"AREER ENDEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS has taken due care in collecting the data and providing the solutions, before | publishing his book. spt ofthis Fan naceuracy or pining errors re there, CAREER ENDEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS owes J. no responctiliy, CAREER ENDEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS will be grateful Ifyou could point out any such error, Your Fe suggectonswillbe highly appreciates, © All right reserved by CAREER ENDEAVOUR PUBLICATIONS. No part of this utiized in any form without the writen permission from the publisher.CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: Basic Nuclear Properties 01-07 Nuclear structure, Binding energy, Mass defect, Nuclear force. CHAPTER 2: Nuclear Models 08-27 Liquid drop model, Mass parabola and stability of nuclei against fb decay, Shell model, determination angular momentum and spin parity and magnetic moment of ground state, catiective model, Fermi gas model. CHAPTER 3: Radioactivity 28-46 Radioactivity, life time, average life time, radioactive decay series, radioactive displacement law, successive transformation, a-decay, properties of a-particles, B - decay, selection rule for B*- decay, 7 - decay, y-ray interaction with matter. CHAPTER 4: Particle Accelerator 47-53 Cyclotron, Betatron, Difference between Cyclotron and Betatron, Solved Problems, CHAPTER 5: Nuclear reaction 54-75 Nuclear reaction classification, Conservation law of nuclear reaction, kinematics of nuclear reaction. Mechanism of nuclear reaction. Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, cross-section of nuclear reaction. CHAPTER 6: Elementary Particles 76-98 Classification of elementary particle, conservation laws of particle reaction, quark model, fundamental interaction kinematics of high energy collision. loBasic Nuclear Properties Introduction: Rutherford first told that inside the atom there isa very small nucleus in which all the positive charge and most of the mass is localized after doing the or ay scattering experiments. After then scienties were strating to investigate the properties of nuclens. Jn this chapter. we will ead about nuclear charge nuclear mass, size, shape, binding energy, angular momentum, maigntic moment statistics, party, isospin, Proton Electron tis represented by’ Neutron Mass number: 52 : ‘The total number nucléons (proton + neutron) is called thas number. It is represented by ‘A’ and A = ZHN. es ne Symbolically representation of nucleus: of A nucleus is symbollically represented by ,X like ;O"*, ,He’ . Isotopes: Nuclei with the same atomic number z, but different mass number A are called isotopes like ,H', H?, H® are called isotops. Isobars: ‘Nuclei with same mass number 4 but different atomic number z are called isobers like ,O"* and , N"® are isobar. Isotones: Nuclei with same number of neutrons NV are called isotones like ,, Na” and ,C' are isotones. Mirror nuclei: ‘A pair of isobaric nuclei are known as mirror nuclei where in the nucleus the proton number and the neutron snumber N are interchanged and differ by one unit is called Mirror nucki, ike "'C, and" B, are mirror nucleus. Binding energy of nucleus: Inside the nucleus protons and neutrons are strongly bound. To separate neutrons and protons from each other we need few MeV energy which is called the binding energy E, of the nucleus. But the question is ‘what isthe source of this energy? According to mass energy equivalence of special relativity, the energy equivalent corresponding to complete conversion of mass m into energy is mc, where ‘c’ is the velocity of light in free space. In forming a nucleus ‘out of constituent particles, a faction of the total mass of the constituents disappears and produce energy equal to EySennen ener Basic Nuclear Properties Bas If AM be the amount of mass disappeared, then the energy, E, = AMc? _ TEM, , M, be the masses of proton and neutron respectievely AM = 2M, + NM,+ZMe-M{(A,Z) where, M(A,Z) isthe mass of the atom of mass number A and atomic number Z. ,=[2M, +NM, +ZMe-M(4,Z)]o* =[2M, + NM, + ZMe—M (nuc)-ZMe]e* =[2M, +NM,~M,,, |e? (eer[ee, += Binding fraction curve: Binding fraction, i the ratio of binding energy to mass number Ep /A (MeV per rucooe) 16 243060 90 120 160 180 210240 je Figure: Binding fraction curve Observation from graph: \._ §, is very small for very light nuclei and goes on increasing rapidly with increasing A and reaches avalue | ~8 MeV/nucleon for the mass number A ~ 20. Thereafter the tise of the curve is much slower, reaching a maximum value of 8,7 MeV per nucleon for A~ 56. If Ais increased still further, the curve decreases slowly. 2, The variation in f, is very slight in the mass number range 20 180, that is, for heavy nucle, the f,-value decreases monotonically with increasing A and itis ~7.5 MeVinucleon for the heaviest nucle. 4. A rapid fluctuation inf, is noted for very light nuclei with peaks in the curve of this region, corresponding fo even-even nuclei, such as *He, "Be, °C, 'O i.e., with mass number A = 4n, where n= 1, 2, 3, seoee Beaks in the curve are also seen at Z or N equal to 20, 28, 50, 82, 126. These are called magic ‘oumbers, |verties itis ing gic Basic Nuclear Properties Mass defact: The difference between the measured atomic mass M(A,Z) and the mass number A of a nucleus is called the mass defect, AM" | for 0". AM"=15.994915~16=-0.005085u ‘Packing fraction: ‘The packing fiaction fis defined as the mass defect per nucleon in the nucleus. AM'=M(A, nucleus almost cemain constant. = (11A1.5) 10% Charge distribution of nucleus: 1€ p(x,y,z)} be the volume density of charge of the maces with its centre of mass at the origin so that =x? +y?+2" Also the charge density can be express as pura eae) 0(1)=§ ae | ard 1 lost} where R is the radius of nucleus a is a constant. as| ‘The quadrupole moment Q is defined as ce - | Where the integration is carried out over the entire votume af the nucleus, is the the charge of proton, the nucleus is assumed to have a symmetry axis along z. The unit of Q is barn 1 barn = 10% m?. Special cases: 1, For spherically symmetric nucleus Q=0 2. For shape of prolate spheroid (the charge distribution streched in the Z direction) Q > O (positive) 3. For shape of oblate spheroid (the change distribution is streched perpendicular, then the quadrupole moment Q<0 (negative)Basic Nuclear Properties iz Zz z spherical charge prolate spheroid Q>0 oblate spherical Q<0 distribution Q=0 Spin of nucet: The spin nucleus is the resultant spins of its constituent nucleons — protons and neutrons and have spin +5, ‘The orienation of spin vector, according to wave mechanics is such that the components of spin can have its Or. riehes neem : . ese S nh As, Rise 1 axis either parallel or antiparallel {9,4 specilic to a specific direction with spit angular momentum 2 hor ‘moientum such that its magnitude in specific -direetion is ‘momentum ofa nucleus is a vector {such that ‘The magnitude of the total angular rhomentum Vector is given by T=Jlx(1+1)h foc odd Atype nucki for even A type nucki. Parity of nuclei: arity is the property ofa wave function representing a quantum mechanical nuclear state, which may or may not change its sign on inversion of the space coordinates from (x, y,z) to (~x,~y,~z) through origin. y(-x-y.-z)=w (yz) then parity is even, y(-x-y.-z)=—y(x,y,2) then parity is odd. Nuclear forces: ‘We know that inside the nucleus there are proton and neutron and protons repel each other strongly aad they shuld fly apart but it does not happend this tells us that there is some kind of very strong attractive force. These force are n-n, p-p and n-p force. These force have following properties, ) They are short range forces {Gy They ase charge-independent (ii) They are strongest known forces in nature: (iv) They are radialy saturated by the surrounding micleons (¥) They are spin-dependent (vi) The force is non-centsal Bast Sole Soh. Solrperties ingular yor gin. rand stive Basic Soln. Soln, Nuclear Properties @ SOLVED PROBLEMS ‘The mean momentum of'a mucleon in a nucleus with mass number A varies as: [GATE 2000] @Aa (d) AP av @ae ‘We know that, a =h > Ap=— Axdp=h = Ap ke Here, Ax=2R where, Risthe radius of nucleus. h apaoe Wekmnow that, R= 7,4" io 2K, ‘Therefore, we can saynigan 3 ‘with mass number as 4-*. Correct option is (@) ‘The masses ofa hydrogen atom, neutrof an 178, 1.0087 and 238.0508 respectively. The binding energy of U,, is therefore approximately equal to (taking | a.m.u.=931.64 MeV) (a) 20MeV (b) 1500 MeV. (01600 MeV" (4) 1800 MeV [GATE 2000] Binding energy of Ug, is M,+NM,~M, = 92*1.0077+146*1.0087 — 238.0508 139:9878 — 238.0508 = 1937amu. = 1800 MeV Correct optionis (@) ‘The order of magnitude ofthe bidding energy per nucledn in nucleus is: [GATE 2006) (@) 105 MeV (b) 10° MeV (©) 0.1 MeV (a) 10 Mev Fromuncertainty principle Axdp, A = (8.an=3R (where, R is nucleus radius) (xe), - 2 ie 2m Bm? For stable nucleus we can say binding energy is the order of minimum kinetic energy 0 Mey ‘Therefore, binding enerey~ SiR? ~ Bx. 6x07 x1.Gx10 Px1 x1 Dx10™ Correct option is (@) An 0" nucleus is spherical and has a charge radius R and a volume ” 7°. According to the empirical observations of the charge radii, the volume of the ,,.'"* nucleus, assumed to be spherical, is (@sv (2v ()675¥ (@)1.89V [GATE 2008]een eee eee @® a Basic Nuclear Properties 4 Soln. Wehave, ¥ aymk ‘Also we know, R a: A"? > Correct option is (a) a Thestable moles that has 4 the radius of Os nucleus is, (JEST 2015] @ Li (b) "0 Weknow that, Vo A and REA Soin,perties 5] Basic Nuclear Properties 10, ACTICE SET} ‘The experimentally measured nuclear charge density distribution p is approximated by the fiunction: Pe wk nese pape () p=p9(Lee™") &) P= The radius ofa $Cu nucleus is measured to be 4.8107 om, The root-mean-square (sms) energy ofa nucleon in anucleus of atomic number in its ground state varies as: @a? ®ae @av @av ‘The ratio of radii of the nuclei He* & S” is ; A @? ws OF @+ (a) saturation proper (c)non-central natut @I=0 T= nuclear spin (@)sphesical shape of nucleus Number of nucleon/m in z @ 10" 1 (10% 56 @ 10° Binding energy per nucleons max, for, Se a (@) Het W Ca Ore® @ pe ‘The nuclear density in kg) i: ( 19” brig? (©) 10° @ 10" Withreférence to nuclear forces which of the following statements is NOT true? The nuclear forces are: (a) short range (b) charge independent © velocity dependent (@ spin independent ‘The deviation of the charge distribution of a nucleus from spherical symmetry can be estimated by measuring its, @) electric charge (b) electric dipole (©) magnetic dipole moment @ electric quadrupole moment ANSWER KEY __ ("Questions _a 2 3d 4 _s Option (b) {c) io fa) {9 Questions 6 7 8 9 | 10 Option (bh ( a 9 ia)Nuclear Models Introduction: Jn previous chapter we have study about nucleus properties like variation of radius with mass number, charge density binding energy. But to understand the above behaviour of atomic nucleus, itis essential to know the exact nature of the forces between the nucleons. However, due to lack of knowledge of the exact internucleon force, it has not been possible to: develop a’satisfactory theory, pf nuclene -situoture . in absence of a ‘plain the properties of nuclei. imitations. The important models jere made to develop nuclear comprehensive theory, attemps a < ASSEE ES (@) The liquid drop model 5 (b) Nuclear shell mode! (©) Fermi gas model . (d) Alpha mode! : . (@ Collective model ‘ eee sets (e) Optical model sree ORE A. Liquid drop model: ” The liquid drop model of the nucleus was frst proposed by Niels Bor and FKalear in the year 1937. They observed that there exists many similarities between the drop of @ liquid and a nucteus. For instance, (ji) both the liquid drop and the nucleus possess constant density, Gi) The constant binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus is similar to the latent heat of vaporization of aliquid, (ii) The evaporation of a drop corresponds to the radioactive properties of the nucleus, and (iv) The condensation of drops bears resemblance with the formation of compound nucleus, etc. + According to this model, the nucteus is supposed to be spherical in shape in the stable state with radius R=nA", just as a liquid drop is spherical due to symmetrical surface tension forces. The surface tension effects are analogous to the potential barrier effects on the surface of the nucleus. + The density of a liquid drop is independent of the volume, as is the case with the nucleus. But whereas the nuclear density is independent of the type of nucleus, the density ofa liquid does depend on its nature, + Like the nucleons inside the nucleus, the molecules in the liquid drop interact only with their immediste neighbours. + The non-independence of the binding energy per nucleon on the number of nucleons in the nucleus is analogous to the non-independence of the heat of vaporization of a liquid drop on the size of the drop. + Molecules in a liquid drop evaporate from the liquid surface in raising the temperature of the liquid due to their increased energy of thermal agitation. Analogously, if bigh energy nuclear projectiles bombard the nucleus, a compound nucleus is formed in which the nucleons quickly share the incident energy ant the emission of nucleons occu. t tNuclear Models @ + The phenomenon of nuclear fission is easily explained as the splitting of the liquid drop into two more of less equals parts if set into vibration with sufficient energy. @ Semi-empirical binding energy or mass formula: C.V. Weizsacker, a German physicist, proposed the following semi-empirical formula for the nuclear binding energy B.E. (in MeV) for the nucleus (Z, A) Z(Z-1) ru (A228 rane! with the constants having the value, a, =15.75,a, =17.80, a, =0.71,a, = 22.7 and 533.6 are in a Mev. B. Ana,At @ Volume energy: sharge ‘The first term, Ey =a,A,, isthe volume effect representing the volume energy of all nucleaus, The more ow the the total number of nucleons A, more difficult it becomes to remove an individual nucleon from the a nucleus, Since the nuclear density is nearly constant, the nuclear mass is proportional to the nuclear eofa x Sry etc Ae SE Neg Re auclei ‘volume, which agaia is propoitional to°R? But R oc AY. (R'-sc A . So, the volume energy Eo A. aodels = Ey=ajA apigsis : Be ‘This energy corresponds to'the amount of heat energy-(the heat of vaporisation) required to transform. a liquid to its vapour state being proportional to the mass of the liquid. (W Surface energy: EEGs . ‘The second term, E, = 4,A7°, is the surface effect being similar to the surface tension in liquids, like the molecules on the surface of a liquid, the’iucleons at the surface of the nucleus are not completely surrounded by other nucleons. 