Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DOI: 10.1002/jhbp.496
GUIDELINE
Introduction
Acute cholangitis varies in severity, ranging from a mild form which can be treated by
conservative therapy to a severe form which leads to a life-threatening state (e.g. shock
state and altered sensorium). In particular, the severe form often causes mortality in
the elderly [1]. Early biliary drainage should be performed for Grade II (moderate) and
Grade III (severe) cases according to the severity grading of the updated Tokyo
Guidelines of 2013 (TG13) [2–4]. Biliary drainage, which pancreatitis [11–14]. The internal drainage by endoscopic
is the most essential therapy for acute cholangitis, is tradi- transpapillary biliary drainage produces less pain after the
tionally divided into three types: (1) surgical, (2) percuta- procedures than the external drainage by percutaneous
neous transhepatic, and (3) endoscopic transpapillary transhepatic biliary drainage (PTBD), also known as per-
drainage. Of these therapies, surgical intervention causes cutaneous transhepatic cholangial drainage (PTCD) [15].
the highest mortality rate [1]. Recently, mortality due to PTCD places more burden on patients owing to cosmetic
acute cholangitis has decreased owing to the development problems, skin inflammation, or bile leakage, compromis-
of percutaneous transhepatic cholangial drainage (PTCD) ing the patient’s quality of life. A single treatment session
[5] and endoscopic transpapillary biliary drainage [6, 7]. for a bile duct stone is possible with the endoscopic
Nevertheless, acute cholangitis can still be fatal unless it transpapillary approach, making the hospitalization dura-
is treated early and properly. tion shorter. However, in patients with an inaccessible
The Tokyo Guidelines of 2007 (TG07) was the first papilla due to upper gastrointestinal tract obstruction, or
global guidelines in which fundamental biliary drainage when skilled pancreaticobiliary endoscopists are not avail-
techniques for acute cholangitis were described [8]. Sub- able in the institution, PTCD is a useful alternative drai-
sequently, TG07 was revised to TG13, which include the nage procedure [5, 16]. Furthermore, PTCD can be used
indications and procedures of newly developed biliary as a salvage therapy when conventional endoscopic
drainage techniques such as endoscopic ultrasonography- transpapillary drainage has failed owing to difficult selec-
guided biliary drainage (EUS-BD) and balloon entero- tive biliary cannulation. Recently, EUS-BD has been
scope-assisted bile duct drainage in patients with surgi- developed and reported as a novel useful alternative drai-
cally altered anatomy [9]. As several reports of these nage technique when standard endoscopic transpapillary
newly developed biliary drainage techniques or the meth- drainage has failed [17, 18].
ods and timing of stone removal after or simultaneously From the results of a randomized controlled trial
with drainage have been published, TG13 needs to be (RCT) and meta-analysis that compared EUS-BD with
updated. Thus, the Tokyo Guidelines Revision Committee PTCD as an alternative drainage technique after failed
was assembled and the committee discussed six argument endoscopic transpapillary biliary drainage, the technical
points on biliary drainage for acute cholangitis as men- success and clinical success rates were approximately the
tioned below. In this article, we describe the latest drai- same at 90–100%, but the rates of PTCD adverse events
nage techniques for acute cholangitis and the treatment such as post-procedure bleeding, cholangitis, and bile
methods for stone removal in the updated Tokyo Guideli- leakage were higher than those of EUS-BD adverse events
nes 2018 (TG18). (Table 1) [19–24]. However, almost all reports about EUS-
BD come from high-volume centers and performed by
skilled pancreaticobiliary endoscopists. A national sur- vey
Indications and techniques of biliary drainage in Spain wherein most of the institutions involved were
not high-volume centers reported a technical success rate
In the updated TG18, biliary drainage is recommended for of only 67.2% from 106 patients [25]. Their data indicated
acute cholangitis regardless of the degree of severity that EUS-BD remains an unestablished proce- dure and is
except in some cases of mild acute cholangitis in which not an easy technique to perform. Therefore, when skilled
antibiotics and general supportive care are effective [10]. pancreaticobiliary endoscopists are available in an
Q1. What is the most preferable biliary drainage for acute institution, EUS-BD is recommended as an alterna- tive
cholangitis? (Surgical vs. endoscopic transpapillary vs. EUS- drainage procedure. Otherwise, PTCD should be selected,
guided vs. percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage?) or transfer of the patient to a high-volume center should be
We recommend endoscopic transpapillary biliary considered.
drainage for acute cholangitis (recommendation 1, level
B).
*Refer to Q6 in acute cholangitis patients with sur- Percutaneous transhepatic cholangial drainage
gically altered anatomy.
