654 CHAPTERS. +> nt Series Conctastons Ta When to Ure = Converges 10 if\rict cs art v Coomera ere & diverges if =| ial TF fim, ax #0. the series vg Tr Term Test Allee i, = = ay and SOdx Integral Test Sa where f(k) = a x : rr ceminuous and decreasing and fix) 0__| both converge or both diver. ies a CConvernes for p> diverges for p <1 poe é Fay and $5 by, where 0 < as < be ‘Comparison Test (Ef hema Gs Bia omerpe 1 $5 ax diverges, then 5° by diverges. Ti, ] Fay and $b. where auch > Oomd fi 2 Limit Comparison Test L>0 Say and ¥ be doth comverge or both diverse F (ay ay where ay > 0 for all k Alternating Series Test If Jim ag = Oand ay 1 < a4 forall k, then the series converges. exponentials) For im Jat iL <1, ay converges absolutely Q iL > 1, Se diverges, EXERCISES 9.5 @® © writin EXERCISES 1. Suppose that two series have identical terms except that in rics A all terms are positive and ore series B some terms are Positive and some terms are negative. Explain why serie 1S more likely o converge. In light ofthis, "smote likely 10 converge. In ight ofthis, explain why Th. 2. In the Ratio Test, if im if L = 1, no conclusion. aus a or Ja,| Explain why this implies tht diverges we Absolute Convergence} Series with some positive and some 1S jal converges, then 95 negative terms (including alternating series) gon ¥ ax converges absolutely. Ratio Test ‘Any series (especially those involving For tim |“! 8 exponentials and/or factorials) toe] ay if L <1, F ay converges absolutely if L > 1, ¥ a diverges, iL = 1, no conclusion Root Test Any series especially those involving w et654 CHAPTERS ++ Init Series a When to Use Conctarions Geometric Seri E art converges to rl < es Ee Comergesto He verges i irl > TaheTerm Test Allseries Tim a the series iver Integral Tet E aa where /(k) = a, Savant [ pooae F is continuous and decreasing and f(x) > 0 | hath converge or bah diverge Pracries Ek ergs for p> 1; diverges for p = 1 Comparison Test 16 bu converges. then z i converses ICY" as diverges, then 3: by diverges Limit Comparison Test ¥ ay and F by, where aux > Oand tim SE = L > ea in FE = 0 Sand Eh, ‘both converge or bath diverge Alternating Series Test (ay where ay > O for all & i 1 au forall k, then the series commer. Absolute Convergence ‘Series with some positive and some ‘negative terms (including allerating series) 1S taut converges, then > a converges absolutely Ratio Test Any series (especially those involving ‘exponentials and/or factorials) HL <1, ex converges absolutely iL > 1 Fou diverges, if L = 1, no conclusion Root Test ‘Any series (especially those involving exponentials) ‘converges absolutely HL > 1 Yas diverges, iL = 1, noconclasion EXERCISES 9.5 @ wrITING EXERCISES 1, Suppose that wo series have identical terms except that in se- ys ties A all terms are positive and series B some terms ute positive and some terms are negative. Explain why series 8 is more likely to converge. In light ofthis explain why Theo- rem 5.1 is true. Wm the Ratio Tea i tim [424] oo lau? Explain why this diverges, | x1, which is bigger lui mplies that the series 39s 44 Inthe Ratio Test, if Tim = L <1, which is bigger, is inequality could also hold if £ = 1. Com- pare the relative sizes of jav.i| and jay| if L L= 1. Explain why L =0.8 would be more likely to cor- faussl oF fal? 08 versus respond to a convergent series than L. 4. In many series ofimerest, the terms ofthe series involve pow ersof (eg. exponentials (¢.¢..2! or factorial e-..A). For which type(s) of terms isthe Ratio Test likely to produce result (ie, limit different from 1) Briefly explain, In exercises 1-38, determine whether the series i convergent, conditionally convergent or divergent. absolutely 15. 1” SECTION 95 37. 6». 