1t results in reducitig the total binding energy due to nucleons on the a surface, This correction due to surface energy E., which is proportional to the surface area of the s. For nucleus i.e. to 4nR? i.e. B; oR? 2 Bead = B=a,a% (ii) Coutomb energy: : ‘The third term, E, isthe Coulomb electrostatic repulsion between the charged particles in the nucleus. tion of Since each charged particle repulse all the other charged particles, this term would be divectly proportional to the possible number of combinations for a given proton number Z, which is Z(Z~1)/2. The energy of interaction between protons is again inversely proportional to the distance of separation R, 30 the = energy associated with Coulomb repulsion is: ius 2Z-1)_, Z(Z-1)__ Z(Z-1) urfice eek 1 ais (-vequantity) (iv) Asymmetry energy: noe The fourth term B, originates from the asymmetry between the number of protons and the number of on ‘neutrons in the nucleus. Nuclear data for stable nuclei indicate that for lighter nuclei, the number of protons is almost equal to that of neutrons: N = Z. As A incceases, the symmetry of proton and neutron eae number is lost and the number of neutrons exceeds that of protons to maintain the nuclear stability, This excess of neutrons over protons, i, N-Z, is the measure of the asymmetry and it decreases the stability seus is or the B.E, of medium or heavy nuclei. 2 drop. tid due o So, By(N-Z),andE,(N-Z)A = mbar Ge (N-2) gy atl, () Fairing energy: ‘The last term, a pure corrective term, is called pairing energyGq a Nuclear Models even | even | even | 34 | +5/A even | odd | odd | 0 0 odd | even | odd | 0 0 odd | odd | even | 35 | 67a M(A,Z)=F, +pZ+92"), itis equation of parabola for given A is called mass parabola, aM => x) =p+2qZ=0 atZ=Z,, whence, we get FI _(M,-M, +40, )A 4 2[a.07 +4a,) = 2,~A/(198-+00154%) u In most eases, the value of Z nearest to Z, gives the actual stablest nucleus for a given A. Allisobars having mass greater than that of stable isobar. They will decay by emission of f~, B* and k capture. 1. The isobar to the left of the stable one decay by B~ emission. 2. The isobar te the right of the stable one decay by f* emission or k-capture or by both.>ola. dk ~ Nuclear Modets Magic number : If the number of proton ot newtron of both are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 of a nucleous then very stable. These numbers are called Magic number. B. Shell Model: Liquid drop model can not explore why some nucleus having protan or netaron or both are 2, 8, 20, 2 50, 82, 126 they have high binding energy than others. The scienties were starting thought that there have some arrangment Ske electton distribution in the atom. Since we do not know the exact force nature inside the nucleus so we need to take a guess. 1. At first they consider potential is in the form of harmonic potential (M(P)ac ) anid they got equally spaced energy levels but they could not explains the magic numbers. 2. After then they fook another guess, the potential is in the Saxon-Woods model v(r)--— re Ld a where, VY, =50 MeV, R=7,4", 5 =0.52 fin For such a potential they got energy of the nt level ” The lowest level ig Ite. = 1, 10) which can contain up to 2 protons or neutrons. Then comes Jp which can contain up to, rotons. This explains the firs two magic numbers (2 and 8). Then these is a level 1d but this is quite close in energy to 25 so that they form the same shell. This allows a further 2+ 10 protons or neutrons giving us the next magic number of 20, ‘The next two levels are 7/-and 2p which are also quite close together and allow a further 6 + 14 protons. This would suggest that the next magic number Was 40 but experimentally itis known to be 50. 3. After then they add'a correction term f(r)2-%, where f(r) isn fuction of rand its maghitude is negative Therefore, the potential become As in the case of atomic physics (J-J coupling scheme) the orbital and spin angular momentum of the 1 a nucleous combine to give a total angular momentum. J which can take the values J = € z For J=t+4 2 Hlet{ed) aera] Raley Smee a Ale af ee 4 ae :| R StnNuclear Models 1 Sates For : Fruey-ees 1)-s(s+1)] “Elesfet)-4or9 Ppl pallets Ee : 5). (eu) 5 1 Since f(r) have negative magnitude therefore J = +} have lower energy and J =@ "7 have higher energy and energy splitting, ae= (aes) i.e. higher ! more energy gay neutron for each J) isnow 8 #4 ¥ the next observed magic number: of 50."15 Nuclear Models eee 16 igher 2 A _ = 2 A 1 8 : 0 een Wy 2 oo =o oes . ected Boece ier ad + Suocess of shell model: 1. It-very well explains the existence of magic numbers and the stability and high binding energy on the basis of closed shells. 2. The shell model provides explanation for the ground state spins and magnetic moments of the nuclei. ‘The neutrons and protons with opposite spins pair off so that the mechanical and magnetic moment cancel and the odd or left out proton or neutron contributes to the spin and magnetic moment of the nuclei as a whole,__ sss, / I<] Nuclear Models 3. Nuclear isomerism, ie., existence of isobaric, isotopic nuclei in different energy states of odd-A nuclei between 39-49, 69-81, 111 to 125 has been explained by shell model by the large difference in nuclear spins of isomeric states are their A-values are close ta magic numbers. + Limitations of the shell model: 1. The model does not predict the correct value of spin quantum number J in certain nuclei, e.g., ff? Na 1 where the predicted value is J=$/2 while the correct value is. 2. The following four stable nuclei 7H, SLi, !°B and 7°N do not fit into this model. ‘The model cannot explain the observed fist excited states in even-even nuclei at energies much lower than those expected from single particle excitation, It also fails to explain the observed large quairupole moment of odd-A nuckei, in particular of those having A-value far away from magic numbers Determination total angular momentum and parity-ofthe ground state, 2. protons and neuttons both, 2. fone of the nucleon (proto Value and (-[Y of the last (i) IFN = 21 and n= z then (ii) EN = 1 and pez then J =(J,+J,-1), pari Example : 0% 2=8 (even) Is), ips, [pi N= 8 (even) > Is. [p5 [Pi Since, there have no unpaired mucleon. ‘Therefore, parity is positive and angular momentum J = 0. It is represented by Q* . gal 13(add) + 1s), Lpfy Iyyjy 1d3,, N=14(even) —> does not contribute in angular momentum Therefor, 1= 52; I= 5/2-1/2=2 5 Parity = (-1)' = + 1, even parity, I is represented by 5 Bs: z=16(even) + does not contribute in angular momentum N=17(odd) > Isiy 1p}z Uris 152 28i Ibi Therefor, I= 3/2; I= 3/2+1/2=2Nuclear Models 3 Parity = (1) = + 1, even parity, It is represented by 5. SCL byt =17(odd) > Is). [pia Ipis Idi, 25), Ids, (particle state) n= 21( odd) —> sin IP ha Win Win Sin Min Ufin (article state) N=(l,-£,)+(0,- en) tle Therefore, spin parity ‘Therefore, spin parity 5 Cog: ie 7=27(odd)=1s3, Ip', pfs Mlb 282, Ibs Lf (hole state) n=29(odd) =Is}, 1p}, 1d§,, 2s), Idi," fris 2Pha (particle state) N=(U,~6,)+(U,~6)=4 Japp edy-aBed =4, parity =-+ve ‘Therefore, spin parity = 4". Determination of magnetic moment (j1,)3 Here, we assuming magnetic moment of whole nucleus is coming from unpaired last nucleon. 1 alg trg,(t 1. Wlast macteon in J = 244 then | (Hs) =) EB] 5 ) Je (A) ifthe last nucleon is proton g=t, g,=5.5897 and [(n,)=[I+22928] uy | (B) If the last mucleon is neutron =~3.8260 and [ (u,)=-1.9130 uy, 8=9, 8iS Nuclear Models Nu 2. Ifthe last nucleon in Jatt then | (A: g(2+3)-2, |y (A) If the lest nucleon is a proton J (4) = Fld -1.2928] 40 (B) Ifthe last nucleon is neutron Zz —ls (4,) =F qh 9130 C. Collective Model: “Liquid drop model fails to explain spin, magnetic moment, magic number. + Shell model can not explain deviation of magnetic-momes moment of certain nuclei anc + Annuclens consist ofa central CORE and somerextra nu number of nucleons equal to the magi¢ num : om schmidt Jimit and large quadrupole jund the CORE, CORE consists of Magic Number Nucleus ‘The loose nucleons outside the CORE have large centrifugal force on the CORE. If their number is large, they are able to deform the CORE. The total energy of deformed rucleus can be written as: (E=Ey+t E,~ due the extra nucleons E, — Vibrational motion E,,— Because of rotational motion. The rotational energy is [Ex te) ‘Where I = spin of the rotational state. Determination of quadruple moment of ground state: If is the spin of ground state then according to collective model the quadrupole is given by \ | +Ey 3( 21-1) pe ae Q Fe , where R=1.2 4 D. Fermi gas model : jf Sotn, ‘We assume the Fermi gas made! in which the particles move without interaction ina sphere of radius{f and volume Vas the particles in an ideal gas do. According to the theory ofthe Fermi gas, the number oft!Nuclear Models els QW 4xp dp ofprotons with momentum between momenta pand p dp ina volume Vis (> 749°» The pin-weight factor? originates from the two spin state ofthe proton. The ground state of the system willcorrespond to zero temperature, with momentum spread of zero to maxium P, so that the number of protons in this lowest energy state is given by 3 fr, ze f 2r4mp dP _ 8x a a Qaay 3 Therefore, the fermi momentum for the protons is upole ists of oo ‘The total kinetic energy of the prototis in the round state, doesn’t conttibute in angular momentum. N=21 (Odd) —¥ Is, 152 UPin N52 25:2 Mane Wha 7 ¢=3 parity =(-1)' =-ve —_ Tr Spin parity of ground state Correct option is (a) 4, According to the shell model, the ground state of !° nucleus is: [GATE 2005] 3 vr x a by oe @; 7 5 Soln, We havenucleus !°0 z=8 (even) N=7(0dd) > Isii, 1Pia Win 1 £=1 partity =(-1)'=-ve foln, Ground state spin pariqe Models syyclear Models a 5. Thefour possible configurations of neutronsin the ground state of Be” nucleus, according to the shell model, and the associated mclear spin are listed below. Choose the correct one: 3 ©@) (s,9¥ (RTF 0) 16, (PP Up )sI= 5 (GATE2008) 1 © Os,F OPM I=Z @ 16,27 AP, (lp) I= Soln. Wehavenmcleus , Be? Z=4 (even) ' N=5 (odd) > 153, py vies ee 2 Correct option js (a) Pr AL-S, 2 >0.Thecorrect spine (GATE 2015] 4} 004) ola. Wehavenucleus, 8C, Z=6 (even) N=7(odd) ~> 153, Ipis Ipiy peek parity =(-1)' Spin parity of ground state is ; 7 (isthe multiplicity °C, °C) . 1 2005) Therefore, Ysospin}, of 8 is -5 Correct option is (a) The following gives a list of pairs containing (i) a nucleus (ii) one of its properties. Find the pair which is inappropriate [GATE 2008] @) (i), Ne® nucleus; (i) stable nucleus (b) @) Aspheroidal mcieus; @) an electric qudrupole moment 1 (©) (i) 0 nucleus; (ii) nuclear spin J = I (@ U** nucleus; (il) Binding energy ~ 1785 MeV (approximately) Din. (a) ,, Ne: 4 B= 10; N=10 pHSoln. Soln, ee Nuclear Models Nt ‘Therefore, NZ=1 Therefore, nucleusis stable. (b) Spherical shell, Q=0 Spheroidal nucleus Q>0 or Q<0 (90%: Z=8;N=8 Since both nucleons are even, So, spin party of the ground state sO". @ Since, each nucleons of U** has binding energy 7.5 MeV. So, total binding energy of U®* willbe 7.5x239 =1785 MeV Correct optionis (c) " Sol If the masses of 3$Ca, nag to If, shell. Therefore, BLE. of ldyp neutron in'Ca-d0 B, =(My +M, = 0.01676693 BE. of Jf;z neutron in Ca~ : B, =(Mi#M, Mai) = (39.962589 ++ 1.008665 - 40.96225)x931 MeV. = 0.008979 x931 MeV =8.36MeV ‘Therefore, the energy separation Bis the difference B, — AE =B,~B, =15.61~8.36=7.25 MeV i. So ind the total angular momentum and parity for the ground state of 2S nucleus, using the shell model, an: also its electric quadrupole moment from the collective model. Ha Ma oc we-{i (v.] | («.] (=) DUC Lata yo YY in ) m} 1} [4] (~] (+ Vitaly Calta The total angular momentum or spin of the nucleus 33S is the total angular momentum of the last unpaitt neutron. 2 J=3/2, =2ford state 1) = +1, even parity _Models 91 amu a neutror model, at ast Nuclear Models 10. Soln, M. Soin, The electric quadrupole moment, Q of @ nucleus with spin Tis given, according to collective model, by 3( 25-1 ) IR? 5\ 2542, where Ry =12xA/ fm=1.2x(33)x10"%m (since A=33 here) Q= = ge x[ham(aay¥ a0] 5] axda2 2 =-00355x10 m? =-0.0355 bam —_(-- Tam =10" m*) Compute the binding energy ofthe last proton ina nucieus of °C if the mas of "C-nucleus is 12.0052 smu. The mass of proton is 1.00759 a.m.u icleus. The excess of mass of "C over The mass of proton is 1.00759. Mats foss, Am Establish the relation fo 3.7 MeV, (in) = = 1.0078, M(n) 1.008 ‘The mass M ofa nucleus of mass number Aand chargé number Z according. to the semi-empirical formula, is given by TA MeV, a, 2B a,(A=22) : ws A M=ZM,+(A-Z)M,, For odd A nuclei, we have Es = ‘The mass of the most stable nucleus in a family of sobars is given by the condition (@M/@Z), =0 (A-2Z) > (aM/2z), =(My-M,)o+2a,4-— 4a, =0Nuclear Models Nu arec —My)c?/4a, Os A. 2) pte ats 4a, 4. Now, @,=O.7IMeV, a,=22.7MeV. — «. a,/4a, =0.0078 and (M, ~My,)c? /4a, = 0.0082 Sol lS 10.082 _| A for tight nuctei. 1.4-0.0078 4% c. A=2Z, for light muctei 12, Using the semi-empirical binding energy formula, calculate the binding energy of $8Ca. Soin. The semi-empirical binding energy formula is: 2Z-1 x 2, Eb 21a Ab 408 5. ‘ol 34> 0.063 = 2.14 MeV BE. = 630—[208.2+84.3-2.14]= 339.64 MeV 13, Using the semi-empirical binding energy formula, find the atomic number of the most stable nucleus for a given mass number A. Hence explain which is the most stable among }He, $Be and $Li A _ a7 4a, ZB, (A-2Z) 8 -a,— : as AR Sola. Writing E, for binding energy, By = @yA~ 4,4 where, Z(Z~1)=Z? has been taken, Now, for most stable nucleus, E, must be maximum for a given mass number A, ie., 3B, ) 4 () =-2a,A 4z+40,(A~2Z)A™=0 FE J pcos = 4a, —8a,A'Z=2a,AZ; 2( 40, + Zz ae pens 2+(a,/2a,)A% 24001547adels. Nuclear Models x 14. 