Endoscopic transpapillary biliary drainage should be Before the widespread use of transabdominal ultrasonog-
considered as the first-line drainage procedure because of raphy, needle puncture of the bile duct was conducted
its less invasiveness and lower risk of adverse events than under fluoroscopy [5]. Currently, needle puncture is safely
other drainage techniques despite the risk of post- performed under ultrasonography to avoid intervening
endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) blood vessels [16]. Therefore, in the current PTCD proce-
dure, operators should continuously observe the bile duct
by ultrasonography regardless of the presence of dilation.
J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci (2017) 24:537–549 539
Table 1 Comparison of outcomes between EUS-BD and PTBD as an alternative drainage procedure
Author Year Design Method n Technical Clinical success (%) Adverse events (%)
success (%)
PTCD is performed as previously described [5]. In brief, drainage and endoscopic biliary stenting (EBS) for inter-
ultrasonography-guided transhepatic puncture of the intra- nal drainage. Basically, both types of endoscopic biliary
hepatic bile duct is initially performed using an 18-G to drainage can be performed in all forms of acute cholangi-
22-G needle. After confirming the backflow of bile, a tis. In the case of biliary drainage for acute cholangitis
guidewire is advanced into the bile duct. Finally, a 7-Fr to therapy, a precise endoscopic technique is mandatory
10-Fr catheter is placed in the bile duct under fluoroscopic because long and unsuccessful procedures may lead to
control over the guidewire. Puncture using a small-gauge serious complications in critically ill patients. Therefore,
(22-G) needle is safer in patients without biliary dilation endoscopists who perform endoscopic transpapillary bil-
than in patients with biliary dilation. According to the iary drainage should acquire knowledge and skills of
Quality Improvement Guidelines developed by American selective biliary cannulation techniques including the dou-
radiologists, the success rates of drainage are 86% in ble guidewire, pancreatic guidewire, and precut techniques
patients with biliary dilation and 63% in patients without [27].
biliary dilation [16].
Q2. Which procedure should be used for endoscopic
transpapillary biliary drainage? ENBD or EBS?
Surgical drainage We suggest that either ENBD or EBS may be consid-
ered for biliary drainage according to the patient’s back- ground
Open drainage for decompression of the bile duct is per- and preference (recommendation 1, level A).
formed as a surgical intervention. When surgical drainage Three RCTs and two cohort studies on the comparison
in critically ill patients with bile duct stones is performed, between ENBD and EBS have shown no statistically sig-
prolonged operations should be avoided and simple proce- nificant difference in clinical settings [28–32]. In the
dures, such as T-tube placement without choledocholitho- updated TG18, the meta-analysis which included the three
tomy, are recommended [26]. At present, surgical RCTs showed no statistically significant difference in the
drainage is extremely rare because of the widespread use technical success rate (OR 2.50, 95% CI: 0.36–17.36)
of endoscopic drainage or PTCD for acute cholangitis (Fig. 1), clinical success rate (OR 1.85, 95% CI: 0.65–
therapy. 5.31) (Fig. 2), adverse events rate (OR 0.98, 95% CI:
0.24–3.96) (Fig. 3), and reintervention rate (OR 0.82,
95% CI: 0.03–19.89) (Fig. 4) between ENBD and EBS.
Endoscopic transpapillary biliary drainage Two RCTs showed that the visual analogue scale score
was higher in the ENBD group than in the EBS group.
Endoscopic transpapillary biliary drainage has become the Therefore, it should be borne in mind that if patients
gold standard technique for acute cholangitis, regardless experience discomfort from the transnasal tube placement,
of a benign or malignant pathology, because it is a mini- they are likely to remove the tube themselves, particularly
mally invasive drainage method [6]. Endoscopic transpap- elderly patients. EBS is an internal drainage technique that
illary biliary drainage is divided into two types: produces neither discomfort nor loss of electrolytes or
endoscopic nasobiliary drainage (ENBD) for external fluid as its advantages. On the other hand, ENBD is an
Fig. 1 Forest plot analysis of technical
success rate of ENBD versus EBS
Endoscopic nasobiliary drainage procedures are described Endoscopic ultrasonography-guided bile duct drainage
in detail in TG07 [8]. In brief, after selective biliary can-
nulation, a 5-Fr to 7-Fr nasobiliary tube is placed in the The EUS-BD technique and its devices are not yet well
bile duct as an external drainage over the guidewire established. For EUS-BD, three approaches are currently
(Fig. 5). used: (1) EUS-guided intrahepatic bile duct drainage by
J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci (2017) 24:537–549 541
Large balloon dilation is performed using standard dilat- or with coagulopathy. However, the updated TG18 rec-
ing balloons immediately after EST. The balloon catheter ommend bile duct stone removal at two sessions after
is passed over a guidewire and positioned across the drainage in patients with a large stone or multiple stones
papilla. The balloon is then gradually inflated with a con- if EPLBD is required.
