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A Primerfor
AtonalSetTheory1
JosephN. Straus
1 This article is
adapted from my Introductionto Post-Tonal Theory, an undergraduatetext-
book recentlypublished by Prentice-Hall.
OctaveEquivalence
There is somethingspecial about the octave. Pitches separated by one
or more octaves are usually perceived as in some sense equivalent. Our mu-
sical notation reflects that equivalence by giving the same name to
octave-relatedpitches.Since equivalencerelationshipsunderpinmuchof atonal
set theory,it should be emphasized at the outset that equivalence does not
mean identity.Example 1 shows two melodic lines fromSchoenberg'sString
QuartetNo. 4, one fromthe beginningof the firstmovementand one a few
measuresfromthe end.3
2A
complete, annotated bibliographyof post-tonal theory,compiled by Martha Hyde and An-
drew Mead, may be found in Music TheorySpectrum11/1 (1989): 44-48. The field as a whole origi-
nates with Milton Babbitt's influentialarticles and teaching, particularly"Some Aspects of Twelve-
Tone Composition," The Score and I. M. A. Magazine 12 (1955): 53-61; "Twelve-Tone Invariantsas
Compositional Determinants,** Musical Quarterly 46 (1960): 246-59; "Set Structureas a Composi-
tional Determinant,'*Journal of Music Theory 5/2 (1961): 72-94. Although these articles focus on
twelve-tone music, their theoretical categories have broad application in post-tonal music. Some of
Babbitt's central concerns are presentedmore informallyin Milton Babbitt: Words About Music, eds.
Stephen Dembski and Joseph N. Straus (Madison: Universityof Wisconsin Press, 1987). The basic
concepts presented in this article are drawn from Babbitt*s work, and also from three widely used
books: Allen Forte, The Structureof Atonal Music (New Haven: Yale UniversityPress, 1973); John
Rahn, Basic Atonal Theory (New York: Longman, 1980); and George Perle, Serial Composition and
Atonality,5th ed. (Berkeley: Universityof California Press, 1981). Two importantrecent books offer
profoundnew perspectives on this basic material,and much else besides: David Lewin, Generalized
Musical Intervals and Transformations(New Haven: Yale UniversityPress, 1987); Robert Morris,
Composition withPitch Classes (New Haven: Yale UniversityPress, 1987).
3
Although atonal set theory is most closely associated with the "free atonal** music of
Schoenberg, Webern, and Berg, it has much more general applications throughoutthe range of post-
tonal music, including particularlytwelve-toneserial music.
i liLj I 'i I
viol™ I iJiJIlJJJ-i^ i J. JiuJ*io i/' ^
\\ ! // M i i i
c* 1^1 IJLJ
1 1 1 I 1
Althoughthe two lines differin many ways, particularlyin theirrange and
rhythm, they are still understoodas two differentversionsof one single un-
derlying idea. In other words,they are equivalent.
In Example 2, the openingof Schoenberg'sPiano Piece, Op. 11, No. 1,
comparethe firstthreenotes of the melodywiththe sustainednotes in mea-
sures 4-5.
Pitch Class
betweena pitch (a tone witha certainfrequency)
It is usefulto distinguish
and a pitch class (a group of pitches one or more octaves apart fromone
another).When we say thatthe lowest note on the cello is C, we are refer-
ring to a specific pitch. We can notatethat pitch on the second ledger line
beneaththe bass staff.When we say thatthe tonic of Beethoven's FifthSym-
phonyis C, we are referring not to some particularpitch C, but to pitch-class
C. Pitch-classC is an abstractionand cannotbe accuratelynotatedon musi-
cal staves. Sometimes,for convenience,a pitch class will be representedin
musical notation,but, in reality,a pitch class is not a single thing; it is a
class of things.A pitch and all the otherpitches one or more octaves away
fromit are membersof the same pitchclass.