1082 Soln. 5. oln. us fora Substituting the values of a, and a,. He, Be and Li are all light nuclei for which 0.015 A* is negligible and Z = A/2. This shows that of the three nuclei, SLi is most stable. Show, by way of computation, which nuclei you would expect to be more stable: SLi or SLi; {Be or PBe For a given mass number A, the atomic number Z of the most stable nucleus is: Zs = 240015 4% 1 7 i Now, for A=7,Z=——_—- Qeoo1sx7% 240.055 2.055” for A=8,Z. : Since the two Z-vales, 436i 8 nearer to 4, the {Be ricen is more stable, Consider a nuclear level corresponding to a closed shell plus a single proton in a state with the angular momentum quantum numbers / and j Ofcourse j= 0+ 1/2. Let g, be the empirical gyromagnetic ratio of the fiee proton. Compute the gyromagnetic ratio fr the level in question, for each of the two cases j= 41/2 and j= €-1/2 According to the shell model, thé total angular momentum of the nucleons in a closed shell is zero, so is the magnetic moment. This means that the magnetic momenit and angular momentum of the nucleus are determined by the only proton outside the closed shell. As, Hau tH Bi=eet ES Wehave, — g,4i=g/2i+8,5.) With tinh? +e-#) SiGe) +e(e49) (s+1)] sin dP se -P = Liber) s(oo)-e(e+9)] J(i+1)+4(2+1)~s s+) | i(i41)+s(s+1)-e(¢+1) BG) BiG) 88, 1 For proton, g) =1, 8, ~&, the gyromagnetic ratio for free proton (2=0, j 7 Hence we have for j= £41/2 Se) gor jz e-1/2 216. Sol, 7. Soln. ie Nuclear Model! N “The simplest model for low-lying states of nuclei with N and Z between 20 and 28 involves only f7. — ‘ucleons. i Using this model in previous question, predict the magnetic dipole moments of 3Ca_and 3}Sc *1Ca has a neviron and “'Se has a proton outside closed shells in state 1f,,. As closed shells do ng ‘contribute to the nuclear magnetic moment, the attr is determined by the extra-shell nucleons. Themuclee g, ‘magnetic moment is given by = gt, where {is the total angular momentum, jis the nuclear magneton. fora single nucleon in a central fice the g-factor is fe have for “Ca, ‘The band spectrum of U2 base on (O)' ground state. If the energy of (2)* ‘state is 44.7 KeV. Wha is the spin and parity of state having energy’5.25 KeV. Since By K{t+2} E, =kI(I+1) .() E, =k2(2+1) = BE, =k2x3 Q) equation (2) divided by (1) 6 6447 5 = eels ee Beate) I(I+1) 525 6x525 = ldr)-"Gren = P+I-2=0 = F+91-81-72=0 = I+ 9)-8{1+9)=0 => (I-8){1+9)=0 1=48 I#-ive o, [lesrodels Nuclear Models @ Gs) 18. 400 fenuclea Soln. ral field eV. Wh yg Soln. F 20, | Soln, ‘The rotation energy level of an even-even nucleus are (0") ground state, energy of 2° = 44 KeV and higher state energies are 146, 304, 514 KeV respectively for three exited state. Assign spin and parity to these levels. @ = Bex l(t+l) > E=KI(I4) E, =k 2x3 E=kI(I+1) E__ 6 6 44 6x146 E (+) = Ts) 146 => I(I+l)= 4 = 6x3.3=19.8=20 => Psi=20 => P+I-20=0 => P+5I-41-20=0 = Ifits}-4(I+5)= @ E, _ (I+) @ B, 17a) sasraayy. The difference in the coulomb energy between the mirror nuclei ${Cr and {3.Mn is 6MeV. Assuming that the nuclei have a spherically symmetric charge distribution and that eis approximately 1.0 MeV-fm. Find the radius of the “Mn nucleus. Kinetic coulomb energy of uniformly charged sphere of radius R is According to the question, E,,~Ey,=6MeV 3 Ze 3 = 4.9 fin = 4.9 x 10° fin where Z., = 25 and Zy,= For what elements should stable isobars exist for (a) A= 97 and (b) A = 80? Semi-empirical mass formula for a X*-atom is =My(A-Z)+ My2Z—a,A+a,A° +a,Z(Z-I)A™? +4,(A-2Z) A" a, Substituting values of constants in terms of MeV, we haveSe Nuclear Modes M* =939.6(4 -Z)+938.8Z -144 +134” +0.60Z(Z ~1)4? +19(4-2Z)) 414344" For a most stable isobar (OM IAN), =-0.8+0.60(2Z, -1) A -16(A-2Z,) A = 16.8+0.64-" +124 For odd value of A, there should be only one stable isobar, the neighbouring isobars are unstable and decay to stable isobar. for A= 97. or Z,= 1684062091)” (or _ 9 152+1.297)"" Hence the most stable isobar is ., Mo”. By similar calculations for A= 80dels fecay Itis bolas ower. Nuclear Models q@ Qweieass According tothe shell model ofthe nucleus (2) magic numbers exist. (b) nucleons interact with their nearest neighbours only (©) nucleons in anucleus interact witha general force field. @ large electron quadrupole moment exists for certain nucle. ‘The nuclear spins of Cand Mg" nuclei and respectively: (@) zero and half integer (6) half-integer and zero (© aminteger and hal€ integer (4) both hal€integers ‘The spin and parity of ,Be? nucleus, as predicted by the shell model, are respectively: (a) 3/2 and odd (b) 1/2 and odd ()3Zandeven (4) \/andeven ‘The expression of a, is: ‘The binding energy’ B(A,Z)=16A-=2 @ where N= A~Z is the néutron number: ‘The Value of Z of the most stable isobar for a given A is At, a) eee ‘ A(y ae) Af ae Al -4— Sag & ; (eee Afi AL © Few) 8s OF ao | @ 20a | ANSWER KEY ‘Questions | 1 ieee] 3 4 S Option @_ Ta) a) (6) (byRadioactivity Introduction: In 1903, the Curies were awarded jointly with Becquerel, the Nobel Prize in physics for his discovery of radioactivity phenomenon, In this chapter, I would like to discuss radioactive decay law, a decay, decay, ¥ decay. Radioactivity: Radioactivity isthe phenome unaffected by any physical or chemical changes or influences such ag temperature, pressure et. to which the atom may be subjected. Its a nuclear property ofthe active element and inal radioactive processes a ecrays § LW 183 Radioactive Decay law: 1, On emission of & or f rays, which is usually but not invariably accompanied by 7 -ray emission, the emitting parent nucleé transforms into a new daughter element. The daughter element again is radioactive so that the provess of successive disintegration continuous tll the original active parent nucle gets transformed into stable one, 2, The rate of radioactive disintegration, that is, the number of atoms that break up at any instant oftime ‘” is directly proportional to the number N, of active nucleids present in the sample under study at that instant. Decay equation: Let N, be the number of active nucledes present in the sample at any time ‘t’ then we have experimentally cae dt > Where, 2, the constant of proportionality, is known as the decay constant ~ a characteristic constant of th element (nuclide). The negative sign hints at the fact that NV, decreases with t. btion, the radioactivity where, 4 isthe constant of integration, Att=0,N,=N,, the initial number of nuclides and A= én Ny N, tn] "| =—at Therefore, (&) Or, N= Noe Half-life: The half-life of a radioactive nclide is defined as the time ‘, in which the original amount of of ‘Average life: ‘The average or man i sample and is defined as the ihe average lifetime of all the atoms in the given ofthe total life ‘all the atoms to be total number of atoms, taN patie yaN 4 aN,+dN, = Ziv a s % ‘But, we have, aN =d(Nye*)=-ANye* atRadioactivity’ Ray Activity: The activity or strength 4, of a radioactive sample at any instant ¢ is thus defined as the number ¢ isiategration occurring in the sample in unit time att, that is, Activity, ‘The customer unit ofradioactivity is called the curie (Ci). [tis defined as the acitivyt of any radioactive substany that disintegrates at the rate of 3.7x10'° disintegration per second. Natural radioactive decay series: : ‘There are three naturally occuring radioactive series. These three series are * (H uranium series is called (4n'+ 2) 2 i actinium series is called (4n +3) (ii) therium series is called (4n) Also there have another series is called Neptunium series (iv) Neptunium series is called (4n+ 1)— activity Radioactivity umber o ‘THORIUM SERIES ass numnbc ase ator rer elemer Consider a radioactive nuclide *P, symbolised by script 1, to decay into another radioactive muctideQ (script 2); the later again decays into a stable end-product R (sctipt 3). For instance, P( 4+ 0(2) 2 +R(3) [stable] Let 4,, 4, be the decay constants of nuclides 4 and 2 respectively, and N,, N,N, be the number of atoms of the thtee kinds at any intant ¢ Now the second nuclide would be formed at the rate 2, by the decay of the parent atom and disappear by its own decay at the rate 7,N, ; the atoms of the end-product ie. R appear at the rate A.V, by the decay of nuclide 2, but being stable do not disappear. So, aN, -AN, ~O (i) AN, (iil) Solving equation () : (N,), = Nige"™* (iv) Where N,, is the number of atoms of nuclide 1, at time t= 0 From equation (i), using (ii), we obtain Dew iNg OMAN,| Radioactivity — Re aN, ut Or, SAAN = Aue ™ (va) Multiplying both sides of equation (iv-a) by ¢7, the integrating factor, ya ( AN, 7 a (Qs a= AN yg oc Eftes)eamel Integrating, Nye a “i Nye + A Where A isthe constant of integration, Nowat ¢=0,(,), =Nyy =a const At £=0,(N,), =p. So, from equi B=NytNot No (N, Nyt Neo (l- +N, {4 “| ii (3), = Naot Noo Jeo Gaal aa?) i Equations (+, (and (vi) therefore, constitute the solution ofthe problem. Tin most cases, only the first muclde is present at 0. $0, Na) = Np =0. We thus have from (vi) and (vi) (2g alee) am h, o() (5), =n,{t wn) ‘The decay of the first nuclide P, the growth and decay of the second nuclide Q and the growth of the third nuclide R are shown in the figure below .ivity Radioactivity aa Time for QQ) to attain a maximum: Equation (ix) gives how N, varies with ¢. It shows that N, = Oat =. {t increases with increasing ¢ and attains a maximumat = ¢,, say. R the 5 z 5 2 Time, aN, ANy Now, we have, ~G (=AerRiat A 0% Os, (andy =en (i) aah ‘That this, corresponds to maximum N, can be readily verified by obtaining the second time derivative of N, which becomes negative at r= ¢,: Branching of radioactivity : When a radio-elementstiows that o and i activities, tiesé are definite probabilities of a and. decay constants for the branches, It then be atom, the total rate of disintegration will be * =-(A,+ap\N=AN where, 22, + Ag the total decay constant: arvd (vi) If (Ts) »(Z)p be the partial half lives of a and p decay. 0,693 F 0.693 0.693, _ 0.693 78 1 ola:Radioactivity | pedi Determination of constants of radioactivity: I. For simple decays : We have seen that the activity A ofa sample exponentially with time according to| the equation, [ A=hem In A= tndy At Or, yo~ateC (i) where, y=ind and C=tn A, Differentiating (), a dt So, when the logarith of the activity, In 4, is plotted against time f, it will give a straight line with a slope equal to ~2.. This therefore would furnish us a method for evaluating A , provided we can measure the activity ofthe sample. nA oO Time,t> 2, Complex decays: % ‘We conclude the section by indicating how one can determine half-lives for complex decays, ¢.g. two half-lives when a sample contains a mixture of say two activities A and B such that 7, (4)>>T,,(B).A graph of the logarithm of the observed activity of the sample s first plotted against time, the observations however are extended over a time large enough compared to 7,, (B) . The tail-end of the curve is due to the activity 4, since the contribution fom 2 in this region is negligible. So, ifthe straight part of the grapt is extrapolated to ¢=0, the contribution to the total observed activity of the sample from A at any instanl tan be found, Subtracting this activity of A from the observed total activity atr, we get the activity of 8 at f. Once the contributions from the two activities are known, their half-lives can be evaluated by the usual procedure. Time, t—>r ‘ivity Radioactivity ‘ding te e.g. twe w()-4 arvation, induct the grap) ay inst ivity off e3) © c-decay: + Velocity of c.-particles: Let ‘v’ be the velocity of the a~ particles , M be its mass, q the charge, ‘r’ the radius of the tack and B the magnetic field, then v= Bgt/M. + Range of o.-partick The distance through which an o.~ particle travels in a specified material before stopping to ionise it is called the range of o.-particles in that material. The range is thus a sharply defined ionisation path- length, ‘The range depends on (i) The initial energy of the o.—particle, (ii) the ionisation potential of the gas and (ii) the chances of collision between the .— particles and on the nasuce and the tecuperature and pressure of the gas. With increase of pressure, the range decreases; it increases if the temperature of the gas increased. ‘The range Rin standard aris pe eas eS R=bE! * Specific ionisation: eas ‘The number of ion-pairs formed per unit path-length at aty point in the path of the 0. particle is called specific ionisation arid is symbolised by I. 5 Since, EcR® > SE + Geiger-Nuttal law: ‘An important quantitative relation between the range R of the a~particles and the decay constant 7, of the emitting nuclei was experimentally discovered by Geiget and Nuttall(1911) and is called the Geiger-Nutall law. The relation runs as: (nh=A+BEnR where A and B are constants having values different for different radioactive series. U-series nn ()—> Th-series aS Zo ‘> Ac-series WA | Go ~ ——_—___—___+nnr Figure: Variation of in 4 with fa: Geiger-Nuttall law Since Rec f/2 => fnk=C+DénE where C, D are two constants,Radioactivity c.-disintegration energy: | $x Sdy4 jhe The Q-value of the decay process is known as the «.—disintegration energy which is the total energy released in the disintegration process and is given by Q, =(My -M, -My)c* where M’s are the masses of the particles and ‘c’ the velocity of light in vacuum. For heavy nuclei, Q, is positive, so the decay can occur spontaneously as it does. According to laws of conservation of momentum and energy. 0=Mqva-Myvy Where K.E. of a-particle As A~200 0 > T= Qy a- decay through tunnelling: 7X4 —— 2" + Het R=R A” v(R)= (a) ane, R Ri A(Z-2)E"? -B(Z-2) A=1.587x10% J? B=94x10° nt!iS ictivity Radioactivity Example: ,,U?*——» , Th? + ,He* and the enerpy of the emitted @ particle is # = 6.72x10" joule. Determine the haif-tife time of ,U™ tal energy Soln, Nuclear radus of parent R= RA" = (1.4 fn)(238)” =8.7 fim =8.7x10% m Atomic number of parent Z = 92 gto laws Tunneling probability, 10” Velocity, Collision frequency, Decay constant, Helflife Maxtol a65sC0Ae6OREO ‘years =4.4%10° years ‘The experimental value of half iis 4,5*10? years’ So, we have obiained a rough estimate of hal ie of Dy us @ decay: Let ‘v’be the velocity ofa given particle, B the magnetic flux density ‘m’ the relativistic mass of the particle andr” the radius ofthe circular tack i my? _ _mv_ mM v thn MY pey terse r Be Vi + B-decay, we write: BX RY ‘The disintegration energy in p decay is: M,(A,Z)-M, (A,Z+5)—m, =[M(A,Z}-Zm, -M(A,Z+}+(Z+t}m,—m, Jo? (én terms of atomic mass) =[M(A,Z)-M(A,Z+1)]o?I ( ‘oactivity | — Radioactivity | ‘where M, is the nuclear mass, M'the atomic mass and m, the mass of electron. Q.