trast medium under endoscopic and fluoroscopic guidance
until an adequate size is achieved to allow stone removal Q5. What is the best approach to patients with acute
without lithotripsy regardless of the disappearance of the cholangitis who have coagulopathy or are receiving
balloon waist. The stones are then removed from the bile antithrombotic agents? Biliary stenting, EPBD or EST?
duct using mechanical lithotripsy, a basket catheter, or a We recommend biliary stenting in patients with acute
retrieval balloon. cholangitis who have coagulopathy (recommen- dation 1,
level D).
Q4. Which is the preferred procedure for acute cholangitis We suggest that the approach to patients with acute
associated with choledocholithiasis? Stone removal at a cholangitis who are receiving antithrombotic agents must
single session or at two sessions? be selected according to the risks of bleeding and
We suggest that bile duct stone removal following EST thromboembolism.
at a single session may be considered in patients with mild
In the clinical guidelines for the handling of
or moderate acute cholangitis (recommenda- tion 2, level C).
antithrombotic agents from the European Society of
Bile duct stone is the most frequent cause of cholangi- Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, American Society for Gas-
tis [71]. Previously, two-session treatment has been rec- trointestinal Endoscopy and Japan Gastroenterological
ommended for acute cholangitis with bile duct stone, Endoscopy Society, the original treatment by EST is
which involves biliary drainage as an initial treatment and considered as a high-risk procedure for bleeding [77–
endoscopic stone removal after improvement of cholangi- 79]. Therefore, the bleeding risk of EST may even be
tis [72]. This recommendation is based on previous higher in patients with acute cholangitis who have
reports that additional stone removal by EST at a single coagulopathy or who are receiving antithrombotic
session increased the incidence of hemorrhagic complica- agents because cholangitis has been shown to be a risk
tions [52, 53]. However, these reports included cases of factor of bleeding after EST [80–82]. PTCD has a
severe cholangitis accompanied by coagulopathy. Impor- high risk of bleeding when performed in the liver
tantly, the use of EST in patients with severe cholangitis because of the abundance of blood vessels. Thus,
complicated by coagulopathy should be avoided because PTCD should be avoided in patients with acute
of the risk of hemorrhagic complication. These findings cholangitis who have coagulopathy or are receiving
may not always be applicable to mild-to-moderate cholan- antithrombotic agents [83, 84]. Therefore, it is recom-
gitis without coagulopathy. One multicenter prospective mended that ENBD or EBS be initially performed in
study and two retrospective studies of mild-to-moderate patients with acute cholangitis who have coagulopathy
acute cholangitis associated with bile duct stone have or are receiving antithrombotic agents as these are low-
shown that the cholangitis cure rate and the hemorrhagic risk procedures for bleeding. After improvements of the
complication rate of single-session treatment are equiva- coagulopathy and cholangitis, bile duct stone treatment
lent to those of two-session treatment [73–75]. Stone should be performed and antithrombotic agents should
removal at a single session can shorten the hospital stay, be discontinued.
thereby reducing medical cost and the patient’s burden. On the other hand, the easy discontinuation of
Recently, EPLBD with or without EST has been per- antithrombotic agents to avoid the risk of bleeding pre-
formed as a useful technique for the removal of a large sents the risk of causing thromboembolism, which is an
stone or multiple stones. A previous RCT has revealed even more serious rebound phenomenon than bleeding
that EPLBD after EST at a single session in patients with [85]. From the results of cohort and case-control studies
acute cholangitis carries risks or may produce severe indicating that the bleeding risk of EST are not signifi-
adverse events such as hemorrhage or perforation because cantly different between patients with and without the
of a possibly friable bile duct from inflammation and administration of aspirin (an antiplatelet agent), the clin-
increased blood flow around the bile duct [76]. Although ical guidelines for handling antithrombotic agents sug-
further evaluation including a randomized controlled gests that EST without discontinuing aspirin can be
study is required, the updated TG suggest that bile duct performed if patients have a high risk of thromboem-
stone removal following EST at a single session may be bolism [76–78, 80, 82, 86, 87]. However, as bleeding
considered in patients with mild or moderate acute increases in high-risk procedures when a thienopyridine
cholangitis except in patients under anticoagulant therapy derivative (an antiplatelet agent) is administered, the
clinical guidelines recommend its discontinuation 5– performed by an experienced endoscopist, PTCD and
7 days before performing high-risk procedures for bleed- EUS-BD may be considered as alternative methods, or
ing [88]. If patients have a high risk of developing referral to a highly specialized institution may be
thromboembolism, it is recommended that aspirin or considered.
