Module 2

Lesson 2: Factors Affecting Solubility

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Describe the factors affecting solubility
2. Differentiate the nature of solute and solvent
3. Compute for the colligative properties of solutions

The extent to which a substance dissolves in another substances depends on the nature of the solute and solvent and
temperature,and for gases,it includes pressure.

You have learned during the previous module that a solute is the one that is being dissolved while a solvent is something that
dissolved a substance. The previous module also discussed how temperature affects the substances. In terms of the relationship,
they can either be directly proportional and inversely proportional.

This module will discuss about the factors that affecting solubility as well as the nature of the solute and solvent. In addition
to, it will also discuss about the different colligative properties such as Vapor Pressure reduction, boiling point elevation, freezing
point depression and osmotic pressure.
Lesson 2.6 : Factors Affecting solubility

A. Nature of the solute and solvent

You probably have observed that alcohol and water are miscible while oil and ater are immiscible. Sugar and table salt
dissolve in water. You also learned that solubility of a solute in a given solvent is favored when there is a similarity in their
structures or in their polarities.

Ethyl alcohol has a structure similar to that of water where both of the are said to be polar. Thus ethyl alcohol(ethanol) and
water dissolve in each other as a result of two attractive forces. Water which is a dipole attracts the polar end of alcohol. In
addition to,hydrogen bonding can also occur between these two molecules.

Hexane and carbon tetrachloride are miscible because structurally,both compounds are nonpolar. A non-polar solute
dissolves in a nonpolar solvent due to London forces of Attraction.

Ionic substances like NaCl dissolve in polar solvents like water. In aqueous solution,the positive sodium ions,Na+ are
surrounded by the negative end of the water while the chloride ions Cl- are surrounded by the positive end of water. This
interaction is called ion-dipole interaction.

The principle that similar substances with similar intermolecular forces of attraction dissolve in each other is usually
expressed as “like dissolve like”. the table below shows the solubility of polar and non-polar solvent.

Solute Polar solvent Nonpolar solvent

Ionic Soluble insoluble
Polar Soluble Insoluble
Nonpolar Insoluble Soluble

Table 2.1 :Effect of the nature of solute and solvent on Solubility

Ionic and polar solutes are soluble in polar solvents while nonpolar solutes are soluble in nonpolar solvents. Covalent
network solids like quartz and diamond are not soluble in either polar or nonpolar solvents because of the strong bonding forces
within the solid.

B. TEMPERATURE
The solubility of most molecular and ionic solids increase with temperature or endothermic reaction. Endothermic reaction
refers to the the absorption of heat of a system from the surroundings. Exceptions are given to substances such as the Na2SO4
and Ce2(SO4)3 which increases their solubility at lower temperature. These are examples of exothermic reactions where a
system releases heat to the surroundings during the dissolving process.
The solubility of gases is easier to predict than that of solids. All gases become less soluble as temperature increases.
Manifestations of this phenomena includes the formation of bubbles when water is heated. Another is when carbonated drinks
bubble up in room temperature after being refrigerated. This is because they lose much of the dissolved carbon dioxide and taste
flat. (For the illustrations refer to page 71)

C. Pressure
Pressure has almost no effect in the solubility of solids and liquids but has a strong effect on the solubility of gases. In 1803,
an English chemist,William Henry studied the solubility of gases in liquids. He found out that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the solution at a given room temperature. This is known as the Henry’s
Law.

Lesson 2.7 : Colligative Properties

Some physical properties of solutions are qualitatively similar to those of pure solvents,while some are quantitatively different
from those of pure solvents. Properties that depend on the amount of dissolved solute or the concentration of solute and not the
kind of chemical nature of the solute are called colligative properties.

Solutions can be classified as electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions. Electrolyte solutions are those that dissociate into
ions upon dissolving in water and can conduct electricity. Example is the table salt or NaCl that dissociates into sodium ion and
Chloride ion upon dissolving in water. On the other hand, nonlectrolytes are those that do not dissociate into ions when dissolved
in water and it does not conduct electricity.