EnharmonicEquivalence
In common-practice tonal music, Bl>is not equivalentto A*. Even on an
equal-temperedinstrument like the piano, the tonal systemgives Bt and At
different functions. In G-major, forexample, At is t2 whereasBt is lo, and
scale-degrees 2 and 3 have very differentmusical roles. This distinctionis
largely abandoned in post-tonal music, where notes that are enharmonically
equivalent are also functionallyequivalent. Composers may occasionally no-
tate pitches in what seems like a functionalway (sharps for ascending and
flats for descending,for example). For the most part,however,the notation
is functionallymeaningless,determinedprimarilyby simple convenienceand
legibility.
IntegerNotation
Tonal music uses seven scale degrees or step classes. In C-maJor,for
example,At, A*i,and At, in all octaves, are membersof scale-degreeS. Post-
tonal music uses twelve pitch classes. All Bts, Os, and Dl4>sare membersof
a single pitch class, as are all the Cts and Dts, all the CXs, Ds, and Etts,
and so on. Our theoreticaland analyticalpurposes are best served by cutting
throughthe notationaldiversityand assigningintegersfrom0 through11 to
the twelve pitch classes. Set theorycustomarilyuses a "fixed do" notation:
The pitch class containingC, Bt, and DW»is arbitrarilyassigned the integer
0; Ct and Dt are membersof pitch-class 1; D is a memberof pitch-class2;
and so on.
Integersare simple to grasp and to manipulate.They are traditionalin
music (as in figuredbass numbers,for example) and useful for representing
certainmusical relationships.As long as we avoid committingthe "numero-
logical fallacy"- performing mathematicaloperationswithoutregardto their
Mod 12
PitchIntervals
A theoryof post-tonalmusic has no need to give different names to in-
tervalswiththe same absolute size, such as fourths
diminished and majorthirds.
are
In tonal music, such distinctions functionally crucial. A for
third, example,
is an intervalthat spans threesteps of a diatonic scale, while a fourthspans
four steps. A major thirdis consonantwhile a diminishedfourthis disso-
nant. In music that doesn't use diatonic scales and doesn't systematically
distinguishbetweenconsonanceand dissonance,it seems cumbersomeand even
misleadingto use traditionalintervalnames. It is easier and more accurate
musicallyjust to name intervalsaccordingto the numberof semitonesthey
contain.The intervalsbetween C and E and between C and Ft both contain
foursemitonesand are both instancesof interval4, as are Bt-Ft,C-DX, and
so on.
A pitch intervalis simply the distance between two pitches,measured
by the numberof semitonesbetweenthem.If we are concernedabout the di-
rectionof the interval,whetherit is ascendingor descending,we can precede
the numberof semitoneswith either a plus sign (to indicate an ascending
interval)or a minus sign (to indicatea descendinginterval).Intervalswith a
plus or minus sign are called directed or ordered intervals.If we are con-
cernedonlywiththe absolutespace betweentwo pitches(an unorderedinterval),
we need only the numberitself.
Whetheran intervalis consideredorderedor unordereddepends on our
particularanalyticalinterestsat the time.Considerthe melodyby Weberngiven
in Example 3.
I^J,l'p'hiHinjlyj'flnr H'r^l^]
Wie bin ich froh! noch ein-mal wird mir al - les griin und leuch- tet so!
* * *
LsJLnJ L8JL3J
Pitch-ClassIntervals
A pitch-classintervalis the distancebetweentwo pitchclasses. Like pitch
intervals,pitch-classintervalscan be thoughtof eitheras orderedor unor-
dered. To calculate an orderedpitch-classinterval,envisionthe pitch classes
-"" .
nnr>rHf»iwrftttr4vJnt- ^S^
" ****-* -
■
orderedpitcfrmteixals . ^^^"^^
Ultuuirn1/! """"""'
U^sitrfrrvals
[iJUill
Interval-ClassContent
The sound of a sonorityis determinedto a significantdegree by its
interval-classcontent.This can be summarizedin Scoreboardfashionby in-
dicating,in the appropriatecolumn,the numberof occurrencesof each of the
six intervalclasses. Example 7 refersagain to the three-notesonorityfrom
Schoenberg'sPiano Piece, Op. 11, No. 1.