cilostazol be substituted for the thienopyridine derivative
in consultation with the prescribing doctor. The admin-
istration of anticoagulant agents is one of the risk fac- Balloon enteroscopy-assisted bile duct drainage
tors of bleeding after EST, thus heparin substitution is
recommended [89]. Regarding the treatment of the Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in
major papilla for the removal of bile duct stones, EPBD patients with surgically altered anatomy can be challeng-
is an alternative technique. A meta-analysis has shown ing. Roux-en-Y anastomosis has been thought to preclude
that the rate of bleeding as an adverse event of EPBD endoscopic access for ERCP because of the extensive
was significantly less than that of EST, thus EPBD is lengths of the afferent limbs that must be traversed to
classified as a low-risk procedure for bleeding [90]. In reach the major papilla or hepaticojejunostomy site.
patients with potential coagulopathy such as those with Recently, single-balloon enteroscopy (SBE) and double-
chronic liver cirrhosis or those with difficulty in discon- balloon enteroscopy (DBE) have enabled successful ERCP
tinuing antithrombotic agents, EPBD can be a better in patients with surgically altered anatomy. Several inves-
technique for the treatment of the major papilla. There- tigators have reported various success rates (40–95%) with
fore, the timing or the method of treatment either by adverse events rates below 5% (Table 2). However, since
EST or EPBD should be decided by evaluating the balloon enteroscopy may be unsuccessful and time-con-
bleeding and thromboembolism risks of individual suming, its indication should be cautiously decided.
cases. Although the ideal operators are those who are skilled in
both balloon enteroscopy and ERCP, in some institutions,
GI endoscopists advance an endoscope to the papilla or
Treatment of cholangitis in patients with surgically anastomotic site and then pancreaticobiliary endoscopists
altered anatomy perform ERCP. Therefore, if the operators are not good at
balloon enteroscopy, therapy using this technique should
Q6. What is the best approach to patients with acute be avoided. The SBE and DBE systems consist of a video
cholangitis and surgically altered anatomy? enteroscope, a sliding tube with a balloon, and a balloon
We recommend balloon enteroscopy-assisted ERCP (BE- controller. The DBE system has a balloon at the endo-
ERCP) for patients with acute cholangitis and sur- gically scope tip in addition to the overtube balloon. When a long-
altered anatomy when skilled pancreaticobiliary endoscopists type balloon enteroscope with an effective length of 200
are available in the institution (recom- mendation 2, level cm and an inner channel diameter of 2.8 mm was used,
C). long wire accessories and long devices were required. To
An RCT of patients with failed ERCP showed an overcome these limitations, a short-type bal- loon
adverse event rate of 25%–31% for PTCD and 8%–15% enteroscope with an effective length of 152 cm and an
for EUS-BD. On the other hand, a systematic review of inner channel diameter of 3.2 mm has recently been
BE-ERCP in patients with surgically altered anatomy developed [94, 98]. When a short-type balloon entero-
showed an adverse event rate of 3.4%. Therefore, BE- scope was used, conventional ERCP instruments could be
ERCP is clearly a less invasive and safer procedure than used.
PTCD or EUS-BD [91–108]. Furthermore, as BE-ERCP Endoscopes are usually advanced to the papilla or
enables treatment of the causes of cholangitis such as bile anastomotic site using pushing and pulling techniques. An
duct stone or anastomotic stricture at a single session, it injection catheter and a tapered catheter are used for initial
appears that BE-ERCP is useful if the procedure is techni- cannulation. In patients with Roux-en-Y reconstruction,
cally successful. However, BE-ERCP is technically selective biliary cannulation is occasionally challenging
challenging, time-consuming, and requires specialized because of the difficulty in obtaining a favorable view of
equipment. Therefore, the updated TG18 recommend BE- the papilla. In such cases, a technique in which the endo-
ERCP for patients with acute cholangitis and surgically scope is advanced at the inferior duodenal angle and
altered anatomy if the procedure is performed by experi- moved in the retroflex position is useful for obtaining a
enced endoscopists who are skilled in both balloon entero- better view of the papilla [106]. When selective biliary
scopy and ERCP. If the endoscopist is not proficient at cannulation is not possible, a needle knife is used for pre-
this technique or if BE-ERCP is difficult even though it is cutting. After a successful biliary cannulation, guidewires
are inserted into the bile duct. Finally, a nasobiliary
Table 2 Outcomes of balloon enteroscopy-assisted ERCP success
(%)
Author Year Enteroscopy n Scope
insertion Technical
success (%) Adverse
events (%)