The larger the number of molecules dissolved particles contained in a solution,the greater its impact on the colligative
properties. The following are the different colligative properties:
A. Vapor Pressure Reduction
Liquids evaporate or vaporize at any temperature. As vaporization continues,the number of vapor particles above the liquid
increases until the rate of vaporization equals the rate of condensation and dynamic equilibrium is attained. The pressure exerted
by the vapor particles on the liquid at equilibrium is known as the vapor pressure of the liquid at this temperature.

If you examine a liquid with a nonvolatile solute dissolved in it, the vapor particles above the liquid are attributed mainly to to
the liquid or solvent. For example, 5 g of sugar is added to 100 g of water to form dilute solution. Some of the sugar molecules
occupy some of the spaces on the water surface. Less water particles can escape or vaporize from the sugar solution compared
to a pure solvent. The vapor pressure of a solution is less than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent.

The extent to which a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solution is proportional to the solute’s concentration.
Increasing the concentration of solute increases the solute’s effect. Extensive studies on vapor pressure were carried out by
Francois- Marie Raoult,a French chemist and physicist. He developed Raoult’s law which states that the vapor pressure of a
solution PA is equal to the mole fraction of the solvent XA times the vapor pressure of the pure solvent PAO which will result to
PA =XAPAO. Since the mole fraction of a solvent XA plus the mole fraction of a solute ,XB is always equal to one then XA = 1 -XB.
Rewriting the Raoult’s law we have, PA = (1 - XB)PAO . Simplifying the equation, PA = PAO - XB PAO. Rearranging terms we have
PAO - PA = XB PAO. The quantity PAO - PA or ΔP is the vapor pressure depression of the solution by the addition of the nonvolatile
solute,so substituting ΔP in the equation gives ΔP = XB PAO.
Example:
The vapor pressure of water at 28 ℃ is 28. 3 mmHg. Find the vapor pressure of a solution containing 100 g of
sugar,C12H22O11 in 500 g of water at 28 ℃.
Solution:
Step 1 : Solve for the number of moles of sugar and water. The molar mass of sugar is 342 g/mol and that of water is 18 g/mol.

nC12H22O11 = 100 g X 1 mol/342 g = 0.29 mol

nH2O = 500 g X 1 mol/ 18 g = 27.78 mol

Step 2 : Solve for the mole fraction of sugar and water.

nC12H22O11 = XB = nB / nA + nB nH2O = XB = nB / nA + nB
= 0.29 mol / 27.78 mol + 0.29 mol = 27.8 mol / 27.78 mol + 0.29 mol
= 0. 01 = 0.99
Step 3 :Solve for the vapor pressure of the solution using the Raoult’s Law
Psolution = XAPAO = XsolventPsolvent
= (0.99)(28.3 mmHg)
=28.02 mmHg
Or using the vapor pressure depression:
ΔP = XB PAO.
= (0.01) (28.3 mmHg)
= 0.283 mmHg
Psolution = PAO - ΔP
= 28.3 - 0.283
= 28.02 mmHg

B. Boiling point Elevation

Adding a nonvolatile solute to a pure solvent lowers the vapor pressure of the solution at any given temperature,so it follows
that a solution must be heated to a higher temperature than that of the pure solvent in order to boil.

The boiling point elevation of a solution, ΔTb,is directly proportional to the number of solute particles. For dilute solutions, ΔTb,
is proportional to molality,that is, ΔTb = Kbm where Kb is the molal boiling point elevation constant of the solvent and m is the molal
concentration of the solution.

