Research Article Vol. 35, No.

2 / February 2018 / Journal of the Optical Society of America B 323

Supercontinuum generation in organic

liquid-liquid core-cladding photonic crystal
fiber in visible and near-infrared regions
RASOUL RAEI,1 MAJID EBNALI-HEIDARI,1,* AND HAMED SAGHAEI2
1
Faculty of Engineering, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran
*Corresponding author: ebnali-m@eng.sku.ac.ir

Received 31 August 2017; revised 26 November 2017; accepted 15 December 2017; posted 15 December 2017 (Doc. ID 305293);
published 17 January 2018

In this paper, we propose a liquid core-cladding photonic crystal fiber (PCF), which is engineered with different
available organic optofluidics, to generate supercontinuum in the visible and near-infrared regimes by using the
symmetrized split-step Fourier method. Simulations reveal that in response to launching 50 fs input pulses of 10 kW
peak power, centered about λ0
1032 and 1560 nm, into a 10 mm long liquid core-cladding PCF, maximum
2 μm supercontinua from 500 to 2500 nm can be achieved. Our numerical study is important for the new field
of visible and near-IR supercontinuum generation in liquid-core optical fibers. © 2018 Optical Society of America
OCIS codes: (320.6629) Supercontinuum generation; (060.5295) Photonic crystal fibers; (260.2030) Dispersion; (160.4890) Organic
materials; (190.4710) Optical nonlinearities in organic materials; (300.6550) Spectroscopy, visible.

https://doi.org/10.1364/JOSAB.35.000323

1. INTRODUCTION relatively high nonlinear refractive indices when compared to

Supercontinuum generation (SG) in a photonic crystal fiber
(PCF) has been the topic of wide studies over the past decade.
For the input pulses in the anomalous dispersion regime of a
PCF, the main dynamics of SG include an initial fission of the
N th-order soliton, self-steepening effect, self-phase modula-
tion, intrapulse Raman scattering, loss and higher-order
dispersion (HOD) [1,2]. The only method to enhance the non-
linear coefficient of a PCF with silica core is to reduce the ef-
fective core area. Optical fibers, with their small cross-section
area, cannot deliver the necessary intensities over a long inter-
action length. Also, it will lead to coupling difficulty. However,
because of the small nonlinear refractive index of fused silica,
special nonsilica fibers, such as ZBLAN [3], SF6 [4], TF10 [5],
and chalcogenide-based fibers [6], have been developed exper-
imentally with a larger transmission window and enhanced
nonlinear optical properties, but they are limited in function-
ality and flexibility. This means that due to the highly nonlinear
refractive indices of these materials, nearly an order of magni-
tude higher than that of silica, supercontinuum (SC) is ex-
pected to generate on significantly shorter propagation
scales. Therefore, the higher the nonlinearity of the PCF,
the broader and smoother supercontinuum will be generated
with the same laser parameters. Highly nonlinear optofluidics
offer striking possibilities in the field of optics because they
are especially suited for making supercontinuum due to their
solids (up to 100 times larger compared to fused silica [7]).
Broad mid-infrared supercontinuum sources are fascinating
and sought after in research because they can excite vibrational
absorption bands in the molecular fingerprint region (2.5–
25 μm), which makes it possible to identify molecules and
functional groups [8] correctly. In addition, for the generation
of nonlinear optical responses, very high intensities are needed.
To combine the benefits of high nonlinearities of optofluidics
and high peak powers in fibers, selectively fluidic-filled PCFs
[9–11] and integrated fluidic-core optical fibers [12–14] have
come into attention. Also, in [15,16] supercontinuum with
320 nm and 330 nm broadening using toluene and CS2 , respec-
tively, was generated. The benefit of this combination is that the
dispersion properties can be tailored accordingly, e.g., by chang-
ing the core diameter, using combinations of different fluids, or
changing their temperature and hence n
T  [17]. An additional
advantage is that some highly nonlinear liquids have a wide
transparent range in the mid-infrared region [18], which is es-
sential for spanning supercontinua far into this spectral region.
The highly nonlinear properties of the fluids allow for a decrease
in the required powers significantly, which makes liquid-filled
fibers also available for cheap, compact pump lasers.
Also, the characteristics of self-phase modulation can be
studied in such liquid-filled capillary devices [19], which makes
it possible to measure nonlinear refractive index data of the core