Moderate "T^^
"7^-^-^^
I"1"TTTi
1'n \^^§-j
class
Interval I 2 3 4 5 6
A rJmmmmm^4r
* ^ of
number 1 0 110 0
&\ - 1U
-^ 1 ff" "^h» occurrences 11111
j 7Q
^^sS^f^^E^^^ls^^^^ 35:=
class
Interval 12 3 4 5 6
numberof 0 10 0 2 0
occurrences | | \
class: 12
Interval 3 4 5 6
tr - ^n. ^
| j^g^J; j 11110
i 2 2
ii^ ifi7Tr^m
^ 2
iL. ■ I l l
• ' ■ l ' '
i&.. • *•'
4 totalnumber
' __!
9 4 <; ^ fi 1
l^l^l4!^!0'1
ofoccurrences:
Pitch-ClassSets
Pitch-classsets are the basic buildingblocks of much post-tonalmusic.
A pitch-classset is simplyan unorderedcollectionof pitch-classes.It is like
a motive withoutmany of its customaryidentifying - register,
characteristics
rhythm, and order.Example 10 shows five different occurrencesof a single
pitch-classset, [Dt, E, F, G], in the Gavotte fromSchoenberg's Suite forPi-
ano, Op. 25.
(\A f (ifo
/fi^K
^ ^ *
=====
i»;4 \k\jk '
ffn \ /i r
rit. - -
l
26 *tf~^"\ • a
^ s^
NormalForm
A pitch-classset can be presentedmusicallyin a varietyof ways. Con-
versely,manydifferent musical figurescan representthe same pitch-classset.
To aid in recognizinga pitch-classset no matterhow it is presentedin the
music,it is oftenhelpfulto put it into a simple,compact,easily graspedform
5 The
concept of "normal form" is original with Milton Babbitt. See "Set Structureas a Com-
positional Determinant."
6Allen Forte (The Structureof Atonal Music) and JohnRahn (Basic Atonal Theory)differslightly
in their definitionof normal form, but this results in only a small number of discrepancies. This
article adopts Rahn's formulation.Unfortunately,many differentnotationalconventions are currently
in use. In this article, normal formswill be given in square brackets.
Transposition
The termtranspositiontraditionallyrefersto lines of pitches. When we
transposea tune fromC major to G major, we transposeeach pitch, in or-
der, by some pitch interval. This operation preserves the ordered pitch
intervalsin the line and thus its contour.Because contouris such a basic
musical feature,it is easy to recognizewhen two lines of pitches are related
by transposition.
Transposinga set (not a line) of pitch classes (not pitches) is somewhat
different.To transposea pitch-classset by some intervaln, an operationrep-
resentedby the expressionTn, simply add n to each pitch class in the set.
For example, to transpose[5, 7, 8, 11] by pitch-classinterval8, simplyadd
8 (mod 12) to each elementin the set to create a new set [1, 3, 4, 7]. If the
firstset is in normalform,its transpositionwill be also (with a small num-
ber of exceptionsrelatedto the fourthrule fordetermining normalform).
A pitch-classset is a collection with no specified order or contour.As
a result,transpositionof a set preservesneitherordernor contour.The four
pitch-classsets circled in Example 11 are all transpositionsof one another.
ob-
is==EE^^m=^=^====
- fill l 1 ^
(TijnimermitDmpf. / /
-• M ¥r>i 1 ■ l^ I .■ I
l^^^^Jr,)
iD I I . i I" 1 [I ■
Sehrruhig(* = 4£>
" " =
(fc(«
Gesang \ E |
[BKI>, D, F]
To %
-JsL-i*
/' \ = l . i I == *
- h - IAYttJ*
n^!^- - * */ PP '
Klavier
Jj, ■ I ■ I ■==
«P [d.E.F.G»] [F.G».A.C]
T3 pocorit.T7-
-^-'^ ppp
Inversion
inversionis an operationtraditionallyapplied to lines
Like transposition,
of pitches. In invertinga line of pitches,order is preservedand contouris
reversed- each ascendingpitch intervalis replaced by a descendingone and
vice versa. Furthermore, traditionaltonal practicerequiresonly that interval
sizes be maintained,not intervalqualities (major can become minor,and vice
versa).
