiconductor Discontinuities 7-61
7-31 ...............
Hot Tear Discontinuities 7-64
7-32 .........
Intergranular Corrosion Discontinuity 7-66 I
I
1 CHAPTER 7: COMPARISON A N D SELECTION O F N D T PROCESSES
700 GENERAL
mjs chapter summarizes the characteristics of various types of disconti-
*uities, and lists the NDT methods that may be employed to detect each
type of discontinuity.
m e relationship between the various NDT methods and their capabilities '
and limitations when applied to the detection of a specific discontinuity is
shown. Such variables as type of discontinuity (inherent, process, or
service), manufacturing processes (heat treating, machining, welding,
grinding, or plating), and limitations (metallurgical, structural, or proces-
sing) also he@ in determining the sequence of testing and the ultimate
selection of one test method over another.
Figures 7-1 through 7-5 illustrate five NDT methods. Each illustration
shows the three elements involved in all five tests, the different methods in
each test category, and tasks that may be accomplished .with a specific
method.
ELEMENT PROCEDURE -
TASK
The discontinuities that are discussed in paragraphs 706 through 732 are
only some of the many hundreds that are associated with the various
products of today's industry.' During the selection of discontinuities for
inclusion in this chapter, only those discontinuities which would not be
radically changed under different conditions of design, configuration,
standards, and environment were chosen.
ELEMENT PROCEDURE
-
TASK
r 1
PERSONNEL DRY VISIBLE
TESTING
AND NEAR-SURFACE
DISCONTINUITIES
=-t
TECHNIQUES
EIY
EQUIPMENT
WET VISIBLE
TESTING
WET FLUORESCENT
TESTING
ELEMENT
Figure 7-2. Magnetic Particle Test
PROCEDURE
I
PERSONNEL
DETERMINE
THRU TRANSMISSION
SPECIALIZED
1 APPLICATIONS I
PERSONNEL
a
TECHNIQUES
El-'
EQUIPMENT
MANUAL COATING AND PLATING
DETECT
DISCONTINUITIES
TECHNIQUES TESTINGFILM
X-RAY
DETERMINE
BOND
1. Inherent Discontinuities
2. Processing Discontinuities
1. General
Just as the structural application within the article varies, the allowable
discontinuity size will vary depending on the configuration and method of
manufacture. For example, a die forging that ;has large masses of material
and extremely thin web sections WOUIC not require the same level of
acceptance over the entire forging. 'Re forging can be zoned for rigid
..-r.. .I ...L-..- +ha ~ t n % n + ~ .1-rn'-
lml --- L:-h-- --.a 7--- -
:-
:J ,.
i
, The nondestructive testing specialist must also select the method which
will satisfy the design objective of the specific article and not assume that
all NDT methods can produce the same reliability for the same type of
discontinuity.
A planned analysis of the task must be made for each article requiring NDT
testing.
3. Limitations
The limitations applicable to the various NDT methods will.vary with the
applicable standard, the material, and the service environment. Limita-
tions not only affect the NDT method but, in many cases, &o affect the
structural reliability of the test article. For these reasons, limitations that
are listed for one discontinuity may also be applicable to other disconti-
nuities under slightly different conditions of material or environment. In
addition, the many combinations of environment, location, material, and
test capability do not permit mentioning all limitations that may be
associated with the problems of locating a specific discontinuity. The
intent of this chapter is fulfilled if you are made aware of the many factors
that influence the selection of a valid NDT method.
7-7
706 BURST
1. Categorx. Processing
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
4. Metallurgical Analysis
..,,. . '..
.
. ,:
..
1. Category. Inherent
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
4. Metallurgical Analysis
Cold shuts are produced during casting of molten metal. They may result
from splashing, surging, interrupted pouring, or the meeting of two
streams of metal coming from different directions. Cold shuts are also
caused by the solidification of one surface before other metal flows over it,
the presence of interposing surface films on cold, sluggish metal, or any
factor that prevents fusion where two surfaces meet. Cold shuts are more
prevalent in castings formed in a mold having several sprues or gates.
A SURFACE COLDSHUT
1. Category. Service
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Located a t the junction of the fillet with the shank of the bolt
and progressing inward. (See Figure 7-8.)
A FILLET FATIGUE FAILURE
(3)
May be used for both ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic
bolts, although usually confined to the nonferromagnetic.
Fillet cracks appear as sharp, clear indications.