0740-3224/18/020323-08 Journal © 2018 Optical Society of America

Corrected 31 May 2018
 324 Vol. 35, No. 2 / February 2018 / Journal of the Optical Society of America B
liquids precisely. In the previous works, only broadly scattered
values are reported, which are measured with sub-nanosecond
pulses in the near-infrared spectral region [20,21]. Today, com-
pact sub-femtosecond lasers have become more abundant [22].
This paper is focused on the SC generation through a short
piece of PCF with an optofluidic approach in the visible and
near-infrared region (NIR). Infiltration of the PCFs’ core-
cladding by a combination of high nonlinear optical fluids is
used to control and tailor the PCFs’ dispersion profiles, as de-
sired. Other considerations, such as loss, dispersion, effective
area, and nonlinear coefficient, are taken into account.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2,
profiles for the wavelength dependence of the linear, and exper-
imental data for nonlinear parameters for infiltrated liquids
used in the proposed PCF are plotted and compared, and
the generalized nonlinear Schrödinger equation (GNLSE) gov-
erning the optical pulse propagation along the optical fiber is
presented. Using numerical values for the linear and nonlinear
parameters obtained in Section 2, the GNLSE is rewritten and
numerically solved employing the symmetrized split-step
Fourier method (S-SSFM) across the PCF. In Section 3, the
spectral distributions of the PCF outputs versus the center
wavelengths of the input optical pulses in the visible and
near-infrared regimes are illustrated and compared. Finally,
the paper is closed by the conclusion in Section 4.
2. PROPOSED PCF SPECIFICATIONS
A. Structure
In this section, we consider a conventional PCF whose back-
ground materials are assumed to be made of silica (FK51A), the
core material is made of C7 H8 , and the cladding material con-
sists of CCl4 , CHCl3 , C2 H5 OH, and H2 O. The perspective
and cross-sectional views of the PCF are depicted in Fig. 1.
The cross-sectional view of the PCF, depicted in Fig. 1(a),
is assumed to have five rings of air holes of the same diameters
(d  2 μm) arranged in a triangular lattice of constant
Λ  2.2 μm, encompassing the PCF fluidic core of d c 
2 μm with 10 mm long. The number of rings of air holes
in this PCF is large enough so that the change in the PCF’s
dispersion would be negligible if another ring is added on
the outer side of the cladding.
Fig. 1. (a) Cross-sectional and (b) perspective view of liquid-liquid core-cladding PCF infiltrated with organic optofluidics.
Research Article
B. Linear Parameters
The refractive indices of used materials as a function of wave-
length are given by the Sellmeier equation as
n
λ  f1  B i λ2
λ2 − C i −1 g0.5 ; (1)
where constants B i and C i
μm  (i  1; 2; 3) in the Sellmeier
2
equation for these materials are shown in Table 1.
The real and imaginary parts of refractive indices of the men-
tioned materials used in this paper versus wavelength are shown
in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b), respectively. As can be observed in
Fig. 2(a), the refractive index of C7 H8 is more than the other
mentioned liquids. Therefore, the guiding mechanism is pro-
vided by the total internal reflection along the liquid core PCF.
The dispersion of the PCF known as the group velocity
dispersion, having both the waveguide and the material disper-
sions, seen by the FM of wavelength λ, is determined by
λ d2 2πc
D
λ  − 2 Reneff
λ  − 2 β 2 ; (2)
c dλ λ
where c, β2 , and neff
λ are the light velocity in free space, the
second-order dispersion, and the fiber’s effective index, respec-
tively. The higher-order dispersions become important when
the input pulse center wavelength shifts toward the zero
dispersion wavelength (ZDW) that is given by