>0, if M(A, Z) > MUA, Z + 1) implying that p~ decay occurs only if the mass of the parent atom is greater than that of the daughter atom. p= decay: $X huys+ Se > =[M, (A,Z)-M, (A, Z-1)~m, Jo” =[M(4,2)-2m,-M(A,2-1)+(Z-1)m_-m,Je =[M(A,Z)-M(A,Z-1)-2m, Jo? For p= decay to occu i.e, the mass of the parent ie, 1.02 MeV. Electron capture: SY 4% ec. a Ye ‘Therefore, disintegration energy, Q. energy of the electron to the = Q=[M(A,Z)-Zm, +m, -M(A, =[M(A.z)-M(A,Z-iJ]e 28, For electron capture to oceur: Q, > 0, if M(A,Z)>M(A,Z-1)+B, i.e, the mass of the parent atom is greater than that of the daughter atom by at least the binding energy of the electron, Selection rule for p*~ decay: If ¢, is 044, initial and final nuclei must have opposite parities (parity changes in these transitions); for even é, values the initial and final nuclei must have ssme parity (no change in parity). Furthermore, a in allowed transitions, the emission of leptons (electron and neutrino) in the singlet state (Fermi-selection rule) requires ATS fg, whereas triplet-state (G-T selection rule) emission requires AL < +1, Thus selection rules for forbidden transitions are: First forbidden — For these transitions % =1 and parity changes. Fermi-selection rules: Al=+1, 0(except 0-0) i 1 Gamows Teller rules: tas, expt 0,5» 5,001]oe daughter the binding ling enerey sitions); for vertnore, & niselectiot, yl. Tho ity Radioactivity The examples are: BAr>BK +B (U2 > 3/2") «GT. oo HNeB o>! F Hd Bar+pr 92" F4GT mixed 2 Bas Pla+B™ (12" > 7112*) + GT mixed es Pro tind +B (12+ 2) P+ GT mixed [Pm Smet (U2 12) F+ GT mixed Biro 8Rb+P- (912512) GT. Sora By +p (5/2* 12) GT. ICs Bo Ba" + B~ (a Ua) GT. Second forbidden. For these t 2 and no change in parity. Fermi-selection rule Gamow Teller ru The examples are: Woo par p (it > 32%) F+ GT mixed P Be PB+B" (+39, Gr. f FiNa—> jpNe+B Goo} Gr. + yedecay: Init no change in Z and A:y1ay photons are mitted ‘when the mle jumps from an excited state to the lower state (afler 10° sec) Its always not possible that when nucleus jumps from higher energy state to lower y-photon will be emitted. = Sometimes the nucleis in higher energy stite directly give energy to the atomic & and hence an e* may ‘come out rather than a y-ray photon. This process is known as internal conversion and the eso emitted is called as conversion € Energy of emitted y-ray in a -decay: Let I have a parent nuclei “”, , when it emit a particle it goes to the excited state and it comedown to its ground state by emitted y-ray. According energy conservation rule we can write, excited state wn py promi stateRadioactivity | Rav Soin. Soln, * Selection rule for 7-decay: 1 sol Type | Symbol | Change in Angular momentum, L Parity change t Plectric dipole 5, T Yes i Magneticdipole_ | M, | 1 No a Electric quadrupole | E,, 2 ‘No | Magnetic quadrupole | _M, 2 Yes Electric octupole Es 3 Yes Magnetic octupole | My 3 No So Electric 2 — pole E, L [No for L even. Yes for odd] Magnetic 2"—pole | _M, L [ es for L even, No for L odd] ‘q-ray interaction with matter: ‘There are three fundamental procedure i in which’-ray interact with matter, These three pracesses () Compton scattering 5. (i) Photoelectric effect o 7 (Gil Pair production Ba ‘The three factors should therefore be combined into one single (total) absorption coefficient, in che absorption law. The intensity of the transmitted y-ray is given by ™ | where, is the thickness of medium. Se ‘SEE A nucleus having mass number 240 decays by a emissiéi to the grond state ofits daughter nucleus. The Q value of the process is 5.26 MeV. The energy (in MeV) ofthe a particle is: {GATE 2005] (9) 5.26 (b) 5.17 (95.13 (5.09 M,=240 Q=5.26 MeV : Weknow, 6 4 59 T, =Q|1-——|=0] 1-—— | =5.26} 5.26x{ = |=5.1723 of M, ‘| of a (3) Correet option is (b) Which one ofthe following disintegration series of the heavy elements will give**Bias a stable nucleus? (@) Thorium series (b) Neptunium series [GATE 2006] (€) Uranium series (@) Actinium series We know that, () Thorium series is 4n series (i Uraniumsseries is 4n +2 series, (ii) Actinium series is 4n + 3 series. (iv) Nepturium series is 4n + 1 series, ‘Therefore, Bi is the stable efement of Nepturium series. Correct option is (b) Fission fragments are generally radioactive as: (GATE 2007) (2) they have excess in neutrons i (b) they have excess of protons (c) they are products of radioactive nuclides (d) their total kinetic energy is of the order of 200 MeV' ivity Radioactivity Sola. jd o4 | soln. H] jl 8 5. inthe Soln, Thed S) 6. Soln, The condition for radioactivity "21.5 Therefore, the fission fragments are generally radioactive because they haye excess in neutrons, Correct optionis (a) Half life ofa radio isotope is 4%10! years. Ifthere are 10° radioactive nucle ina sample today, the nember of such nuclei in the sample 4 10° year ago were: [GATE 2007] @ 12810 (b) 256 108 (© 512*10° (@) 1204 x 10° 4x10” 1,,=4%10" years Therefore number ofhalf ie time $= =10 N ‘Therefore, remaining number of particle after 10 halflife time V = ra N= Nx2" =1024x10° Correct option is (d) °°. : The disintegration energy is defined t ifferende in the rest energy between the initial and final states. Consider the following process. : z [GATE 2009] gt PUY s z ‘The emitted & particle has kinetic energy 5.17 MeV. The value of the disintegration energy is (@) 5.26 MeV AO)SATMeY 5 (6)5.08MeVs > * (d)2.59 MeV \ We know that, 7, = oft M,) 3.17 4 244 AT |ssa7{1+— |=5.17| = |=5.26 Mev ae 4 ( 5) (33) ° M, 240 Correct option is (a) ®4U decays with a halflife of4.51 * 10° years, the decay series eventually ending at™*Pb, which is stable. Arrock sample analysis shows that the ratio af the numbers of atoms of"*Pb to "U is 0.0058. Assuming that all the ®*Pb has been produced by the decay of U and that all other half-lives in the chain are negligible, the age of the rock sample is, [JEST 2013] (@) 38 = 108 years (b) 48 * 10° years (©) 38 x 10" years (d) 48 x 107 years 0.693, 7, =5.51x10, A= 7 4spa0e" Pb pe 0.0058 Pb =(U,, x 0.0058) Therefore, there was total number of uranium atom = Pb + U,, = 1.0058 U,. = ue 1.0058 (_1_)__ 4stx10? L_) éo( 1 =- x0n{ a" roose)” ~~ o6os *"" 005s) 4.510,00S783x10" = = 38x 10° years 0.693 on Correct option is (a)Radioactivity f pad Soln. Soin. Soln. Inthe B decay process, the transition 2" -» 3°, is [GATE 2013] 10. (@) allowed both by Fetmi and Gamow-Teller selection rule (®) allowed by Fermi and but not by Gamow-Teller selection rule (©) not allowed by Fermi but allowed by Gamow-Teller selection rule | sot (@ not allowed both by Fermi and Gamow-Teller selection rule | i [ According to Fermi-Selection tules AJ =£1 (except 0-0) f it Gamow Telter rules Af = £2, £1,0 (excent ad ryt ns ') Therefore, the transition 2° 3* AL =+7 ‘Therefore, allowed both by fermi and Gamow-Teller selection rule, Correct option is (a) ‘Which of te following radioactive decay chins s posible observe? [TIFR 2015} (@) Pb Hes BAu so (© BRe—+ Rn ZPb : We know when or - decay take place mass atomic number increase by L. £57 - Only the option to (b) satisfy the condition se Bi Re Pe Correct option is (b) g (@) Pb». HL ids to decay [GATE 2005] ‘The plot of log A vs. time t, where A is activity, ds shown inthe fgure comes, : uo Sob Log 7 (@) fiomonly one kind ofradioactive nuclei having same halflife (b) from only neutron activated nuclei (© froma mixture ofradioactive nuclei having different halflives (@ whichis unphysical, For one kin ofradioactive nuclei the graph between log d and r become straight line, 2, But for mixture of radioactive nucleit become curve Sol log a log A Correct option is (&)activity | Radioactivity 013] (a) Here T . Here Ty, = 24.1 days = Radioactive sample has its half-life equal to 60 days. Calculate its () disintegration constant, (Gi Its average lif, (ii) the time required for 2/3 of the original number of atoms to disintegrate and (iv) the time taken for 1/4 of the original number of atoms to remain unchanged. ( Since ty. =60 days, 2, = 0.693/ ty = 0.693 /60=0.01155 day (ii) Since 2 = 0.01155 day", T=1/2 =1/ 0.01155 = 86.58 days 2 1 (iii) Number to be disintegrated = =No . So, the number to remain unchanged = 3 ‘Ng Ts, NINy + ‘Therefore, From the relation N= Nye™', we obtain _én3 _ 2.3026%0.4771 a a 0.01155 5.1 days (a) A radioactive substatoe disintegrates fora time equal | t0 it average life. Calculate the fraction of the original substance disintegrated. (b) The half-life of So 3:82 days. What faction otteny pisined sample of radon will disintegrate in 10 days? : “Since, —~ EEG Therefore, Fraction disintegrated = 1-0.368 = 0.632, 1.368 0.6: 6: (b) Here Ty, +3.82 days and t= 10 days. Therefore, we have 4 93 0.693 9 181 day y Ty 3.82 CN eit gosttao . gtat 3. Now Ny 20 317 = Fraction disintegrated = 1-35 = ‘The half-life of UX, is 24.1 days. How many days, after UX, has been isolated, will it take for 90% of it to change to UX,? 0.693 /24.1 = 0.0287 day"! Amount disintegrated = 90/100 => N/N,=10/100=1/10 fn10 _ 2.30261 0287 0.0287B. Soln. 14, 15. Soln. 16. Soln. a Radioactivity } pag The halflife of radioactive K-40 is 1.83x10* years. Find the number of particles emitted per see per} 7, g. of K-40, assuming 4, =1.210-’ st, Avogrado number = 6.0210, Let N, + Number of atoms of K-40 in 1g at t= 6.02100" /40 ' Ty 3 [Mal yy, LRM 602 gs { at 40 So, the number of particles emitted per g of K-40 is 1.8>10° It is observed that 3.6710" a~ particles are emitted per g of Ra- 226, Calculate the half-life of Ra. 226. Avogadro number = 6.023%10" 1g of Ra-226 = 6.023% 16/226 atoms of Ra-226, Of these 3.67*10"° disintegrate per sec, So, the decay ‘constant, 3.67x10"° 0.693 _ 0.693% 6.02310" 6.023109 /226 $=1595 years 18. 40 times the permissible fevel of normal occu: occupation. : Let after“? days the room would be safe for czupaion. So, in days, the activity would drop down to 1/40 of its initial value. = XA From the relation No 19, Soh (Tin =40 days, 4=(0.693/20) day") 2.30320 = 2.303x20%1.6021 =e == 106.4 00338" = 0.693 Therefore, room would be safe for occupation afer 107 days. iven the half-lives of Ra- Coleulate the amount of Ra-226 in secular equilibrium with 1 kg of pure U-238, 226 and U-238 as 1620 years and 4.5%10? years respectively, Let x in g be the required amount of Ra-226 in secular equilibrium with 1 kg of pure U-238, Now: 3 1 kg of pure U-238 = ee 210? atoms of U 6.0210" x g OF Ra-226 = = Sag Kom of Ra Ny The conition of secular equilibrium Bhs, ,), Cyy)q, au 16x1620%10" 5 = 34.1810 g=0.34 “238x4.5x10° 226x160 238%4.5x10° eae 6.0210" x10* _ 6.0210" xxictivity Radioactivity @ asec per 17, Soln. fe of Ra- the decay ts 48. stradiation gon, ve safe fo, trop dows 19, Soln. lives of Rs 1 Now: The Half life of U2 is 4.51 * 10° yrs. What percentage age of .,U*8 that existed 10! years ago still 0.693 0.683 tz 4.5x10° umber of atom of .,U%* excited 10'° year ago N = N at or log, —2 = At N Now present, N= Nye a N where t=10 yrs => —— No 069310 Ny __ 0.693x10 No => log = = 0.6673 => 23026l0g10-F) asizied °810"N ~ 2.3026x4.51 N => No antitog0.6673 = 4.648 = == 0.215 N No % of -.U now present = 0.215 x 100 = 21.5% ‘The halflife of a mop Substaice is 5h What willbe i ‘ohe third life time? In this 1 3 23026108453 0.1386 Hence, log, 3=At of. ‘The activity of certain radio nuclide decreases to'15% ofits original value in 10 days. Find its half life. Let Ny be the original no, ‘of nuclei and N test behind. after, 10 days. If, is the radioactive constant, then an 218") Si 100 100 400-4 aa - = ing, * 12: 100 2 3 logy R= TOA Am logy OP = Fx 2.9026 ogy = 0.1097. = Typ 28931 nel oon x 0.189710, essa r Radioactivity | ‘Which of the following phenomena can be explained by quantum mechanical tunneling through the barrier? (i) a—Deeay Gi Fieldemission of e* froma metal surface. (ji) Decay Select the correct answer using the code given below: @iiii (@)ionly (@i&iionly (@ii&ivionly. Be ints first excited state has spin-parity 2" It gets de-excited to the ground state, which has spin parity 0, byy-emission. The multipoles carrried by y are @E (B) M2 (©) E2,M2 @E4. Which ofthe following is true for B-decay of the neutron? The process (@) Violates both parity and change conjugation symmetry. (2) Violates parity but conserves change conjugation symmetry. (c) Conserves party but violates change conjugation symmetry. (@ Conserves both parity and charge conjugation symmetry: Consider the alpha-decay reaction, Po3,” —> Pog. + He} where atomic masses are Thekinotic energy ofthe al particle willie (@) 5.4 keV ()27 ‘The energy spectrum of beta-pat (@) parity is violated in beta-decay’ =. (©) beta- decay leads to a three body: ‘The 0 > 0 gamma transition is fo (@) photon has integer spin (©) photon hasa definite polarization Ifdecay constant of radioactive sample is, per minute, then the fraction that decays in the fifth minute is, @ee - Oe Oet-e% Oem ier Inthe 8 decay process, the transition 2* > 3°, is @) allowed both by Fermi and Gamow-Teller selection rule (©) allowed by Fermi and but not by Gamow-Teller selection rule (©) not allowed by Fermi but alfowed by Gamow-Teller selection rule (@ not allowed both by Fermi and Gamow-Teller selection rule © @)photonisa massless particle ~(@) parity will not be conserved ~ The radioactive decay of a certain material satisfies Poisson statlstics with a mean rate of 4, per secon what should be the minimum duration of counting (in seconds) so that the relative error is less than 1% (@) 10/4, (6) 10°07 © 10a Mia ‘Which ofthe following radioactive decay chains is it possible to observe ? (@) ™Pb > Hg > ZAu (0) Bi > Po Pb (©) %Ra> Rn MP @ Pb > Bie Bau | ANSWER KET | Questions: 1 2 3 4 3 Option @ (a) ) @ ic} Questions: 6 7 & 9 10 Option @ (c) (a) @ ()noon | ctivity | barrie? npatity Particle Acceleration Introduction : ‘The purpose of an accelerator of chraged particles is to direct against a target a beam of'a specific kind of particles of chosen energy. There ae many varites of methods for accomplishing this task. All using various arrangement of electronic and magnetic field, and this chapter-we.will read about some types of accelerator. the dees ‘Dybe because 6f their shape (ae below). These hollow chambers have their diametcic edges parallel and slightly separated from each other so as to produce a narrow gap between them. The des are placed in an evacuated chambet C and are connected Su sion minute is, to an rf-oscillator so that a high frequency (10 MHz) alternating potential is applied between the dees acting a electrodes. The potential between the dees thus altemates rapidly and the electri field in the gap is fist directed to one dee and then to the other. The space within each dee is however field-free (zero left). The chamber C is mounted horizontally between the pole pieces of a huge electromagnet that provides an intense per secon and uniform vertical