40. a 48. pc basisotonaet B J. Find all values ofp such that 5° ++ Absolute Convergence adhe Ratio Test 88 ok Ry neat 4 Penns 6. Seat 2 : Ok FD (2k + D y! Los M2 ne Inthe 1910s, he Indian mathematician Srinivas Ramanujan discovered the formula 1 VB ak 108 + 26.3904) wor an aa6 [Approximate the series with only the k = 0 term and show that you get 6 digits of x correct. Approximate the series using the k =Dandk = | terms and show that you get 14 digits of cor rect. In general, each term of this remarkable series increaves the accuracy by 8 di Prove that Ramanujan’s series in exercise 39 converges. sta in ig, 5k Rats Td re = i that ul) diverges. ~ Find all values of p such that 5° © converges Is = ‘converges. ® EXPLORATORY EXERCISES J. One reason that itis important todistinguish absolute fromcon- ditional convergence ofa series isthe rearrangement of series. i zich to be explored inthis exercise, Show thatthe series 5° oy is absolutely convergent and find its sum 5. Find the sum Sy of the positive terms ofthe series Find the sum S_ ofthe neg- ative terms of the series. Verify that $ = S, + 5.. This may scem obvious, since forthe finite sums you are most familiar With, the order of addition never matters. However, you cannot scparate the positive and negative terms for conditionally con- vergent series. For example, show that J- 7 converges (Conditionally) but that the series of positive terms and thea least upper bound, L. That is, Lis niviiee hel rung comers’ 0, 28 Land > ® Lis the least upper bound. Since L — € iS ay, of $ for which Since (ay) is increasing, we have that for n > No aw = ex the smallest number for which for all n. a6 ay She — ¢ is not an upper bound, since ot an upper bound for S, there is some element, L-e 0. we have cor more simply Loe N. This is equivalent to lag Ll N. ‘This says that (ay) converges to L. The proof for the case ofa decreasing sequence is similar and is left as an exercise. BEYOND FORMULAS “The essential logic behind sequences isthe same as that behind much of the calculus. When evaluating limits (including limits of sequences and those that define deriva- tec and integrals), we ae frequently able to compote an exact answer ditecty. a8 18 example 1.3. However, ‘only by using an indirect extremely important (and some limits are more difficult to determine and can be found ‘method, as in example 1.13. Such indirect methods prove to be increasingly common) as We expand our study of sequences to those defining infinite series in the rest of this chapter. EXERCISES 9.1 ® 8 WRITING EXERCISES 1. Compare and contrast lim sin zx and fim sinzza. Indicate the domains of the two functions and how they affect the limits, 2. Explain why Theorem 1.2 should be tre, taking into aecount the respective domains and their effect on the limits. 3. In words, explain why a decreasing bounded sequence rust converge LA sequence is said to diverge ifit des not converge: The word diverge” is well chosen for sequences that diverge to 0c buts ke descriptive of sequences such as (1.2, 1,2, 1,2,-..} and Haas 2,3,...). Briefly deseribe the limiting behavior of sequences anc discuss other possible limiting behaviors of divergent sequences, In exercises 1-4, write out the terms a, sequence, In exercises 5-10, (a) find the limit of each sequence, (b) use the n to show that the sequence converges and (c) plot the ‘sequence on a calculator or CAS.S16 CHAPTER ++ Infinite Series Im exercises 11-28, determine whether the sequence converges. 44. or diverges. 16. a, 18. a oo, = = 22. a, 2 i - Be. i 9, a SE 26. ay = lary 1.1 to prove that the sequence converges to 0 (given that lim £ = tim 2 = 0) 48. 29. a, =" BAe ay = (= 32. ay “ In exercises 33-38, determine whether the sequence is increas ing, decreasing or neither. n+3 ant es net %. ay = 7 x 3 3h B= yi In exercises 39-42, show that the sequence is bounded. on = 1 40. a, 42, ay el” 50. n+l 4. Namencally estimate the limits of | the sequences Ge = (1+ 2)" and by = (I 2)". Compare the answers toe? and e** . A packing company works with 12" square boxes, Shoy ou Given that fim (1-4 3)" + show that fim (14 2) for any constant r. (Hint: Make the substiition ™m.) that for 2 = 1,2,3,..., 4 total of n? disks of diameter If fit nto a box. Let dy be the wasted area in a box with nd’ ‘Compute dn ‘The pattern of a sequence can’t always be determined fe he first few terms. Start with a circle, pick two points on the circle and conncet them with a line segment. The circle is divide into ay = 2 regions, Add a third point, connect all poins ad show that there are now a = 4 regions. Add a fourth prin, connect all points and show that there are a; = 8 regions I the pattern clear? Show that a. a surprise! 