d m β


βm  : (3)
d ωm
ωω0
In which, ω0 is the light center frequency. To calculate neff
λ
for the PCF, we employ a full vector modal solver based on
the finite-difference time-domain numerical method. The
dispersion (D) of the FM is calculated as a function of the wave-
length in the range of 0.5–2 μm in Fig. 2(c), for the simulated
PCF, infiltrated with the mentioned organic optofluidics hav-
ing well-known losses. Figure 2(c) also shows when optofluidics
infiltrate the air holes, ZDW is shifted toward longer wave-
lengths, and the dispersion slope is decreased. The ZDWs
of the PCF FM are 0.9, 1.2, 1.3, 1.52, and 2 μm, for unin-
filtrated and infiltrated with CCl4 , CHCl3 , H2 O, and
C2 H5 OH, respectively. Low anomalous dispersion near the
ZDW provides the generation of a broad supercontinuum with
strong confinement to the core. By shifting the ZDW using the
optofluidic approach as desired, we can use available lasers with
femtosecond optical pulses as input sources. Table 2 compares
 Research Article Vol. 35, No. 2 / February 2018 / Journal of the Optical Society of America B 325

Table 1. Sellmeier Coefficients of Liquids Used in This simulation window and to evaluate the confinement loss of
Paper the presented PCF, we assume anisotropic perfectly matched
Sellmeier Coefficients
layers (absorbing boundaries) to be placed outside the outer-
most ring of the air holes.
Materials B1 C1 B2 C2 B3 C3 Note that material loss is neglected due to the weak absorp-
C7 H8 1.1747 0.0182 — — — — tion coefficients of the liquids and the small fiber lengths used
Silica 0.9712 0.0047 0.2169 0.0153 0.9046 168.6813 in our numerical study [10,23].
(FK51A) Also, the scattering loss in our proposed PCF in the wave-
CCl4 1.0921 0.0118 — — — — length range of interest (i.e., the NIR region) is negligible.
CHCl3 1.0464 0.0104 0.0034 0.152 — —
C2 H5 OH 0.8318 0.0093 −0.1558 −49.452 — — C. Nonlinear Parameter
H2 O 0.7583 0.01 0.0849 8.9137 — —
Now, consider the fiber nonlinear parameter defined as [24]

γ
W · m−1  2πn2I ∕λ0 Aeff
λ; (4)

the values of higher-order dispersions from β2 to β8 calculated
where λ0 is the center wavelength and n2I is the nonlinear Kerr
for infiltrated PCF with the mentioned fluids for an input op-
index of the fiber’s background material, which can be
tical pulse with a center wavelength of 1032 and 1560 nm.
expressed as follows:
Another linear parameter that needs to be examined is the
fiber’s total loss, L  Lm  Lc with Lm and LC
λ  n2I  ΦNL;max λAeff T FWHM f rep ∕1.76πP avg L: (5)
8.686k0 Im neff
λ being the material loss of the mentioned
chemical compositions and the confinement (leakage) loss that The attained results from the measurements at both pump laser
depends on the fiber’s structural parameters, with k0  2π∕λ sources at a wavelength of 1032 nm and 1560 nm according to
being the free-space wavenumber. Moreover, to reduce the [25] are summarized in Table 3.

Fig. 2. Comparison of the (a) real part and (b) imaginary part of the used material refractive indices, (c) dispersion profiles, and (d) confinement
loss of the uninfiltrated clad with those infiltrated with optical fluids of various indices.
 326 Vol. 35, No. 2 / February 2018 / Journal of the Optical Society of America B Research Article