The Kb of water is 0.52 ℃/m so 1 m of aqueous solution of a nonvolatile solution like sucrose will boil at 0.52 ℃ higher
than pure water. The boiling point elevation is proportional to the number of solute particles in the solution. When 1 mole of NaCl
dissolves in water, 2 moles of solute are formed. 1 mole of Na and 1 mole of Cl. Therefore, a 1 m of NaCl in water causes a boiling
point elevation twice as large as a 1 m of solution of sucrose.
Table 2.2 : Boiling Point Elevation Constants and Freezing Point Depression Constants for Some solvents
SOLVENT BOILING POINT (°C) Kb (°C kg/mol) or (°C/m) Freezing Point (°C K, (°C kg/mol) or (°C/
) m)

Water (H2O) 100.0 0.52 0. 1.86

Carbon Tetrachloride 76.5 5.03 -22.99 30.0

(CCl4)

Chloroform (CHCl2) 61.2 3.63 -63.5 4.70

Benzene (C6H6) 80.1 2.53 5.5 5.12

Carbon disulfide (CS2 46.2 2.34 -111.5 3.83

Ethyl ether (C4H10O) 34.5 2.02 -116.2 1.79

Camphor(C10H16O) 208.0 5.95 179.8 40.0

C. Freezing Point Depression

A lower vapor pressure of a solution compared to that of a pure solvent affects the freezing point of the solution. The freezing
point of a solution is lower than that of a pure solvent. The greater the number of solute particles, the lower its freezing point
because the solutes interferes with crystallization of the solvent and thus need to be cooled down to a lower temperature to
achieve a solid.
Like the boiling point elevation, the freezing point of a solution is directly proportional to the molal concentration of the
solution, that is, ΔTf = Kfm where ΔTf refers to the freezing point lowering Kf, the freezing point depression constant and m,the
molality of the solution.

Step 2 : Calculate the boiling point elevation.

ΔTb = Kbm
= (2.53 ℃/m) ( 0.208 m)
= 0.526 ℃
Step 3: Calculate the boiling point of the solution.
Bpsolution = bpsolvent + ΔTb
= 80.1 ℃ + 0.526 ℃
= 80.6 ℃
b. Freezing point of the solution:
Step 1 : Use the value of m from (a) for step 2
Step 2 : Calculate the boiling point depression.
ΔTf = Kfm
= (5.12 ℃ /m) (0.208 m)
= 1.06 ℃

Step 3 : Calculate the freezing point of the solution.

Fpsolution = fpsolvent - ΔTf
= 5.5 ℃ - 1.06 ℃
= 4.44 ℃
* for other examples turn your book to page 82
D. Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis is known as the passage of solvent molecules but not of solute particles through a semipermeable membrane.

In a set up of a tube of pure solvent and an aqueous sugar solution separated by a semipermeable membrane. The pores in
the membrane allow water molecules but not the sugar molecules to pass in either direction. As a result,the liquid levels in the two
arms become unequal and the other concentration of the solution decreases. Equilibrium is reached when water molecules are
pushed out of the solution at the same time they enter. The pressure difference at equilibrium is called the osmotic pressure. It is
the pressure required to prevent the net movement of water. The applied pressure on one arm of the tube that stops the net
movement of solvent is the osmotic pressure (π) of the solution.

The osmotic pressure of a solution is proportional to the number of solute particles in a given volume of solution or molarity,
M. π ∞ nsolute / Lsolution or π ∞ M.

The osmotic pressure is similar to the ideal gas law since both relate the pressure of the solution to its concentration and
temperature. In symbols,
πv = nRT (similar to PV = nRT)
π = n of solute / V of solution (RT)
π = MRT
Example:
The average osmotic pressure of blood at 25 ℃ is 7.7. atm. How many grams of glucose is needed to prepare a 110 L
solution that is isotonic with blood at 25 ℃?
Solution:
1. Find the molar mass of glucose(C6H12O6) and convert 25 ℃ to K scale.
Molar mass of (C6H12O6) = 180 g/mol 25 ℃ + 273 = 298 K
2. Substitute the values in the osmotic pressure equation.