magnetic field of several tesla. Since the field must be uniform over the whole of the ie dees, the diameter of the poels should be slightly greater than that of the dees, the diameter of the poles should be slightly greater than that of the dees. ‘The ion-source S is located near the mid-point of the gap between the gap between the dees. The ions, after being accelerated, are brought out of the chamber throught a window P by a charged deflecting plate to bombard the target. Principles of action: Let a positive ion of charge q leave the ion-source between the dees and enter the — negative dee at the instant with velocity ¥,, normal to the magnetic lines of force. Due to the magnetic field i B, the force acting on the particle is ae Faqi,xB (1) But B is perpendicular to the force so that we obtain —Particle Acceferation| @) ‘Under the action of the field the path of the particle is bent into a circle of radius”, given by the relation, quB= my to 3) ‘where m is the mass ofthe ion (particle). When the particle is inside the dee, its speed stays constant; but after describing the semicircular path inside the dee, as it leaves it to reach the gap, the electric field of the r'source changes direction synckromotisly ‘The particle thus gets a ‘kick’ and is accelerated into the other dee where, because of ts increased speed ¥, i-crcular path of comparatively larger radius , given by (4) 26) Using equation (4). The important fact that emerges from (5) is that the frequency of revolution is independent of the speed of the ion and the radius of path in the dees.'So, if the electric fild reverses regulacly at a frequency exactly equal to f, the field in the gap is always in the right direction to accelerate a charged particle by an impulse, each time the gap is crossed. ” This is called the basic resonance equation for a fixed frequency cyclotron, f” being the frequency of the oscillator output. ‘Thus the revolving charged particle is steadily speeded up describing a flat spiral of increasing radius Finally, it reaches the periphery of the dees and is brought out of the chamber through window by anegatively charged deflector to impinge on the properly mounted target. We shall now calculate the energy of the particle Energy of the particle : The kinetic energy W, of the charged particle is given by W, 24 nn? 2 ‘Therefore, the maximum kinetic energy of the particles when they leave the cyclotron is a ‘Thus, the maximum energy that can be imparted to a particle is directly proportional to the square of (1) radius of the dees and (2) the magnetic field of the magnet ‘The energy of the particles expressed in equivalent voltage V is given byia ation, Particle Acceleration ‘on, lar path rou. ‘peed v, re greed rexactly impubs, sy ofthe grads egativel partic of (1)4 [V=872 72m] ~@) Betatron > As already indicated, the maximum energy that could be imparted to a particle in a cyclotron is limited by the relativistic increases in mass that disturbs the synchronisation. in particular, the cyelotron cannot be used to accelerate electrons as ther relativistic mass increase even at low energies is quite high. Thesbove diffialky is overcome in a betatron designed and developed by D.W. Kerst in 1941 at the University of Tlinois. In fac, the betatron was specifically meant for acceleration the electrons. Basic principle : The basic principle of betatron is to accelerate electrons in a stable orbit of essentially constant radius by the application of an alternating magnetic field, called the induction field. The induetion field mainly produces two effects, the increasing magnetic flux produces an electromagnetic force that accelerates the electrons along their orbits and thus increases their energy in each successive orbital revolution 2) the varying magnetic field, acting perpendicular-to the: etron-o,smuameously ‘constfains the electrons move ina circualr trajectory of Goiistant fadius.” 2nrX: 2 u ~Q) where X is the induced electric field: “ ‘Therefore, the foree acting on the electron of charge-c is d eS EO sng (1) and @) @) Qnr nr 2ar dt As the electron of mass m and velocity vis deflected by magnetic induction B along an orbit of radius, mv" — Bev r ‘Therefore, momentum, p=mv= Ber A dp_d ab Lp a i ( ra, using (6) (5) Comparing 2)and(s), | “= 20r? 6 ymparing 2) and (5), |“ fa « This equation is known as the betatron condition, Integrating equation (6), = 22r?B o For a uniform magnetic induction, however, the flux would be srr? B ‘Thus for a stable orbit of constant radius, the pole pieces of the magnet are to be so designed that the flux must change at twice the rate at which it would change ifthe magnetic induction Were uniform throughout the area enclosed by the orbit, ‘The above condition is achieved by designing pole pieces from laminated iron core in which the varying| a Particle Acceleration magnetic field is produced by an a.c. supply of about 60 Hz. Then the flux density at the centre of the orbit is larger then that at the edges. This condition is valid for both relativistic and non-relativistic energies of the electron. Construction: The betatron (igure below) consists éssentially of (a highly evacuated doughnut-shaped glass chamber containing the source of electrons; i) a specially shaped powerfill electromagnet MM between the pole piece of which the doughnut is mounted- the pole pieces being so designed that they have a strong fiek atthe centre with gradient towardsthe edges; | (ii the windings WW through which passes an alternating current to energies the | | | electromagnet, (iv) the filament F which is the source of electrons produced thermoinically:-The thermoelectrons are given an intial energy of 50 kV by applying a high potential between F and the plate P, G being the grid to focus the electrons. The electrons are injected into the doughnut at atime when the magnetic flux produced by the electromagnetic rises fom zero in the rt quarter cyl, Tis the arget which impinged by the stream of accelerated electrons. ‘When the magnetic field increases fiom zero to the final pte a te electrons complete enough number ofrevolutions (thousands) i the fixed Stable orbit gaining higher and higher energies. When the desired energy is achieved, the radius of the orbit is suddenly increased by increasing the flux ¢, without changing the field, as given by the relation r= ($/27.B)'", and the electrons are deflected onto the target T. The above is ensured by the discharge of a condenser through the primary of the electromagnet that increases the fhux without chaning the flux density Energy computation: The momentum p imparted to an electron of charge e by a field 2 is given by 1 B= pes Bere where B is the magnetic field atthe end of the acceleration time. 1 (_2n) Ina betatron, the acceleration time is 4-7 where T's the period | = 2) © being the anguiar frequency 8)ation ¢ orbit sof the canted edges; ve given fo focus by the tream of penough >dessed hanging tr. The racreases equency} (qa Particle Acceleration = @& Tr, Therefore, distance travelled by the electron in time is d= 7 , Since the velocity of electron approaches the velocity of light c after being accelerated. ‘Therefore, Number of revolutions executed per sec by the electron is, fees “or “O where ‘ris the radius of the stable orbit. ‘When the flux changes as a function of time, the energy gained per see by the electron is A) fe $= sino] = cof, cost Since the acceleration occurs in time T/4, the average energy gained in each revolution is ‘Therefore the total energy imparted to ths eesron in n evolution is ‘Tnean Energy pet tev. * namber of revoluvions + eed “ 7 Coby ei or dar? BBO) Difference between Cyclotron and Betatro CYCLOTRON BETATRON T, | Fixed-frequency cyclotron employsno) 1. |Betatron, however, employs an alternating magnetic field; "the oscillating field which is called the magnetic field is constant. | induction field. 2 (Particles are accelerated in helical [ 2. [The acceleration of the particles in a orbits and so orbital radius goes on betatron takes place in a circular orbit ‘nereasing and equals the radius of the which is essentially of constant radius. dees in the limit ‘A fixed-frequency cyclotron =| 3 unsuitable for accelerating electrons Cyclotron suffers from the problem of) 4. orbital stability This cannot be used as an X-ay| 5. generator A betatron & specifically qweant for accelerating electrons It also. suffers from the problem of orbital stability This is a very highly efficient X-ray generator.ms Particle Acceleration | P Soin, Soln, Soln. SORES The value of the magnetic field required to maintain non-relativistic protons ofenergy | MeV ina circular orbit | 4 ofradius 100mmis___Tesla, [GATE 2014) (Given: my = 1,67x1077 kg, e=1.6x10-C pri 110 1.6x10%J eS (0! =1.384474x107 m/sec So Four partices-electron, proton, He*: ‘and Li it are projected ina «cretion ‘ort ‘given magnetic field. Then the velocity willbe smallest for (a)electron (b) He" 5 ©)proton, We know thatradiusofthe circle = 88 pa) ine Since, g,B and r aresfixed 5 vel Therefore, the velocity of He* will be smallest. i 6. Correet option is (c) Deuterons ina cyeltron describe a circle of radius 0,32 m just before emerging from the dees, The ac voltage applied to thedees is 2x10* volt at 10 MHz. Find (9 che velocity of deutrons, (i) the magnetic field and (i the energy of deutrons in MeV: Sol (From the relation v= 2227, the velocity is given by v=2%3.1416%0.32x10%106 = 2.0110" mis (ii) Fromthe relation Bgy = my* /r , we obtain the magnetic field, B = (mv/qr) Here, v=2.01x10" mis, m = mass of deutron = 2x1.67x107"kg,r=0.32m, q=1.60x10°°C, Substituting these values in the expression for B, we obtain i 21,6710 x2.01%10" “160x107 0.32 (ii) Energy ofdeucerons = mv? /2 = 2x1.6710 x(2.01%10")'/2 =131T =1.67x(2.01) x10 7Particle Acceleration | 1.67 (2.01) x10"? 1.60210" ‘Acyclotronhas a magnetic eld of LS Whin?. The extraction radius is 0.5m. Calculate the frequency ofthe r= “oscillator necessary for accelerating deutrons and the energy of the extracted beam. Bq 1.5%1.6x10 2am 2%3.14x2x1.67x10™ =11.44x10° Hz = 11.44 MBz Big Kinetic energy of deuterons, 7, = (15) x(L6x10™)' x(0.5) 2x2x1.67 x10" = 2.15510 ey =13.46 MeV. 16x10 see ‘What is the energy to which protons can be accelerated in a cyclotron witha dee-dia of 2mand a magnetic field of fx density 0.72 Wo/m?, Mass ofproton = 1.67310" ig my? . EB Fromthe relation, “= Bqv, we obtain the expression for the velocity ccelerationgy MeV = 4,22 MHz Gala, Frequency, = . Substituting the given values in the expression for W, ,we get W= = 2155x107 Bar im 1 2 Therefore, eneray, Me'= mv" => (Bar) 2m (0.72%1.6«10"? x1) rear 966% + 2x 1673 x10" 96x10" 3:966%10-™ MeV =24.78 MeV ie 1.6*10 igouan alternating p.d. of 50 KV maximum value is applied to the dees of radius 40 cm of a eyelotcon by an __. oscillator. A deuteron of mass 2 amu acquires energy of 4 MeV in the cyclotron, Calculate (i) magnetic field strength, (i frequency of the oscillator and (ii) number of revolutions which the deuteron has tomake inside 1¢ cyclotron to gain the energy. | am 6x10" kg,q =1.6x10 °C tic energy of the emerging beam of particles of mass m, charge q in a cyclotronis given by y, Bar 2m here, B= the magnetic field and r= the radius ofa dee. Wim _ 2x(4x1.6x10")x(2%1.6x10™) — (16x10?) =10 B=1.0Wb/m* Bg 1.0x1,6%10" |Resonat Tam 2x3.14x(2x1.6xIl nce frequeney, f= Fn 3x5 14x (2x1.6«10") = 810° c/s =8Me/s W, 4x1.6x10P abe 2g¥ 2x 1.6x10" x50x10° nbethe number of revolutions, ” =Nuclear Reactions ‘When two nuclei come close together, a nuclear reaction can occur that results in nuclei being formed. Nucki are positively charged and the repulsion between them keeps them beyond the range where they can interact unless they are moving very fast. In the sun and stars whose internal temperatures range up to millions of Kelvins, many nuclei present have high enough speeds for reaction to be fequent. In ab tis easyto produce nuclear reactions on a small sce ‘@-particles:on with protons or hicavier nuclei accelerated in| various ways, neutrons by graphite: (a, 2) UC Example: 91 . @ Inelastic scattering: In inelasti scattering, the: same particles are scattered in different eae with target nucleus is left in ah excited sta so that the-frocess can nbe represented as X(x, ye. An example is the collision of fast neutrons with U-238. - (iii) Radiative capture: In radiative capture, the incident particle is'absorbed ox captured by the target nucleus to form the excited compound nucleus which disintegrates to produce one or more y— photons and goes down to the ground state. The process may be represented as X(x,7)Y". Example: 0? + ga! —,, U* (iv) Reaction of transformation: Here the oncoming particle is retained in the nucleus and the compound nucleus emits a different particle so that the product nucleus is different from target nucleus, e.g. *Be(a,n)?C (v) Photo-disintegration: In photo-disintegration, a very energetic photon is absorbed by the target nucleus so that itis raised to an excited state and subsequently disintegrates. It can be represented as X(yy)Y. Example: |H? +y—> |H' +o’, (vi) Stripping reactions: In stripping reactions, one or more nucleons from the projectile are captured bj, the target nucleus, the remaining stripped nucleus is emitted in a different dircetion. Example: y9Cu® + d?