Table 2. Values of the Dispersion Orders of Proposed PCF Infiltrated by Various Organic Optofluidics at 1032 and 1560
nm Pump Wavelength
Infiltrated Liquids λ (nm) β2 (ps2 ∕m) β3 (ps3 ∕m) β4 (ps4 ∕m) β5 (ps5 ∕m) β6 (ps6 ∕m) β7 (ps7 ∕m) β8 (ps8 ∕m)
CCl4 0.027 9.51e − 5 −8.96e − 8 2.63e − 10 −6.7e − 13 1.94e − 15 −3.94e − 18
CHCl3 0.041 9.04e − 5 −1.05e − 7 2.74e − 10 −5.96e − 13 1.65e − 15 −3.39e − 18
C2 H5 OH 1032 0.061 3.66e − 6 5.81e − 8 3e − 10 −2.01e − 12 4.69e − 15 7.58e − 18
H2 O 0.045 5.29e − 5 −2.61e − 8 −1.08e − 9 4.94e − 12 4.32e − 14 −4.89e − 16
Uninfiltrated clad −0.036 0.0001 −2.43e − 8 3.08e − 10 1e − 12 −4.45e − 14 3.35e − 16
CCl4 −0.056 0.0002 −4.43e − 7 1.13e − 9 −2.59e − 12 4.83e − 15 −5.94e − 18
CHCl3 −0.042 0.0002 −4.4e − 7 1.03e − 9 −2.22e − 12 4.07e − 15 −4.81e − 18
C2 H5 OH 1560 0.047 0.0001 −5.35e − 7 1.62e − 9 −6.02e − 13 −1.54e − 14 6.79e − 17
H2 O 0.001 0.0003 −3.59e − 6 3.03e − 8 −1.79e − 10 7.4e − 13 −2.05e − 15
Uninfiltrated clad −0.063 −0.0003 3.81e − 6 −2.54e − 8 1.29e − 10 −4.87e − 13 1.26e − 15

observed from this table, the nonlinear parameter for the fiber
Table 3. Nonlinear Refractive Indices at the Two Pump
decreases as the wavelength increases.
Wavelengths of 1032 nm and 1560 nm
Chemical Formula Wavelength (nm) n2I m2 ∕W D. Generalized Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation

C7 H8 1032 0.62e − 18 The evolution of an optical pulse, having a slowly varying elec-
1560 0.59e − 18 tric field amplitude represented by envelope function A
z; t,
propagating along the fiber shown in Fig. 1 can be described by
the solution to the GNLSE [24]:
Moreover, Aeff
λ shows the wavelength dependence of the X8
∂A α β ∂n A
fiber effective cross-sectional area defined as  A i
n−1 n n
∂z 2 n1
n! ∂t
 2  
RR ∞ ∂
−∞ jF
x; yj dxdy
2
 i γ
ω0   iγ 1
∂t
Aeff  R ∞ ; (6) Z t
−∞ jF
x; yj4 dxdy
× A
z; t R
t 0 jA
z; t − t 0 j2 dt 0 ; (7)
−∞
where F
x; y is the optical field distribution across the fiber
where z and t are the spatial coordinates along the fiber and the
cross section. The numerical values of the effective cross section
time variable, α is the total fiber loss, and βq represent the qth
calculated for the PCF are depicted in Fig. 3. A comparison
order dispersion parameter. R
t in the integrand on the right-
shows that the PCF experiences larger effective cross-sectional
hand side of the equation is the response function including the
area when infiltrated by chemical composition with higher
Raman and Kerr nonlinearities. Assuming that the electronic
refractive index.
The nonlinear parameters related to the mentioned PCF cal- contribution is nearly instantaneous, the functional form of
culated by Eq. (4) are also illustrated in Table 4. As can be R
t can be written as
R
t 
1 − f R δ
t  f R hR
t; (8)
where δ
t is the Dirac delta function, and f R represents the
fractional contribution of the delayed reorientational response
function hR
t, which is measured in 1032 and 1560 nm for
C7 H8 and depicted in Table 5 [25].

Table 4. γ and Aeff in 1032 and 1560 nm for Uninfiltrated

and Infiltrated Clad by Various Optofluidics
Infiltrated Liquids Wavelength (nm) Aeff μm2  γ (1/W/m)
CCl4 4.721 0.79957
CHCl3 4.08 0.92519
C2 H5 OH 1032 2.524 1.49556
H2 O 2.296 1.64407
Uninfiltrated clad 1.622 2.32724
CCl4 6.25 0.38021
CHCl3 5.75 0.41328
C2 H5 OH 1560 4 0.59408
H2 O 3.5 0.67895
Fig. 3. Effective area versus wavelength for uninfiltrated and infil-
Uninfiltrated clad 2 1.18817
trated clad by various optofluidics.
 Research Article Vol. 35, No. 2 / February 2018 / Journal of the Optical Society of America B 327