Inversionof a pitch-classset is a bit different.It is best understoodas
a compoundoperationexpressedas TnI,where "I" means "invert" and "Tn"
means "transposeby some intervaln." By convention,we will always invert
firstand thentranspose.The inversionof pitch-classn is 12-n. Pitch-class 1
invertsto -1, or 11. 2 invertsto 10; 3 invertsto 9; and so on. Afterwe
invert,we will transposein the usual way.
Example 13 shows again the opening of Schoenberg'sPiano Piece, Op.
11, No. 1.
V}
InlMl tfHf^
13 3 1 3 1
Comparethe firsttwo sets circled in the example. They have the same inter-
val-class content,but theirintervalsare arrangedin reverseorder.The second
7The eleventh
song fromSchoenberg's Book of the Hanging Gardens has been analyzed briefly
by Tom Demske ("Registral Centers of Balance in Atonal Works by Schoenberg and Webern," In
TheoryOnly 9/2-3 (1986): 60-76), and, in great and compelling detail by David Lewin ("Toward the
Analysis of a Schoenberg Song (Op. 15, No. 11)," Perspectives of New Music 12/1-2 (1973-4): 43-
86). My brief discussion is indebted to the latter.
set has the same intervalsreadingfromthe top down as the firstdoes read-
ing fromthe bottomup. Sets related by inversioncan always be writtenin
this way. Now comparethe firstand thirdsets. Again, these two sets are re-
lated by inversion.They have the same interval-classcontent,but the intervals
are in reverseorder.
To inverta set, simplyinverteach memberof the set in turn.For ex-
ample, to apply the operationT5I to the set [1, 3, 4, 7], just apply T5I to
each integerin turn.Rememberingto invertbeforetransposing,we get ((12-
l)+5, (12-3)+5, (12-4)+5, (12-7)+5) = (4, 2, 1, 10). Notice that if we write
this new set in reverseorder [10, 1, 2, 41 it will be in normal form.There
will be some exceptions,but generallywhen you inverta set in normalform,
the resultingset will be in normalformwrittenbackwards.
The conceptof index numberoffersa simplerway both of invertingsets
and of telling if two sets are inversionallyrelated.8 When we compared
transpositionallyrelated sets, we subtractedcorrespondingelementsin each
set and called that differencethe "transpositionnumber."When comparing
inversionallyrelated sets, we will add correspondingelementsand call that
sum an "index number."When two sets are relatedby transpositionand both
sets are in normalform,the firstelementin one set correspondsto the first
elementin the other,the second to the second, and so on. When two sets
are related by inversionand both are in normal form,the firstelement in
one set will usually correspondto the last elementin the other,the second
to the second-to-last,and so on. This is because inversionallyrelated sets
are mirrorimages of each other.
Here again are the firstand thirdsets fromExample 13, writtenin inte-
ger notation:[7, 8, 11] and [6, 9, 10]. If we add the pairs of corresponding
elements(firstto last, second to second-to-last,and last to first),we get 5
(mod 12) in each case. These two sets are related at T5I. Any two sets in
which the correspondingelementsall have the same sum are related by in-
versionand thatsum is the index number.To findthe index numberfortwo
inversionallyrelated pitch classes, simplyadd themtogether.Conversely,to
performthe operationTnI on some pitch class, simplysubtractit fromn. To
performthe operationT4I on [10, 1, 2, 6], for example, subtracteach ele-
mentin turnfrom4: (4-10, 4-1, 4-2, 4-6) = (6, 3, 2, 10). As before,inverting
a set in normal formproduces the normal formof a new set writtenback-
wards. The normalformof (6, 3, 2, 10) is [10, 2, 3, 6].