—> y.Cu® +, Ht (vii) Direct reactions: A collision of an incident particle with the nucleus may immediately pull one of th nucleons out of the target nucleus and is called ‘pick up reaction’. iH! + Cc’ —> ,d? + 6C? Examp!Nuclear Reactions se @ Conservation in Nuclear reactions: (9 Conservation of mass number (i) Conservation of atomic number (iii) Conservation of energy (including mass-energy) {jv} Conservation of linear momentum (v) Conservation of angular momentum, (vi) Conservation of parity (vii) Conservation of isotopic spin Kinematics of nuclear reactions: Let a particle of mass m, moving along x-axis with a velocity v, collide elastically with a target nucleus of mass M,, at rest, Due to the nuclear reaction, the product sucleus of mass M, is scattered at an angle ¢ with velocity v, and the product particle of m, is emitted with velocity v, at an angle @ ee From the law of conservation of linear momentum along x and y directions, we get interact Mytiy cos$+m,v, cos =m,¥, a on -M,x,sing-+m,y, sin =0 } sated in 2 MG c0s6 mv, ee Or, vy sing =m,vesin 8 nd there ore 38 me state Squaring the above two equations and adding, we obtain eringof 1} = mov? + mv? — 2mm, v,v, 6088 2M, Ky = +2m,K, — K, svi o», Mok Ik, 2m Kh R98 aes Sit elativistically, K = kit nv ; since, non-relativistically, K = kinetic energy = = mv! xT. An » pa m, m, 2 K, =72K,+—2K, -—|mm,K,K, cos0 . My eg, Be 9g, VK, 008 we target : shotons But, Q=K,+K,-K, cample: m, ( 2 = 1+—* |-K,}1-, j—— lm,m,KK, cos o= [iat ) nite mR, mpound This gives the Q-value of the reaction in terms of K,, K, and 0 without involving the kinetic energy of mates the recoil nucleus, K, and the mass M, of target nucleus and is called the standard form of Q-equation m.) If 9 =90°, the Q-expression simplifies to : O=K, ay & I we targe! Yr ented as 1£Qis negative, it gives the minimum value of threshold kinetic energy to be given o the incident particle for an endoergic reaction to proceed in the forward direction ‘tured by, @ Q-value and threshold energy of nuclear reaction: | The law of conservation of energy anvd momentum imposes certain restrictions on the reactions. These | restrictions are called the kinematic restrictions and this mathematical methods is known as kinematics. Consider the muclear reaction re of th x+X— > y+Y ‘Where x, X, y and Y are the bombarding particle, target nucleus, outgoing particle and product nucleusNuclear Reactions ‘respectively, eis assumed that the target nucleus is in rest. Since total energy is conserved in the nuclear reaction, therefore we get, (m,c? +E, )+ Myo? =(B, +m,c*)+(By +Myc?} E,,E, and Ey, are the kinetic energies of respective particles. Now the quantity Q=B, +By~E, = Q=(m, +My -m,~My)c? Where Q is called the Q-value of nuclear reaction. (1£Q is positive, the reaction is said to be exoergic (exothermic) and (ii) 1f Q is negative, the reaction is called endoergic (endothermic). ‘The minimum K.E. required for incident particle (x) to start the nuclear reaction is called the threshold energy (E,)*. The zelation between Q-values and threshold energy is: (a) (P.a)reactions: —- (i) aL? +H! >(4Be®) +, Het +3 Het Gi) B09 +H! (5B) 5 LP 4p Het (9) gf spt +(e)» 40! He! {b) (p-1) Reaction: (0 58" 44H (<0) 96C!+ on! Gil) 4yNa® 5H ( 2Mg) aig”? + on! (0) ag0u sHsp 2a8°) 208+ ga © (p, @) reaction: (i) gli +H! 93 UP + HP @ Proton capture: thermic reactions i,e.'these reaction are spontaneous process. (i gL P +H? (abe?) He? op Het (iv) 58" HH! 9 (, Bo® + Het Gi) 40"? +H > (gF"9} > FF + gn! ie f. psy" 58 Gv) 2a NP? 44H! > (29Cu) 29Cu5? + gn! (usually endoergic) (i gBe® +H! >, Bo® + {He ‘Compound nucleus in excited states come to ground state with +-ray photon, (i) gli? 4H! (482°) Beh 47 Gil) 74 44H! (0°) > Ol +7 i) 6 4H! 9 (sN) > INE ey (iv) oF" 41H! > (sqNe®) > igNo2 +stions nuckar Nuclear Reactions : so oy (9) sgAPT gH! 9 (145F®) > 445 4y (vi) 24075 44H! > (ago!) gehtn® + If incident proton has an energy (> 20 MeV) the compound nucleus has sufficient excitation energy to permit the expulsion of two or more nucleons. (2) Transmutation by Neutrons: Neutrons have no electric charge and can penetrate +vely charged muclei without any experience of repulsive electrostatic force. (a) (n-«) reaction: With slow Neutrons _ ay hreshold ( gli? + ont (gL?) 9H? + Het (ii) 58° + gn! +(58") > U 4p Het (i) ;gAP” + on! ->(s3AP®) > 1)No™ +p He® ) ANY eon oe “) | (vy) 5B Het & Sag Ne? 4p (i) APT ton! [,gAP*) ,.Na% +. 2 Hef followed by Mtoe Mg? Bo () (a, p) reaction Proton ithe ruckus i replaced by ngatron mass no, does not change but change decreases by one unit. (IN + got (NE) o,.c! 4H" +0 followed'by go SN 4D" 4 Emax (ii) gHe* + gn! > (2He") > HP +H! +Q followed by: ji? +, He? +B" +E, (i) 47° + on" + (172°) > ye S* 44H! +0 followed by 458% CP + 8° +Emae With fast neutrons: (i) AP? 49 at (,gAP8) gig? +H! Gi) 495° sont > (5g) gh? + 1H ‘ , y on (iii) 29Cu® +5 n° »(0u") agi gH! (iv) goZn® ton? > (59 Zn®*) nou + HY i (©) (n-7) Reaction: | (@ qH'+ on! »(#) oyHay i) aH + on! > (:H | Product Nucleus is Radioactive: { ggRn"®® + got + (gM) gg RH! vy Gi) gato! + on! of . 5 2 é a y ; P54 ont/ oF Gi) gg? + gr > [sa™*) op UM + Gv) 2nul? + on'/ e- ] >. - Bateron 1 (8) 79 AUS + ont ->{r9Au'%?) > 79 Aut? + j > ieee eeeNuclear Reactions} Nt (@ (n— 4) and (n ~ t) reaction: Bombardment of 90 MeV neutrons: 7N"4 + gn! > ¢ C? 4, H® (© (1 2n) reaction: one neutron captured by nucleus and 2 neutrons are emitted. Q <0 fast neutron are needed . Most cases residue nucleus unstable -followed by positron emission, BC" ont (gC!) C42 on? (i) tok + gn? -+ (19K) 49 K +2 on! Gill) 54Sb"* + gn! (5136) 51 Sb"? 4.2 gn! (O Neutron - Three or more particles: Incident Neutron ~ 30 MeV sufficient energy to oveone coulomb Barrier, 3 neutrons or even 2 neutron and a proton are ejected from compound nucleus, | ‘Neutron (~ 100 MeV) Nuclei with moderate mass no undergo spallation and those of high mass no, | eg. Bi and Pb suffer fission probably accompanied by spallative, © (3) Transmutation by Déiiteronz High energy Denteron, (a) (4-0) reaction : @ gil H? > (aBe*) Site! +H (il) No + H? > (Na?) g F® iv) 12Mg® +H? > (rAP*) “Natta Het, es () 19AP + HP [488] > yo Mg? + 2 Het () (dp) Reaction: ( 6c + (Nt Gi ahi + HP > (480°) > gL + Ht sia’ 4H? (;2Ma?) > 4pNa* + yH! (iv) 45P%%+ JH? (1989) yp PP? GH! Gi (0) 408" + HF (ggin!™®) > gg Cal + Ht (Vi) gaBi2O? + H? > (ggP0?!") > gy BAP + HT © (@=n) Reaction: @ gl + > (.82*) > gBe® tga? Gi) Be +H? (581) > 5 B+ on! (ii) gC"? +H? + (NM) > 7 NE sgn! ‘When two Deuterons Interact both the (d, n) and (4, p) reactions have been obtained. aH HR Hel 5 HPs Hl 402m — He? + on’ +3.25 MeV@ Naclear fission and fusion : Fission and fusion are two processes that alter the nucleus of an atom. Nuclear fission provides the ‘energy in nuclear power plants and fusion is the source of the sun’s energy. The use of fission in power plant can help conserve fossil fitels. Without the energy produced by the fission of hydrogen in the sin, the earth would quickly change into a cold planet that could not support life as we know it ‘Nuclear transformation always obey two fundamental conservation laws | (i) Mass number is conserved | | faa Nuclear Reactions | | st (i) Electric charge is conserved. Energy and mass are not conserved but can be interconverted according to Finstein’s equation. ' B=MC penn © Nuclear fission: : a The process of fission occure when a nucleus spits into smaller pieces. Fission can be induced by aa a nucleus capturing slow moving neutrons, which result in the nucleus becoming very unstable. Ber e @3hp 720 oe The following equation represent fission reactions 25, + ny — 9 "Baye + "KE, + 34a, ™U,, + nyo Tey 4 Zig + In, BY, + Ing — PNG + Ge, + 3m, ™U,, + 'ng—> "Sig + Mog +2'ny © Fusion: Fusion occurs when two nuclei joint together to form a large nucleus. Fusion is brought about by bringing together two or more small nuclei under conditions of tremendous pressure and heat. Deuterium 2B Tritium 2 83 Z 5 oH Fusion reaction Alpha particle, om He 8.Nuclear Reactions } 4, The following equation represent fasion reactions 7H, +H, > *H, +'p, 7H, +H, —> “He, + 'n, *He; + He, —> ‘He, +2'H, * Condition of fusion reaction of heat : ‘Thermal kinetic energy = Coulomb's repulsion 3p. 1 site > {20 4765 tin Cross-section of nuclear reactions (Ctassical): One of the most important parameters in nuclear reactions is the reaction cross-section, symbolised by It is quantitative measure of the probability of occurrence of a nuclear reaction. Let a parallel beam of N monoenergetic particles be incident per unit time normally on a target foilof Per Ut VoluRHE! Now; the number AN of nucle! be proportional to (i) the number of target nuclei contained in the the £0 é Figure: Nuclear reaction cross-section: bombardment of target foil. where n, =n.Ax,, the number of nuclei per unit area of the target foil used. ‘The constant cis called the nuclear reaction cross-section Therefore, nuclear reaction cross-section, | 7 The probability of the incident particle to interact with the target atom will be equal to p= umber of interact particle ~ number of incident particle I¢qN is qumber of interacting particle and N is number of incident particles, thenctions | jjuclear Reactions a@ @ Neutron - Proton Scattering at low energies + Nucleus is a bound system means attractive force exists b/w neutron and proton. In scattering of free neutrons by protons a parallel beam of Neutron is allowed to impinge upon a target containing hydrogen atoms and no. of Neutrons dejected through vatious angles is determined as a function of Neutron energy. olised by} + Since neutron have no charge, they are unaffected by the electrostatic field and their scattering will | directly reflect the operation of nuclear foree. st filof ‘Two kinds of reactions can be involved in Neutron. of nuclei (Scattering 2+: sana 1d @ the (i Radiative Capian 's low probability competing radiative capture reaction decreases with 3 Neutron velocity ‘the chemical binding energy of the proton in a molecule isabout In practice protons are bound in nucle O.1eV. “a et chee eit ‘Thus for neutron energy > 1 €V proton can be assumed free, This sets lower limit the neutron energy. {If the neutron energy is less than 10 MeV, only the S-wave overlaps with the Nuclear potential and scattered. y sti In the centre of mass systems, the Schrodinger equation for the two body (n -p) system is u vag al t Exponential V(0)=-¥ye"*, Gaussion, vi(¢)=—Vyor0" = Yukawa V()=— rT + Ground state of deutron (,D’) Deutron is a single two nucleon (one P and One n) bound system which is found in nature, The important experimental determinal properties about deutron are given below: (@ The B.E. of deutron/nucleon is very small compare to other nuclei i. it is a weakly system, (i The ground state spin of deutron 1, =1 (ii) The ground state parity of deutron = even (+) (js) The quadrupole momento of deutron (Q,} 0 () The magnetic moment of déditton jsighlly diffrent from the sui of intrinsic mag, moments of neutron + protonie. (t0+%) o3g_ & 3p states in which (L=0) “(L ‘These factor represents that the ground state of Deutron is a mixture | \ I L 3 contribution is 96% and 2 .contiibution is only 4%. This indicate that nuclear force are non-central a8 L.# constant and they are spin dependent. In deutron both p and n have spin parallel to each other. + Schrodinger wave equation for Deutron:and its solution for central force (L = 0): As deutron is a bound system, let us consider the Case of rectangular pot. well represented as eb vi O u~™%4(m, ~m, =M ) For ¢=0. We get, ez]actions Nuclear Reactions ure, The . ) ‘Suton in which | Soln. nent. In das 2 Soin. IM as Bis very smal, then an approximate solution of equation is obtained as oot f+ (Vp > ex [vb cn 4.000%. ‘Vy ~25 MeV is obtained by putting b is 2x10 m The exact solution of equation (9) is obtained by graphical method in which Vo,, ~ 38 MeV Solved Example: ‘The threshold temperature above Which the thermonuclear lex} HeSVE [GATE 2005] (a) 1.28 * 10° K © “(b) 1.28 & (@) 1.28 x10°K IT be the threshold temperature o' 3 det fy 7 ce a eigee % GeO 1.610 J 2. Amt 44x10 1,610" Fadl =2x12x10%(3)" = 3 1.38x10 x2.4«1:44%105 k=1.38x10™ kgm? sec? K* =1,28%10°K Correct option is (a) The energy released inthe fission of 1 kg uranium (approximately [in Joule): IGATE 2008} (a) 10" (6) 10” 10% (@ 10” ‘We know that binding energy per nucleon of uranium is 7.6 MeV and binding energy per nucleo of daughter nucleon is 8.5 Therefore, energy released from 1 kguranium 6.02310” =(8.5-7.6)x 235% x10°x1.6x10" =10" Joule Correct option is (a). Tnanuclearreactor, Plutonium {3 Pu) is used as fuel, releasing energy by its fission into isotopes of Barium (Ba) and Strontium (33Sr) through the reaction [TIFR 2011) Pu + yn > {Ba + YSr + 3xqn ‘The binding energy (B.E.) per nucleon ofeach of these nuclides is given in the table below :Soln. Soln, Soln. Soln. Nuclear Reactions 5 Nudlide | 2Pu | "Ba | 8Sr BE por nudeon (Mev) | 76 [82 [86 Using ths information, One can estimate the number of such fission reactions per second ina 100 MW reactor as (@) 3.910" () 7.810" (©) 5.2«10" (@)5.2x10" (©) 8.910" Energy released from one platoniumis = (8.2%1468.6x91~7.6x239) MeV =1197.2+782.6-1816.4 I =163.4 MeV | =163.4x1.6x10 joule Let N be number of fission that to be place within second. Then i 8 Nx163.4x1.6510 i ls _ 100108 | = 163.431,6%1 Correct option is (a) Consider the process j/* +" > xt +7. The minimum Kiteti¢ energy ofthe muons (1) inthe centre of mass frame required to produce the pion (7) pairs at rest is MeV. [GATE 2014] (Given: m, =105 MeV le? mi, =140 MeV le? ) % According to energy conservation rule S« (KE. +restmass energy)parent = (KB. + restmiass energy) daughter => (KE), .,%2=0+(M, ~M,)x2 => (KE) pags = (140-105) = 35 MeV Ie? ‘The atomic masses of ' Eu, "5m, }H andneutron are 151.921749, 151.919756; 1.007825 and 1.008665 in atomic mass units (anu), respectively. Using the above information, the Q-value of the reaction "2 eu + n— 25m + pis x10" amu (upto three decimal places) [GATE 2015} O= (Mo, +M,)—(Min + M,) =(151.921749+ 1.008665) -(151.919756 + 1.007825) = 2.833 x10° amu. Correct answer is (2.833) Caleulate the energy generated in MeV when 0.1 kg of Lis converted to ‘He by proton bombardmert Given: masses of "Li, ‘He and 'H in a.m.u, are 7.0183, 4,0040 and 1.0081 respectively. jLi+ {H=2 3He+Q 1 Masses of the reactants = (7.0183 + 1.0081) amu. = 8.0264 amu, Masses of the products = (24,0040) a.mu, = 8.0080 a.mu. Therefore, Difference 0.0184 amu,clear Reactions Therefore, energy liberated when 7.0183 kg of Li are converted to He is 0.0184 kg. For 0.1 kg of Li, therefore, the amount of energy liberated is pn oO yg = O1x0.0184, (3,08)! yn 03%8, oleae lO MeV =14.74x10 MeV 7.0183 7.0183 7.0183x1.6%10 Caleulate the binding energy in MeV of He from the following data: Mass of He of tH = 1.008145 amu, and mass of @ neutron = 1.008986 a.m.u. ‘A‘ifeenucleus consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons ‘viass of (2 protons + 2 neutrons) 2(1.008145 + 1.008986) a.m.u. 4.034262 amu. Mass of He-nucleus = 4.003875 a.m.u. .003875 a.m.u; mass ‘Therefore, Mass difference = 0,030387 amu. Binding energy = 0.030387 a.m. « c? = (931%0,030387) amu. = 28.29 MeV Calculate the threshold energy for the nuclear reaction “N(n, «.) "'B in MeV. (14,007550 + 1.008987) a.m,u: = 15,016537 a.m.u. (4.003879 + 11.01.2811) amu, = 15.016690 a.m.u. ‘Masses of reactants: Masses of produc ‘Thesefore, Q=(15.016537 =15.016690) a.sn.u, = 0.000153 a.in.u M(n) MN) 0.000153*931 MeV = -0.14Mev. \ 1 =0.14{ 14 1:008987 =0.14( 1+ -}Mev =0.15 Mev (re geet ev onal 3) . It Find the amount of energy in joule released during the process in which 0.001 kg of radium is converted {nto lead (masses: ™ Ra = 226.0955 a.m.u., ® Pb = 206.0386 a.m.u, and &~ particle =4.003 a.m.u.) Inthe conversion of 1 atom of ”*Ra into 1 atom of Pb, Sa~particles are emitted in all, Initial mass of "Ra = 226.0955 amu, Final mass of “Pb = 206.0386 amu. Therefore, Difference in masses Mass of 5a.