Table 5. Fractional Contributions at the Two Pump use practically the minimum length of the PCF. Figure 4 shows
Wavelengths of 1032 and 1560 nm for C7 H8 the transmittance curves as a function of wavelength of 10 mm
Infiltrated Liquid f R at 1032 nm f R at 1560 nm
thickness in 20°C, for the used fluidics in this paper.
C7 H8 0.88 0.70

Table 6. Coefficients of the Reorientational Response

Function of C7 H8
A1 A2 A3 t diff t rise;1 t int t fast t rise;2
(1/s) (1/s) (1/s) (ps) (ps) (ps) (ps) (ps)
0.1265 0.3106 2.646 5.9 0.15 0.50 0.10 0.15

hR
t takes an approximate analytic form of

hR
t  A1 e
−t∕t diff 
1 − e
−t∕t rise;1  
 A2 e
−t∕t int 
1 − e
−t∕t rise;1  
 A3 e
−t
2 ∕2t 2 
fast sin
t∕t rise;2 ; (9)
with a diffusive (t diff ), an intermediate (t int ), and a librational
(t fast ) relaxation process. To account for the inertial effects, a
rise time (t rise ) is included, which should be similar for all
of the noninstantaneous nuclear responses [26]. Coefficients
of Eq. (9) are listed in Table 6.
A short temporal optical soliton of width T 0 , peak power
P 0 , and order N is used to have the advantage of a lower
average power and broader bandwidth:
 
pffiffiffiffiffi t
A
z  0; t  P 0 sech
T0
  0.5  
N jβ2 j t
 sech : (10)
T0 γ T0
Using the S-SSFM, one can obtain the numerical solution of
Eq. (7) [24].
Increasing the PCF length causes transmittance decreases
and total loss increases, respectively. Therefore, we should