• The
concept of "index number"was firstdiscussed by Milton Babbitt in "Twelve-Tone Rhyth-
mic Structureand the Electronic Medium/*Perspectives of New Music 1/1 (1962): 49-79; reprinted
in Perspectives on ContemporaryMusic Theory, eds. Bo retz and Cone (New York: Norton, 1972),
148-79. He developed this concept in many of his articles, including "ContemporaryMusic Compo-
sition and Music Theory as ContemporaryIntellectualHistory,"Perspectives in Musicology, eds. Brook,
Downes, and Van Solkema (New York: Norton, 1971), 151-84.
Set Class
Consider the followingcollection of pitch-classsets, all given in nor-
mal form.
L_ 1 >> > 1 1
Prime Form
There are two standardways of naming set classes. First, Allen Forte,
has compiled a well-knownlist of set classes. He identifieseach with a pair
of numbersseparatedby a dash (for example, 3-4). The numberbefore the
dash tells the numberof pitch classes in the set. The numberafterthe dash
gives its position on Forte's list. Set-class 3-4, for example, is the fourthon
Forte's list of three-noteset classes. Forte's names are widely used.
The second common way of identifyingset classes is to look at all of
the membersof the set class, select the one with the "most normal"of nor-
mal forms,and use thatto name the set-class as a whole. This optimalform,
called the primeform, begins with 0 and is most packed to the left. Of the
twenty-four pitch-classsets listed at the beginningof the previous section of
this article,two begin with0: 034 and 014. Of these,(014) is the mostpacked
to the left and is the primeform.Those twenty-four sets are all membersof
the set class with prime form(014). More familiarly,we say that each of
those sets "is a (014)." In the rest of this article,set classes will be identi-
fied by both theirname accordingto Forte and, in parentheses,theirprime
form.10
Here is the procedurefor findingthe prime formof a set class, a pro-
cess usually referredto as puttinga set in primeform:
9
Schoenberg*s Piano Piece, Op. 11, No. 1, has been widely analyzed. George Perle discusses
its intensive use of this same three-notemotive (which he calls a "basic cell") in Serial Composition
and Atonality.See also Allen Forte, "The Magical Kaleidoscope: Schoenberg*s First Atonal Master-
work, Opus 11, No. 1," Journal of the Arnold Schoenberg Institute 5 (1981): 127-68; and Gary
Wittlich, "Intervallic Set Structurein Schoenberg's Op. 11, No. 1," Perspectives of New Music 13
(1972): 41-55.
10As with normal form,conventionsfor notatingprime formsvary fromsource to source.
Z-relation
Relation
Complement
For any set, the pitch classes it excludes constituteits complement.The
complementof the set [3, 6, 7], forexample, is [8, 9, 10, 11, 0, 1, 2, 4, 5].
Anyset and its complement, takentogether, will containall twelvepitchclasses.
For any set containingn elements,its complementwill contain 12-n elements.
There is an importantintervallicsimilaritybetweena set and its comple-
ment. It mightseem logical to suppose that whateverintervalsa set has in
abundance,its complementwill have few of, and vice versa. It turnsout, how-
ever, that a set and its complementalways have a similar distributionof
intervals.For complementary sets, the differencein the numberof occurrences
of each intervalis equal to the differencein the size of the sets (except for
v *
PP
pocorit.
■=
^
r*i * * H i i 1lfB
u I*** n 'im
FF 8-19 (01245689)
12The intervallic
relationshipof complementarysets was firstdiscovered by Milton Babbitt with
regard to hexachords. Generalizing this relationshipto sets of other sizes, was the work of Babbitt
and David Lewin (see Lewin's "The IntervallicContent of a Collection of Notes"). Babbitt discusses
the development of his theorem about hexachords and its subsequent generalization in Milton Bab-
bitt: Words About Music, 104-106.
The last eight notes of the piece (which, of course, include that final four-
note chord), are a formof 8-19 (01245689), the complementaryset class.
Comparethe intervalvectorsof these two sets: the vectorfor4-19 is 101310
and the vectorfor 8-19 is 545752. Both sets are particularlyrich in interval-
class 4. In fact, no four-or eight-noteset contains more 4s than these do.