II
(4) Structural damage may result f k m exposure of high-
strength steels t o paint strippers, alkaline mating
removers, deoxidizer solutions, etc.
(5) Entrapment of penetrant under fasteners, in holes, under
splices, and in similar areas may cause corrosion due t o
the penetrant's affinity for moisture.
c. Magnetic Particle Testing Method.
(1) Only used on ferromagnetic bolts.
(2) Fillet cracks appear as sharp clear indications with a
heavy buildup.
(3) Sharp fillet areas may produce nonrelevant magnetic
indications.
(4) 17.7 pH steel is only slightly magnetic in the annealed
!
condition, but becomes strongly magnetic after heat
d.
treatment, when it may be magnetic particle tested.
Eddy Current Testing Method. Not normaIIy used for detection
i
of fillet cracks. Other NDT methods are more compatible to
the detection of this type of discontinuity. !
1. Category. Processing
3. . Discontinuity Characteristics
surface.' Very shallow and sharp a t the root. Similar t o heat-treat crack
and usually, but not always, occur in groups. Grinding cracks generaus
occur a t right angles to the direction of grinding. They are found in highlj
heat-treated articles, chrome plated, case hardened, and ceramic materials
that are subjected to grinding operations. (See Figure 7-9.)
1. Category. Processing
2. Material. Nonferrous
3. Discontinuity characteristics
4. Metallurgical Analysis
The rough "orange peel" effect of convolution cracks is the result of either
a forming operation that stretches the material or from chemical attack
such as pickling treatment. The roughened surface contains small pits that
form stress risers. S-dbsequent service application (vibration and flexing)
may introduce stresses that a c t on these pits and form fatigue cracks as
shown in Figure 7-10.
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Often quite deep and very tight. Usually run parallel with the
weld in the heat-affected zone of the weldment. (See Figure 7-11.)
4. hietallurgical Analysis
1. Category. Processing
Surface. Usually deep and forked. Seldom follow a definite pattern and
can be in any direction on the part. Originate in areas with rapid change of
material thickness, sharp machining marks, fillets, nicks, and discon-
tinuities that have been exposed to the surface of the material. (See
Figure 7-12.)
7-21
A FILLET AND MATERIAL THICKNESS CRACKS C'OP CENTER)
RELIEF RADIUS CRACKING (LOWER LEFT)
4. Metallurgical Analysis
During the heating and cooling process, localized stresses may be set Up by
unequal heating or cooling, restricted movement of the article, or unequal
:rosssectional thickness. These stresses may exceed the tensile strength
of the material causing it to rupture. Where built-in stress risers occur
(keyways or grooves) additional cracks may develop.
5. NDT Methods AppLication and Limitations
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Situated on the face of the weld, fusion zone, and base metal.
Range in size from very small, tight, and shallow, to open and deep.
Cracks may run parallel or transverse to the direction of welding. (See
Figure 7-13.)
4. Metallurgical Analysis
Surface shrink cracks are generally the result of improper heat application,
either in heating or welding of the article. Heating or cooling in a
Iocalized area may set up stresses that exceed the tensile strength of the
material causing the material t o crack. Restriction of the movement
(contraction or expansion) of the material during heating, cooling, or
welding may also set up excessive stresses.
2.
Category. Service
4. Metallurgical Analysis
Fatigue failures of this type are not uncommon. High cyclic stresses
resulting from vibration and/or flexing act on the stress risers created by
the thread roots to produce cracks. Fatigue cracks may start as fine
submicroscopic discontinuities or cracks and propagate in the direction of
applied stresses.
!
A. COMPLETE THREAD ROOT FAILURE '0. TYPICALTHREAD ROOT FAILURE
1. Category. Inherent
2. Material. Nonferrous
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
4. Metallurgical Analysis
2.
C. MICROGRAPH OF (Bl
1. Category. Processing
2. Material. Ferrous
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
4. Metallurgical Analysis
Material. Ferrous
Discontinuity Characteristics
Metallurgical Analysis
718 INCLUSIONS
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
4. Metallurgical Analysis
( 119 INCLUSIONS
1 1. Category. Processing
Subsurface (original bar) or surface (after machining). There are two types:
! one is nonmetallic with long straight lines parallel to flow lines and quite
I 7-37
tightly adherent. Often short and likely to occur in groups. The other type
is nonplastic, appearing as a comparatively large mass not parallel t o flow
lines. Found in forged, extmded, and rolled material. (See Figure 7-19.)
(1) Normally used for thin wall tubing and small diameter
rods.