16 and then compute as for ‘You have heard about the “population explosion” The follow ing dramatic warning is adapted from the unicle “Doomsday Friday 13 November 2026” by Foerster, Mora and Anion Science (Nov. 1960). Start with dy = 3.089 to indicate that the world poputation in 1960 was approximately 3.039 bilion Then compute a; = ay + 0.00502" toestimate the population in 1961. Compute ay = 24 + 0.0054? 10 estimate the pope lation in 1962, then ay = a2 + 0.00542" for 1963 and soon Continue iterating and compare your valculations tothe a wal populations in 1970 G.721 billion), 1980 (4.473 bine) anc! 1990 (5.333 billion). Then project ahead tothe year 208. Frightening, isn'tit? ‘The so-called hailstone sequence is defined by Bu) +1 ifm isodd if yyy is even If you start with xy = 2" for some positive integer % sO that tes = 1. The question (an unsolved research probe! is whether you eventually reach 1 from any starting vale Try several odd values for x; and show that you alway reach | A lifferemt population modet was studied by Fibonacci: a Italian mathematician of the thirteenth century. He imagined * Population of rabbits starting with a pair of newborns. Fx o% month, they grow and mature. The second month he) BS ‘pair of newborn baby rabbits. We count the number of PY ‘of rabbits. Thus far, ay = 1a) = 1 and ay = 2. The mules 9 adult rabbit pairs give birth toa pair of newborns ever) ewboms take one month to mature and no rabbits de SN that ay = 3,ay = 3 and in general dy a quence of numbers, known as the Fibonace! sequent inn amazing number of applications. In this exercise, we visualize the Fiboncet seme ercise 49). Start with two squares of side 1 placed M1 ‘ther (see Figure A), Place a square on the 1008 36 resulting rectangle (see Figure B): this square has S05 tinue placing squares on the Jong sides of the "=626 CHAPTERS Infinite Series EXERCISES 9.2 @ ©wrITING EXERCISES 1. Suppose that your friend is confused about the difference be tween the convergence of a sequence and the convergence of a series, Carefully explain the difference between conver k ‘gence or divergence of the sequence a, and the series 2. Explain in words why the kth-term test for divergence is valid then 3° a, nec Explain why itis nor true that if Jim a, essarily converges. In your explanation, inelude an impor- tant example that proves that this is not true and comment con the fact that the convergence of ay to 0 can be slow or fast 3. In Theorems 2.2 and 2.3. the series start at k = I. asin 3 a. Explain why the conclusions ofthe theorems hold ifthe series start at & 3 or at any positive integer. 4. We emphasized in the text that numerical and graphical evi- dence for the convergence of a series can be misleading, Sup- pose your calculator carries 4 digits ints calculations. Explain 1 ‘why for large enough values of, the term — willbe too small a1 to change the partial sum 5° >. Thus, the ealculator would incorrectly indicate that the harmonic series converges. In exercises 1-22, determine whether the series converges oF diverges. For convergent series, find the sum of the series. SRE NET DAD a Inexercises 23-26, use graphical and numerical evidence tocon jecture the convergence or divergence of the series, 27, Prove that if $a, converges, then * a converges for any positive integer m. In particular, if 3” ay converges to L, wha does F a, converge to? 28, Prove that if $* a diverges, then 5° ay diverges focany pas tive integer m: “ 29, Prove Theorem 2.3 (i). 30. Prove Theorem 23 (i 31. The harmonic series is probably the single most impor tant seties to understand. In this exercise, we gue 0! through another proof of the divergence of this series. lt 1 Show that $; = 1 and Sy = 3 to hve 2. Sin }. Therefore, 5, > 3+ latte beta to te ‘ ptetate s that Sie > Sand Ss: > 2, For which n ean you guaran It Sy > 47S. > $? For any positive integer m, determine # that Sy > m. Conclude that the harmonic series diverse 32 Compute several partial sums of he Ve Tat Vm 1 to, gue thatthe ni Ee sequence of partial sums does not exist so that diverges. Also, write this series asa geometric sre is series a a geome Theotem 2.1 conclude tha the nei eres. FSM the kth-term test for divergence 10 vonchude tat diverse. 33. Write 0.99999 = 0.9 «0,09 + 0,009 + ~~ and sum te metric seties to prove that 0.99999