And notice how prominently the 4s are featuredin the music. Because of the
complementrelation,the final four-notechord sounds similar to the larger
eight-notecollection of which it is a part. Most lists of sets place comple-
ment-related sets across fromone another.In Forte's set names,complementary
sets always have the same numberfollowingthe dash. Thus, 4-19 and 8-19
are complementsof each otheras are 3-6 and 9-6, 5-Z12 and 7-Z12, and so
on.
The complementrelationshipholds particularinterestfor hexachords.
Some hexachordsare "self-complementary" - theyand theircomplementsare
membersof the same set class. For a simple example,considerthe hexachord
[2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Its complementis [8, 9, 10, 11, 0, 1]. But both of these
sets are membersof set-class6-1 (0123456). In otherwords,self-complemen-
tary hexachords are those that are related to their complementsby either
T, or T.I.
If a hexachordis not self-complementary, then it must be Z-related to
its complement.Rememberthat with complementary sets, the differencein
the numberof occurrencesof any intervalis equal to the differencein the
size of the two sets. But a hexachordis exactlythe same size as its comple-
ment.As a result,a hexachordalways has exactly the same intervalcontent
as its complement.If it is also relatedto its complementby Tn or TnI, then
it is self-complementary. If not, then it is Z-relatedto its complement.This
intervallicrelationshipbetweencomplementary hexachordsis particularlyim-
portant for much twelve-tone music.
In additionto the basic nomenclatureand relationshipsdescribedabove,
atonal set theory has developed a relatively sophisticated vocabulary for
discussing common tones under transpositionand inversion,13the similarity
of non-equivalentsets,14inversionalsymmetry and axes of symmetry,15 sub-
16Subset and
superset relations are discussed in Forte, The Structureof Atonal Music, 24-29
and Rahn, Basic Atonal Theory, 115-117.
17Forte's K and Kh relations are the best known models of set
complexes. He has recently
evolved a new model in "Pitch-Class Set Genera and the Origin of Modern Harmonic Species/*Journal
of Music Theory 32/2 (1988): 187-270.
18See Alan
Chapman, "Some IntervallicAspects of Pitch-Class Set Relations/*Journal of Mu-
sic Theory25 (1981): 275-90; Allen Forte, "New Approaches to the Linear Analysis of Music,**Journal
of the American Musicological Society 41 (1988): 315-48; ChristopherHasty, "On the Problem of
Succession and Continuityin Twentieth-CenturyMusic,**Music Theory Spectrum 8 (1986): 58-74.
See also two importantrecent dissertations:John Roeder, "A Theory of Voice-Leading for Atonal
Music'* (Yale University,1984) and Henry Klumpenhouwer,"A Generalized Model of Voice-Leading
for Atonal Music**(Harvard University,1991).
19See David Lewin, Generalized Musical Intervals,
particularly22-30 and 60-87; Allen Forte,
"Aspects of Rhythmin Webern*s Atonal Music,**Music Theory Spectrum 2 (1980): 90-109; Allen
Forte, "Foreground Rhythmin Early Twentieth-Century Music,'* Music Analysis 2/3 (1983): 239-68;
Martha Hyde, "A Theory of Twelve-Tone Meter,**Music Theory Spectrum 6 (1984): 63-78; Christo-
pher Hasty, "Rhythmin Post-Tonal Music: PreliminaryQuestions of Duration and Motion,**Journal
of Music Theory 25 (1981): 183-216.
20See Morris,
Composition with Pitch Classes, 23-33; Michael Friedman, "A Methodology for
the Discussion of Contour: Its Application to Schoenberg's Music,**Journal of Music Theory 29/2
(1985): 223-48; Elizabeth West Marvin and Paul A. Laprade, "Relating Musical Contours: Extensions
of a Theory for Contour,**Journal of Music Theory 31/2 (1987): 225-67.
21See
Wayne Slawson, "The Color of Sound: A Theoretical Study in Musical Timbre,**Music
TheorySpectrum3 (1981): 132-41.