Fig. 5. Spectral distribution along the liquid-liquid core-clad PCF

for uninfiltrated clad (row 1) and infiltrated by C2 H5 OH (row 2),
Fig. 4. Transmittance versus wavelength for 10 mm thickness in CCl4 (row 3), CHCl3 (row 4), and H2 O (row 5) pumped by
20°C. 50 fs laser at 1032 nm (column 1) and 1560 nm (column 2).
 328 Vol. 35, No. 2 / February 2018 / Journal of the Optical Society of America B
It demonstrates that CCl4 has the maximum and flattest trans-
mission window. However, H2 O has the lowest one. Spectral
broadening in the PCF depends on the transmittance window
of the used material.
3. SUPERCONTINUUM GENERATION
In this section, by extracting both linear parameters containing
loss and dispersion from the second to eighth orders and non-
linear parameters in our desired wavelength, the GNLSE is re-
written for the proposed PCF depicted in Fig. 1. Then via the
S-SSFM, the GNLSE will be solved in both the time and
frequency domains for femtosecond input pulses. We assume
that input pulses with center wavelengths of 1032 and
1560 nm, having the same width of T 0  50 fs for peak
powers of P 0  10 kW, are launched into 10 mm length of
the PCF.
Figure 5 compares the spectral distributions of the optical
pulses evolving along the infiltrated PCF with various optoflui-
dics. This figure also reveals the potential of the optofluidic
technique for SC generation with wide bandwidth, simply
by choosing an appropriate fluid and the input signal wave-
length. As can be observed in Fig. 5, the maximum spectral
broadening occurs for pumping in the anomalous dispersion
regime.
It is clear that by increasing the optical pulse peak power,
broader SC is achieved. Various linear and nonlinear phenom-
ena are accountable for the generation of the supercontinua
observed in Fig. 5.
As can be seen from Fig. 5 (21, 22, 31, 41, 51), by pumping
optical pulses in the normal dispersion regime, the pulses
initially undergo strong self-phase modulation (SPM), leading
to wave breaking due to self-steepening (SS) and HOD that
results in a part of the light to be blueshifted [27,28].
However, the minimum wavelength of the blueshift is limited
by the total loss. The redshifting part will eventually cross
the ZDW, at which point soliton dynamics, in particular,
Raman-induced soliton self-frequency shifting (SSFS), domi-
nates further spectral broadening [28,29]. As expected,
Fig. 6. First-order degree of coherence for (a) 1032 nm and (b) 1560 nm for uninfiltrated and infiltrated with mentioned optofluidics.
Research Article
the simulation result in these figures demonstrates about
800 nm bandwidth of supercontinuum in the case of
C2 H5 OH at 1560 nm.
For Fig. 5 (11, 12, 32, 42, 52), the wavelengths of the input
pulses have been considered in the anomalous dispersion re-
gime where the effect of SPM and SSFS due to the stimulated
Raman scattering (SRS) are predominant and responsible for
broadband generated spectra. When pumping in the anoma-
lous dispersion regime, the input pulse transforms into
higher-order solitons that a small perturbation, such as
HOD, SS, and SRS, can break up a given soliton of order
N into N fundamental solitons [24]. As a result, SSFS shifts
the center wavelengths of the resulting fundamental solitons
continuously toward the longer wavelengths of the spectrum,
causing a considerable spectral expansion on the red side. On
the other hand, nonsolitonic radiations result in broadening
on the blue side of the spectrum. The simulation result in
these figures demonstrates about the 2 μm bandwidth of
supercontinuum in uninfiltrated and CCl4 clad cases at
1560 nm.
As can be seen in Fig. 5 (21–52), depending on the refrac-
tive index of the infiltrated fluid, SC with desired intensity and
bandwidth is achieved. With this technique, we do not need to
change the physical parameters of the PCF such as air hole
diameter, core diameter, and lattice constant by too complex
fabrication processes. The optical fluids used for this purpose
must be nontoxic, highly nonlinear, and transparent to the
wavelengths of interest. Therefore, available fluids help us gen-
erate supercontinuum more easily, faster, and more cheaply and
changing the infiltrated fluids leads to adjusting the ZDW in
the range of available laser sources.
Consequently, by the appropriate choice of the infiltrated
fluid, input optical pulse, and PCF properties, a broad and
coherent spectrum at the fiber output is achieved. Figure 5 also
demonstrates that a coherence SC as wide as 2 μm is generated
at 10 mm length of the PCF pumped in the anomalous
dispersion regime.
Aiming to study the coherence degradation, the analysis of
the coherence properties of the generated supercontinua from
 Research Article Vol. 35, No. 2 / February 2018 / Journal of the Optical Society of America B
the proposed PCF is performed. It considers the addition of one
photon per mode noise with a random phase, and it is evaluated
within the first-order degree of coherence given by
jhE 1
λ; t 1 E 2
λ; t 2 ij
jg
1
12
λ; t 1 − t 2  0j  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi;
hjE
λ; t 1 j2 ihjE
λ; t 1 j2 i
where E 1
λ and E 2
λ are two electric fields. The angular
brackets indicate an ensemble average over independently gen-
erated pairs of SC spectra, and t is the time measured at the
scale of the temporal resolution of the spectrometer used to
resolve these spectra. g 12 is considered at t 1 − t 2  0 to focus
on the wavelength dependence of the coherence. It is known
that the coherence property of SC light is significantly
affected by the quantum noise of the pump pulse. From an
ensemble average of 50 independent simulations, we find that
the generated supercontinuum in the 10 mm long PCF infil-
trated by C2 H5 OH with an input peak power of 10 kW is
coherent over the entire generated bandwidth that is shown
in Fig. 6, in which C2 H5 OH has the flattest coherence among
them.
We have considered the practical terms in our model. Thus,
we recommend that readers implement the proposed structure
experimentally to achieve the same results. The fiber-based
supercontinuum sources proposed in this paper represent a
revolution in broadband mid-infrared region (MIR) light
sources for different MIR applications.
4. CONCLUSION
We have proposed the generation of supercontinuum in the
visible and near-infrared frequency ranges, utilizing a silica-
based liquid core-cladding PCF approach. Simulations have
shown that when a 50 fs input optical pulse of peak power
10 kW and center wavelength 1560 nm is launched into a
10 mm long PCF infiltrated by appropriate fluidics, spectral
broadening as wide as 2 μm in both the visible and near-
infrared regions can be obtained.
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