—particles = 26.0150 amu. ‘Therefore, Mass converted into energy = 0.0419 amu, This is equivalent to an energy (0.0419 931) a.m.u, or 39 MeV (for | atom) 23107 Now, 0.001 kg (= 1 g) of radium contains S2sz10 Ra-atoms 7 0407 39x 1.6108 Therefore, Total energy released, = £.923*10" X39 yoy = S020 ASIEN GHIO aun 226 226 - =16.63x10° J The Q-values in MeV of the following three reactions Ha? H H+ Hs TH4PH > 3H fn and }H— jHe +P" ‘Are 4.031, 3,265 and 0.0185 amu. respectively. Calculate the mass difference between the neutron and the hydrogen atom from these data.Soln. i. Soln. 12, Soin, = Nuclear Reactions We have: Q, =4.031 MeV =(mass of 2;H—mass of {H—mass of {H) xc? Q, =3.265 MeV =(mass of 27H—mass of 3H-mass of jn) xc Q, =0.0185 MeV =(mass of A —mass of 3He)xc? ‘The mass of B~ is too small to be taken into account and has been neglected > Q,-Q, +, = (mass of fn—mass of }H)xe? ‘Therefore, Mass difference between neutron and H-atom is thus Q-Q) +Q, =(4.031-3.265 + 0.0185)x931.5 MeV = 0.7845 MeV ‘Mass difference = 0.7845 /931 a.m.u.= 0.000842 amu, Calculate the Q-values of the following two reactions () FH+? H— $He+ bn and (i) oe Given M(?H)=3.0169982, My) = M(¥ N) =14,003074, (Zo) the reaction is exoergic or endoergi ‘We have Q=(mass of reacti Here, am=[{w(*H .0188784 amu, = Q=0.0188784x931.43 MeV =+17.57 MeV. Reaction is exoergic. (ii) Here, am =[{M( He) iM ("N)}-|M(0)+M("44)}] =[ (4.003872 +14.003074) —(16.999133 + 1.007825) Jamu, = (18.0006946~-18,006958)a.m.u.=~0.000012 a.mu. . | = 0.000012 x 931.48 MeV = -0.11178 MeV So, the reaction is endoergic. Assume that 4 hydrogen nuclei are used to form a helium nucleus in the sun to provide the total energy to it, Calculate (i) the energy released when { gm-atom of hydrogen is fused to helium, (i) how much hydrogen is to be converted to helium in the sun per second, given: mass of hydrogen nucleus ~ 1.00813 a.mu, mass of He-nucleus = 4.00386 a.m.u, solar constant = 1.39 kW.1n?. earth-sun distance = 1.5>20*km and there is no other loss in the energy sadiated by the sun. (i) Mass of H-nucleus = 1.00813 a.m.u; Mass of He-nucleus = 4.00386 amu, Therefore, Mass difference on fusion = (4*1.00813 — 4.00386) a.m.u. = (4.03252 4.00386) a.m. ~ 0.02866 amu. Therefore, Energy released = 0.02866x931 MeV = 26.68 MeV. This amount is released due to fusion of 4 H-atom into helium.ons | Nuclear Reactions 43. 3832, also if | Soln. 14, ergy (0) droges) ums} vd there) 15. ‘Therefore, Energy released due to fusion of | gm-atom of 8 = (26.68 x 6.02 x 10*/4) MeV = 40.15 x10 MeV Gi) Energy released on fusion of 4 H-atom, E = 0.02866 a.m.u.xc? = 0.02866 1.66 *10" kg = 0.02866 x1.66 x10 x(3x1087 J = 4.28x10°" J Therefore, Energy released per H-atom = (4.28*10-"/4)I = 1.07x10°" J 2 Total energy radiated per sec. from the sun = 35x10? x4nex(L sx10") =3.82x10" J 3.82%10 8 ee STAI ‘Therefore, number of H-atom required Therefore, required mass of hydrogen = 3.57 x10" x1.00813x1.66x10 kg =5.97x10" ke Consider the nuclear reaction N'*(a.,p)O'7. Mass of neutral atoms are given to be 007825 a.m.u. _..gHe'= 4,002603..m.u. 4.003074 mu, determine the Q.value ofthe reaction in Me. NM He’ > H'+,07 Reaction, Key 5 OY ~My ~m, Jc? = -(0,001279 amu.) ¢? =-0,001279x931.5 MeV a But My | 535.494 MeV my+My—m, | Complete the following Nucleat Reactions (i) 170° +? -> 498+ 2He® (Ans. +H") (i) 5B'° +7 Li? + pHe* (Ans. on’) (ii) gUP +9 > B07 + ya’ (ans. 4?) (iv) 1gAPT + gn! aha"? +? (Ans. (H"), (0) 4B0" + aHet 2+ on! (Ans. gC!) (vi ah? +proton apatite + 7 (Ane, «pantie He) (vii) Deuteron + Deuteron > proton +? (Ans—trilum, H) Complete the following disintegration reaction by substituting the proper nuclide or particle for the question mark in each case. © 148??(n.p)? (iD) 3 (p, 7)? (ili) 4gAP” (asp)? (iv) 11Na?9(p,?) 4g Ne* (v) 13A7(7, a) Na’ (vi) 5BY° (2.4) LY (vit) 18294, 2),.Ma™* + AP> Gi) gBe® — Gil) 8°" Civ) 2He* (©) on" (Vi) on" (Vi) gn? Complete the following Reactions- Nuclear Reactions Nt Soln. 17. Soln, 18. (@ H! (, ) 2Gi) Li? (p, 2) Be? iii) N42, p) O'7 iv) 2(n,p) Na%# $0 (i) yt? GD ga, Gil) Het and (iv) yyMg™ An a-patticle with KE, T, =7.0 MeV is scattered elastically by an initially stationary L# nucleus. Find the KE. of the recoil nuclers if the angle of divergence of the two particles is @ = 60° Initial momentum of a — particle is J2mT, 7 Final momenta are respectively B, and Fy. Conservation of momentum reads Batbu=V2nTai => po +pfi+2pgpyicosd=2mT, (1) Where 9 is the angle between p, and fx; 2 Energy conservation: Pa. 21 ‘Where, m= So oii, M | Thus we write , 544] am! | oh 5 Hence Recoil energy of Li nucleus is apy. ; 1p Mot ‘4m : 2 Putting, 0=120°, we get recoil energy of Li = 6 MeV. Write missing symbols, denoted by x in the following nuclear reaction: ( s (a) 8° (x, ajBe® +B" (d,a)Be® (b) of? (4.n)x 07 (GnjFB (c) Na% (p, x)Ne? + Na® (p, a)Ne*? (A) x{p. nar? > CFT (p, ajar?” of the coal with calorific value of 30 ki/g is thermally equivalent to the magnitude obtained? Reaction is H +H? Het 4a | What amount of heat is berated during the formation of one gram of Het from Deuterium B°? What mass) | { Q = 24, 2 - Aye’ = (0.02820 — 0.00260)c?~ (0.02560 amujc? = 23.8 MeV. 23 Hence the energy released in the 1gm of Het is © 02810 <238x16 0210" SJouie = 6.75% 108s A 875x108 a is enarp: ¢ S510" g = 1.9109 of coal This energy can be derived from “7° kg a Making use of the tables of atomic masses, determine the energies of the following reaction. (a) Littp. ay Bet (b) Be? (n, 1) Be"? (c) Li? (a n)8" (d) 0° (4, aN"tions nd the Nuclear Reactions Soln. al. Soln, 2. Soln, 23 Sola, ©) L? ©, n) Bel Bnergy of reaction is Q= (Mz +My,7 C+ (Mp -My)C* = (tui, ~8, 7 JC? 85 de = [0.01601 + 0,00783 ~ 0.01693 = 0.00867) arnu x o? = ~1.64 MeV. (b) Be? (n1)Be"®: Mass of y is taken as zero. O=(Mo +m, Mao) = 681 Mev. (©) UM (an)Bt0:0=(4, 7 +4 Aq ~8y10 =~ 2.79 Mev @ OF ,a)n't:0= (16 +85 — be ~ aie? 4949 +8 ~4y,10 }0°= ( 0.01219 + 0.00867 — 0.01354 ) amu x c? (0.01601 + 0.00260 — 0,00867 — 0.01294 ) amu * c? = ( 0.00509 + 0.01416 - 0.00260 — 0.00307 ) amu x c? = 3.11 MeV Find the velocity with which the products of the rea ‘ia intetaction of very slow. B'°(n, a)Li” come apart; the reaction proceeds Since the incident neatron is very slow and Bis stationary , the fel iota ‘momentum mast also be Zero. So the reaction preucls must emerge in opposite ction their speeds are respectively, Va and V;; then 4V, 274, and - Maverrvg)sterae1 Se, pre(nd) 21030! 2 = Vii=53 x 10% msec. Protons striking a stationary Lithium: target activate a reaction Li! (p,n)Be! . At what value of the proton KE. can the resulting neutron be stationary? Q= ~1.64 Mev, Conservation of Momentum: Pp =Pae(since Initial Li and final neutron are both at rest) 0 Hence, Tp = 52 =Tc.64 Me =4.21Me¥ 5 A.beam of proton (of a certain energy) equivalent to a current of 1.6 mA is incident uniformly on a 5 {arget containing 1922 atom per nf. SO that the following reaction take places, p+*° Fe-—>n +" Co {fctoss section for the reaction is 1 bam, Calculate the number of neutrons produced per sec. Ferp—s C940 Given: I= 1.6 mA =1.6x107 A : ne ' Since, q=ne = —-=i > 45 Number of incident particle per unit time is No="Nuclear Reactions | No. of particle which interact with target is Ny ~N'=Ng ~Nye"™ =No {1-e-™} where, nx=10" atom per m’. 16 fet} 10% = => Np-N=10'6J1-e (J }=10" = Number of neutron produced per second. 24. A16 wA beam ofa particle having cross-sectional area of 10“ m? is incident ona Rh target of thickness 1 um. This produces neutrons through the reaction a+ !Rh-—> Pd+3n (1) Number of a particle hitting the target per second is: (a) 0.5x10"* (b) Ix10"* (©) 2x10” (@ 4x10” n_ i l6x10* 4 16x10 95x10 soln 20” 2x1.6x10™ 25. Consider the decay process +7,7>a7+-y,in-the rest-frame of the-+2s The masses of t°, 7 and v, are Hol, and zero respectively. Soln, Kinetic energy ~ of Where Q=[m,-m, = 25 Kinetic energy = ~(m, —m, a The energy of x” is E, = Kinetic energy + rest mass energy nan + mee? a nite? aE mgt Ce 2m, 2m, 26. Ata centre-of:mass energy of 5 MeV, the phase describing the elastic scattering of @ neutron bya | certain nucleus has the following values, 5, = 30°, 5, =10°. Assuming all other phase shifts to be negligible, plot do /dQ as. function of scattering angle. Explicitly calculate do /dQ at 30°, 45° and | 90°. What is the total cross section ¢? oe ; | io By oe Soln. ‘The differential cross section is given 35 =| IY. (2¢+1)e™ sin8,P, (cos) Supposing only the first and second terms are important, we have dol p er 0 sind, + 3¢ sin 6, cos 0) {{(cos8, sins +3cos6, sin8, ens®)+i(sin*8, +3sin® 6, cos6) 1 7 1 -2 [ sin? 8, + 9sin” 5, cos? 6+ 6sin 6, sin, c08(8, 85 )cos0 |ions Nuclear Reactions = 1 [os +0.27c0s" 0+ 0.49050] K where ‘k’ is the wave number of the incident neutron in the centre of mass frame. Assume that the mass of the nucleus is far larger than that of the neutron m,, Then B PE __2x938x: 2 1 2M 2MTE ISAS 10 (heh 197? x10 4x10" m> 30° 45° 90° 180° 2d a0 10% (om?) 42 37 30 10 0 do a kK 1 088 0.73 02S 0 ‘The total cross section is: ¥, are 27. Neutrons of 1000 eV kinetic energy are incident on a section is 400x10-24 cm’ what upper “and lower limits | section? : Sol. At 1 keV kinetic energy, imaginary part for inelastic a and =150 fin h fic n =e _- For E = 1000 eV, V?HE \/2u0*E exqgxo40x10" 13 mk = 70710 cm” a ae 2_ oj, _ 400x10* = H00K10 = 0.566 mh? 70710 VI-0566 =0.659 > 240.659 2 Hence, the elastic cross section ¢, = 0X"|e%* =i has maximum and minimum values (0,),,,, =707 x10 (-0.659-1) = 194610 om? (65) ig = 707 10 (-~-0.659-1)° = 82x10" cm?28. Nuclear Reactions Disregarding nucleon spin, set a lower bound on the elastic center of mass proton-neutron forward differential cross-section. ‘The forward p-n differential cross section is given by = ={F(0)P =fime (0)? -(Koy} where the relation between Imf(0) and o, is given by the optical theorem. As k= p/h we have 2 do| pe) _(10*x40x107” ) =| 2 eS a (he) anx197x10™) ™ 6x10 cm? = 2.6 bam—>=————_—_ ans | Nuclear Reactions aaa tial 1. Typical energies released ina nuclear fission and a nuclear fusion rection are respectively: (@) 50 MeV and 1000 MeV (b) 200 MeV and 1000 MeV (© 1000 MeV and 50 Mev (@ 200 MeV and 10 MeV 2. "Anatomic bomb consisting of *U explodes and release an energy of 10"J. It isknown that each"U which, undergoes fusion release 3 neutrons and about 200 MeV of energy. Further, only 20% of the™"U atomsin the bomb undergo fission. The total number of neutrons released is about: (a) 4.7 x 10% (b) 9.7 x 10" (©) 1.9 10% (4) 3.7 108 3. The condition for spontaneous fission of amucleus is : 2 z 4 Zz a) —<50 <>45 So 4s Seas (a) im OF OX Oz 4. Muons are produced through the annihilation of particle a and its antiparticle, namely the process avd pt +po- A mnidi has 6 105°MeW/e% and iis proper life time is 2us. Ifthe center of mass energy of t boratory frame that coincides with the center-of mass frame, then the fraction af muons. els lecay ie fey reach a a detector placed 6km away from the interaction point is @e! @et 5. Aspine1/2 particle Iadergoes ibe decay AsSs"B C4 Dwhere ils known that B and C are also spin- 12 particles. The complet set of allowed vues of he spin ofthe particle D is des eed eal seas 0) 0.1" £@ 5 only. O pyr "ANSWER KEY Questions 1 z 3 a 3 ‘Option @ (bl (e) @ @Elementary Particles Introduction : It is a dream for physicists to be able to explain the material world, the physical universe entirely. This has driven them continuously to explore the fundamental entities of matter was atom then nucleus, neutron and protons and now the quarks, In this present.ch awe will: about all elementary particle their spin charge, isospin, mass ete. Scenes : : Classification of elementary particles: ‘The elementary particles tay be class interaction, statistics etc. Commonly, however, ‘a number of different ways depending on their masses, ave classified into such categories as Elementary particles Photon Laptons Hadrons (i electrons (i) electrons-neiting Gi) aon iv) muon neutrino (tau (3) tay-newsino OO ‘Mesons, Batyons (i)Pions (+0) ————___ (ii) Kaons (+0) (ii) reson ‘Nucleons “Hyperons () proton () Lambda (4% Gi) neutrons sigma) Gi) xi €*) Gvjomegater)S + | Elementary, Particles = “Some elementary particle and their properties: Category | Particles | Symbols | Charge] Spin] B | L | s bly Quark structure Name taptons [Electrons | = | 1 | % [O])ajo 0 Electron |v, o | x-Jojijo 0 neutrino |“ Mouns | w- _| -1 | % |olilo 0 Moun |v, e {x folilfo 0 I Neutrino Tauons |= a [%[ofilo 0 Tauons | y, o | x Jo}alo 0 Neutrino Mesons | Pions [ q* | 4 | 0 | 0 This ° o }o stron spin a 0 — 0 0 Nucleons [Protons |" P ape palo Neutron. | “on o | % |afo Hyperons | Lambda’ |" 42 % pr lo Sema [os [a pe fa fe 5 o-|%* [alo yf} a | * |alo Y Xi z o | [ayo i = a y% lito . | Omega | or Eifel ese |8a8 0 © Conservation laws in elementary particle reactions: + Exact conservation laws: ( Conservation of linear momentum (ji) Conservation of angular momentum (iii) Conservation of charge (iv) Conservation of baryon number (¥) Conservation of lepton number Approximate conservation laws: (i Isospin or isotopic spin): Itarose however from the idea that pairs of particles like nucleons and triplets like pions hardly differ in their mass and may be considered as isotopes and that their charges, differing from each other by unity, suggest space qunatization similar to electron spin and orbit in a magnetic field. A multiplet number (M) is defined as the number of their different charge states, For instance, for nucleons i. protons or neutrons - the multiplet number M = 2. Similarly, for the triplet of pions, M =3;M=2 for two kaons and two antikaons; M = 1 for one neutral 1° Now, M=2I+1 9 => I=(M-1)/2Elementary Particles + Isospin is treated as a vector T of magnitude «/I(1+1), like angular momentum, but Iis dimensionless, Its component along Z-axis, is given by I, which have the allowed values. L(I-1),(I-2),.. -1 ae + For nucleons (M=2),1=(M— Ia=5 and the values of [, are +yand-3; +5 is assigned 1 to neutron. to proton, I + For pions (M=3),1=(M-1)/2=1. Hence, I, = +1,0,-1.1,=+1 is assigned to n*,1, =0 to x” and 1, =—lto x + Isospin is conserved in strong interactions but is violated in electromagnetic and weak interaction. ‘The Z-component of isospin, [,- is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interaction and not in weak interaction. : iultiplet. ‘the hypercharge is conser remains invariant. But Example: p+p > A°+K° 4p +n" Hypercharge: 141=0414140. ii) Strangeness number (8): B. AY=0 is delned asthe diference ofthe pe ey and the baryon number S=Y-B | S'¥=S4B ie., the hyperchange is the sum of the baryon number and the strangeness number BLS Therefore, Q= +> + Strangeness number § is conserved in strong and electromagnetic reactions. For a weak interactions, | AS=Oortl (ivyParity: When particle like neutrions are emitted during radioactive decay, they show a preferred spin direction, Ifa neutrino spins in the direction at which a right-handed screw advances, it is said to posses ahelicity +1; if however the spin is inthe direction of a left-handed screw, the helicity is -1. As the parity P is, i ly related to the spin J, the two quantum nunnbers are usualy combined and is symbolised by F. So, ( i L ay ] means the J-value is Sand P=+1; (J indicates I= 5,P =I y |icles ress. But amber tions, Elementary Particles Oo 9 Neutino ‘Ant Neutino @ ) Figure: Helicity of neutrino and antineutrino Instrong and electromagnetic interactions, parity is conserved but itis not conserved in weak interaction. () Charge conjugation: Charge conjugation means reversal ofthe sings of al types of charge ie. electric, baryonic and kptonic of the particles (Figure below). [fa physical law holding for particles also holds for corresponding, antipatticles, the principle of charge conjugation is said to be valid. Br) Br z ® CO) 7 BQ GO we Beare: fsa ‘of proton,‘antiproton and neutron, ‘antineutron by charge conjugation Steong and electromagnetic interactions are charge Conjugate invariant, But the weak intervation like B~decay does not obey charge conjugation (vi) Tiene reversal: The operation T ice, time-reversal meaiss replacing the time ‘t” by -t in all equations of motion ic., reflection of time axis af the origin of time coordinate in relativistic space-time continum. Iti thus, like the parity operation, a discrete change. ‘Toperation consists in reversing the signs of momenta ( = df /dt) and angular momenta (I= 7B). T abo transforms the wave function to its complex conjugate. If “T” is conserved ie, time-reversal invariance occurs, then the reversed equation of motion is also a valid equation of mation of the system concerned. All the known fundamental equations of motion are invariant in time-reversal Strong and electromagnetic interactions are invariant under time-reversed transformation. @ CPT Theorem: This is an exact conservation law. It states that all interactions in nature are invariant under joint operations of charge conjugation (C), inversion of space coordinates at origin, ie. parity (P) and reversal of time (T). The order of operations is immaterial. ‘The invariance of CPT transformation implies that if any interaction is not invariant under any one of C,P and T operations, its effect gets compensated by the joint effect of the other two.ree a Elementary Particles © Conserved quantities in different type of reactions: Conserved Quantities ‘Strong Hlectromagnetic Weak 1. Charge ce 2. Linear Mom. 3. Relativistic En 4, Spin [5.Le 6.Lu 7.Li 8. Baryon No. B 9.Te 10.1 i.S 12. Y=B+S 13, Parity (P) 14. Charge conjugation 15, Time reversion (T) 16. P 17. CPT KKK KK KKKKKKKKRKKK xhcfdehe eK K, KEKICK KK» @ — Meson Octate: See SEH, FID = 0, 1-1 1,11 [ Qt G0 © Baryon Octate: Spin 2 12—=—__—_ les Elernentary Particles ‘@ Relationship between particles and antiparticles: (@) Mass, > Same (b) Spin + Same (©) Charge > Same but opposite in sign, (@ Mag. moment => Same in magnitude but opposite in sign. (©) Mean life time of free decay > Same (® Anniniation + Inpairs (g) Creation > — Inpairs Qh) Total isotopic spin same (@ Third component of isospin(1,) > Same in mag. but opposite in sign. (Intrinsic parity ~» Same for bosons and opposite for Fermions. (k) Strangeness g.No. (8) > Same in mag. but opposite in sign. () Lepton no. (L) —+ Same in mag, but opposite in sign. (m) Baryon no. (B) > Same in mag. but opposite in sign. (ni) Hypercharge (¥), =* __ Same in mag, but opposite in sign. ‘The particle and Antiparticl antipatice “The negative solution of Schrodinger equation is also possible. But Dirac said that all the negative energy states are already filled, If electron given enough energy it can come out the filled negative state to positive energy. The vaccent state in negative energy behaves like holes -» antiparticles © Quark Model: The elementary particles can be conceived (as far as isospin and hyper charge are concerned) as being built out of combination of quarks. The original three quarks were called up (Symbol u), down (d) and strange (9) \ Each quarks has an anti-quark associated with it (7,d/,5)). Since a quark and its anti-quark have opposite quantum numbers. They can be created from energy. In the reverse process, a quark and its anti-quark annihilate and give energy. Thus, energy —> w+ w d+ d > enesgy Quark models for proton and antiproton. dy aq @ B ee © ~ Q (uud) T end)Se Ss Elementary Particles Coloured Quark: Quarks and antiquarks have an additional property of some kind that can be manifested in a total of six different ways, rather as electric charge is a property that can be manifested in the two different ways that have come to be called positive and negative. In the case of quarks, this property became known as colour and its three possibilities were called red, green and blue. The antiquark colours are antired, antigreen and antiblue. According to the’ colour hypothesis, all three quarks in a baryon have different coiours which satisfies the ‘exclusion principfe since all are then a different states even if two or three are otherwise identical ‘The rules for combining colours are the following: + Acolour and its anticolour cancel out. This is called colourless or white. + All three colours or all three anticolours in combination cancel out and give colourless « All hadrons are colourless, Mesons consists of a quark-antiquark pair of a particular colour and its anticolour. Baryons are made up of three quarks, one of each colour. Thus mesons and baryons are white or colourless. Charm Bottom and TOP Quarks: Besides the three quarks (u, d, s) three more quarks are suggested in order to have a significant analysis of the symmetries. These are charm (c), top (#) and bottom (b). ‘Thus over all there are six quarks. The-various characteristics of these are given in the following table: [Quark 11h [easqr Jo GC] ETB. T | Mass (GeV) | ww jiais2j17a)o lis [2/3-J4[o]-0}0)0 039 | Down(d) | 1/2 j=ar2 |/3. o [173 1=173F [of @ [0 |a[: = 039 Sirange(s) (0 [0 |1/3)=1|~273|=i1B[ 4 lo] 0 0 [0 |~. 051 | Charme) |o [0 1/3 /0.]173 [2/3 Pel VT] 1 ojo) ass [Tei Je jo 73/0 (173, | -173| 4] 0] 0 [0 [1 34 | | Booms) [0 [0 [1/3013 [2/3 [*} 0] o-]1 [0 | @ Few examples of particle quark structure: K, Kt usm =u, n° & n°. may be ull and dd = Flute) parity = n= lua parity =41 x sud; Ko= n=udd; p = uud Ev =sdd; E* = suu;= 4° and 2° may both be sud y = plod sud) —> parity = +1 1 a= lot sud )-— parity_ Elementary Particles ted wo Baryon Resonances : aty urs I B Ss Structure % I 0 1 uuu the — ST % 1 0 1 uud 2 ¥% udd 2 x uuus 2. up 1 uds ted 1 das »). 1 dds “ uss dss 388 The four fundamental foree: Innature, there are four different types of fundamental interactions; They are 1, The gravitational force : : The gravitational force is the oldest known force. It holds us to the surface of the earth and holds the entire 1 unverse together, It is a long-range force varying as ~y. It has life time 0" sec. 2. The electromagnetic force: The electromagnetic force was the Second force known. In fact it was originally two forces the electric force \ and magnetic fosce “The electromagnetic force hold the atoms, molecules, solid and liquid together. It is also 1 Jong rang force varying as y. It bas a life time, x= 10" seg 3. Weak interaction fore: This fundamental interaction involves leptons and bedrons. The /? decay af radioactive nuclei and decays of strong particles are typicaly of weak interaction. It has a life time, t= 107° see 4. Strong interaction force : The strong nuclear force is responsible for holding the nucleons together. It isthe strongest of all the forces but is a very short range force. Its effect occur within a distance of about 10°" m. The strong nuclear acts only on the hadrons. Ithas a life time, t= 107° sec. Kinematics of high energy collisions (Relativ Many elementary particles are the product of high energy collision. We shall now study the kinematics of such collision, restricting to those that result in the production of two product particles only, But it can be easily generalised. For compactness, we shall use a system of unit where the light velocity a would be taken as unity, ie. = 1, so that mc is denoted is denoted by the mass m, the energy pe momentum p ete,Elementary Particles ‘Let us take reaction A+, > At A (1) ‘The concervation principles of energy and momentum WW =W4M, -@ And RrR=R+P -Q) where W's represent total energies and P’s the momenta of the individual particles. Using relatvistis relations for diferent particles, we get W} = Ps M3 =1,2,3,. A} From relativisty again the total energy WV and the components of momentum vector P constitute a four vector =(W,P) and these scalar aa P,P, in 4-space is an invariant at a particular time, P,P, =W* — P* = invariant 6) PP being the square of 344 -momentum yeeto ic enetgy 7, ofthe incident particle 4, is 1, =W,-m =P =m, Therefore, from (8), we obtain the relation, (PP Yay = (Vere md +m) 28 an tnd + In{ vn =n} 842m, (7) =(m,+m,) +2mq, ‘Threshold energy: Atthe threshold, 4, and 4, are produced with zero momentum, ie. we then have 2 = R= @ using (8) (PP) eo =(m,+m,)° (9) Substituting m, = m, +m, and m, = m,-+m, and exploting the invariance property we get from (8) and (9) ony + mT, = mi; mi —m)/2m, | (10) ‘Again, Q= value of the reaction is given by Qe msm, — (i)ctor ® 10) Elementary Particles Threshold energy, ww (12) 1. Non-Relativistic collision: Hence, Q <<, (or m,) so, from (12) We obtain SEE 1. The interaction potential between to quarks, separated by'a distance r inside a nucleon be described by (@, b and b are positive constants) e [GATE 2006] (@) ac" (o) S46 (St @s Soln. Insider the mucleus potential vary fike Saxon-woods mode. Only option (3) give this type of variation v(r) a Sob > ri ue 7 1 1 90,r(n) a0 r30,r(n)>0 Correct option is (¢) 2. The strange baryon 3 has the quack structure: [GATE 2007] (@)uds (md ()uus (@uss Son, 2* (uus) Correct option is (c)3. Soln, Soin, Soln. Soln, Elementary Particles The isospin and the strangeness of Q~ baryon are (GATE 2011] @lL (b) 0,3 ()1,3 (@) 0,3 a Strangeness, 7 M~ Isospin I= Correct option is (b) The isospin (1) and baryon number (B) of the upquark is [GATE 2013] @ 1=1,B=1 ®I=LB=18 ©1=12,B=) @I=i2,8=18 L Baryon number of upquark is 5 1 Isospin number of upquark is Sa Correct option is (d) AK meson (with a rest mass. rest mass of 106 MeV) approximately (@) 120 MeV According to energy conservatic The energy of the massless parti E, (Se pert ’ Correct option is (b) Consider the following reaction involving elementary particles: {TIER 2015} (A) w+ pK +3 (®) K+p>K +p" Which of the following statements is true for strong interactions ? (a) (A) and ®) are both forbidden (b) (B) is allowed but (A) is forbidden (©) (A)isallowed but (B) is forbidden (@) (A) and (B) are both allowed (A) 4 pK + Et Q:-1 13-141 AQ=0 spinzd+ta0 +t As=0 rs 2 L:0 0 30 0 BO 140 41v) 3] Elementary Particles Soin. Soln, a B) K+ p3K- +p" Q:-1 5-141 AQ=0 spin:0-+5 0 +0 As#0 Therefore, (A) and (B) both are forbidden. The decay 1:* > e* + y is forbidden, because it violates [GATE 2015] (@momentumand lepton number conservations (6) baryon and lepton number conservations (©) angular momentum conservation (@ leptonnumber conservation woetty Li-l>-1 AL=0 B:Q50 AB=0 Since momentum, lepton, banyon number Correct option is () [JEST 2015] isnot conserved Since positron and eesgn fli slap nope distin Therefore, angular momen- ‘um remain conserved in left hand side. ‘Therefore, angular momentum is not conserved. Therefore, correct option is(c). Consider the decay of a pion into a muon and an anti-neutrind n° > 1+ ¥,, in the pion rest frame. hg = 139.6 MeV fc, m, =105.7 MeV fc”, m, =. The energy (in MeV) of the emitted neutrino, to the nearest integer is_ ~ [GATE 2013] According to energy conservation, E,+E,2M,C According to momentum conservation, 0=2, +P, =P =-P. PIC? +MjC* 9.7 MeV.=30 MeVSe 10. Soln. i. Soln, 1. Soin, 1B. 4 Soln, = Elementary Particles The nucleus of the atom *Be, consists of {GATE 2003] (@) 13 up quarks and 13 down quarks (b) 13 up quarks and 14 down quarks (©) 14 up quarks and 13 down quarks (@ 14 up quarks and 14 down quarks ’ Be, Protons, P>4 4(utw+d) Neutrons 235 {utd+d) Therefore, number of up quarks = 13 Number of quarks = 14 Therefore, correct option is (b) Choose the particle with zero Baryon number from the list given below. [GATE 2004) @ pion (6) neutron (© proton @s Alf Baryons haye Baryon number + | and all others have 0 Baryon number. Since pion in the mesons grou ‘Therefore, Baryon number of Correct option is (a) [GATE 2010] The basic process underlying the neutron. 3 : “© saute rE ayu od+e +7, () doute sh (b) dus In f-decay process one neutron decay into one proton and one elect another massless particle electron neutrino will produce. 3 \n and for parity conservation dures Correct option is (a) i 1. How should the Gellmann-Nishijima formula, ‘The charm quark is assigned a charm quantum number for electric charge be modified for four flavours of quarks?. (NET June 2015] (a) hay(B-S~C) (b) 1+40-5+0) © 1+FB+8-C) OL hess © Inthe general Gellmann fortum is oun BESHCsT +B ‘Therefore, the quark C have C= {, B=0,T =0 Correct option is (d) Arelativistic particle travels a length of3 x 10 m in air before decaying, The decay process of the particle is. dominated by: {GATE 2007] (a) strong interactions (b) electromagnetic interactions, (©) weak interactions (@ gravitational interactions ‘The traveling distance= 3x10™m Therefore, the time taken by the particle to travel the distance before decay 7