(2) Eddy current testing of ferromagnetic materials can be
difficult.
1. Category. Processing
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
Caused by root face of joint not reaching fusion temperature tjefore weld
metal was deposited. Also caused by fast welding rate, too large a welding
rod, or too cold a bead.
I (2)
(3)
Weldments make ultrasonic testing difficult.
Lack of penetration will appear on the scope as a definite
break or discontinuity resembling a crack and will give a
very sharp reflection.
721 LAMINATIONS
1. Catezory. Inherent
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface and internal. Flat, extremely thin, generally aligned parallel t o the
work surface of the material. May contain a thin film of oxide between the
surfaces. Found in forged, extruded, and roIled material. (See
Figure 7-21.)
4. ;vietallurgical Analysis
1. Category. Processing
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Wavy lines, often quite deep and sometimes very tight, appearing
as hairline cracks. Found in rolled threads in the minor pitch, and major
diameter of the thread, and in direction of rolling. (See Figure 7-22.)
4. Metallurgical Analysis
1. Category. Processing
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
a. Lap Surface. Wavy lines -usually not very pronounced or
tightly adherent since they usually enter the surface a t a small
angle. Laps may have surface openings smeared closed. Found
in wrought forgings, plate, tubing, bar, and rod. (See
Figure 7-23.)
4. Metallurgical Analysis
Laps are similar to seams and may result from improper rolling, forging, or
sizing operations. During the processing of the material, corners may be
folded over or an overfill may exist during sizing that results in material
being flattened, but not fused into the surface. Laps may'occur on any part
of the article.
7-47
(2) Surface and nearsurface laps and seams may be detected
by this method.
(3) Laps and seams may appear as straight, spiral, or slightly
curved indications. They may be individual or clustered
and continuous or intermittent.
(4) Magnetic buildup a t laps and seams is very small. There-
, fore a magnetizing current greater than that used for the
detection of cracks is necesssry.
(5) Correct magnetizing technique should be used when
examining for forging laps since the discontinuity may lie
in a plane nearly parallel to the surface.
b. Liquid Penetrant Testing Method.
(1) Liquid penetrant testing is. recommended for nonferrous
material.
(2) L q s and seams may be very tight and difficult to detect
especially by liquid penetrant.
(3) Liquid penetrant testing of laps and seams can be
improved slightly by heating the article before applying
the penetrant.
c. Ultrasonic Testing Method.
1 Normally used to test wrought material prior to
machining.
(2) Surface wave technique permits accurate evaluation of
the depth, length, and size of laps and seams.
(3) Ultrasonic indications of laps and seams will appear as
definite inner faces within the metal.
d. Eddy Current Testing Method.
(1) Normally used for the evaluation of laps and seams in
tubing and pipe.
(2) Other articles can be screened by eddy current where
article configuration and size permit.
e. Radiographic Testing Method. Not recommended for detecting
laps and seams in wrought material.
724 MICROSHRINKAGE
1. Category. Processing
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
1. Category. Processing
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
4. Metallurgical Analysis
1. Category. Processing
2. Material. Aluminum
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
Internal. Wafer-thin fissures aligned parallel with the grain flow. Found in
wrought aluminum that has been rolled, forged, or extruded. (See
Figure 7-26.)
4. Metallurgical Analysis
C. WPICALUNFUSED POROSITY
1. Categorx. Service
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Range from shallow to very deep, and usually follow the grain
flow of the material; however, transverse cracks are also possible. (See
Figure 7-27.)
4. Metallurgical Analysis
I 3. Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface and internal. Range in size from short to long, shallow to very
tight and deep. Usually they will be found in the direction of the grain flow
with the exception of stress corrosion, which has no direction. (See
Figure 7-28.)
1. Category. Processing
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
730 SEMICONDUCTORS
2. Material. Hardware
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
Internal. Appear in many sizes and shapes and various degrees of density.
They may be misformed, misaligned, damaged, or may have broken internal
hardware. Found in transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors. (See
Figure 7-30.)
731 HOTTEARS
1. Categorx. Inherent
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
4. Metallurgical Analysis
1. Category. Service
2. Material. Nonferrous
3. Discontinuity Characteristics
4. Metallurgical Analysis
OF I N T E R G R A N U L A R CORROSION.
8. MICROGRAPH SHOWING N A T U R E
ONLY MINOR EVIDENCE O F CORROSION IS E V I O E N T FROM SURFACE