SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STRATIFICATION

Societies all over the world vary in terms of their economic and political power, undeniably,
some states are politically and economically more advanced than others. In the same vein, not all
individual members of society are equally situated nor do they enjoy the same rank and privilege
in the community. The Philippines is no exception to this situation, social divisions and political
cleavages is a present day reality.

The Concept of Social Stratification

The book understanding culture, society, and politics by Atienza et al (2016) describe social
stratification as the “division of large social groups into smaller groups based on categories
determined by economics” and members of society are arranged in a hierarchy based on their
access to or control over basic economic resources. As such, social inequality arises. Wealth,
properties, access on resources and political power, race, gender, religion, influence and social
relation are some of the bases for social stratification as explained by Atienza et al. (p.104)

Social Exclusion, as stated by the same authors, is the process by which individuals are cut off
from full involvement in the wider circles of society. In the discussion of social stratification and
inequality, social exclusion is a necessary and logical offshoot. People who are socially excluded
due to poor housing, lack of employment, and inferior schools are examples of this concept, thus,
they may lack opportunities for self-improvement, according to Atienza et al.

Systemsof Stratifications

Closed Stratification imposerigid boundaries between social groups and limit interactions
among members who belong to different social groups or occupy different levels in social
hierarchy and is resistant to change. Caste system is an example of closed system according to
Atienza et al, this is due to the fact that people under this system are unable to change their social
standing, promote belief in fate, destiny, and the will of higher spiritual power, virtually people
have no opportunities to improve their social position, and it promotes social inequality.

Open Stratification is based on achievements, allowing more flexibility in social roles,

increased social mobility, and better interaction among social groups and classes. It is also based
on achievement and allows movement and interaction between layers and classes.

Atienza et al (2016), defines Class System as a stratification based on ownership of resources

and the individual’s occupation or profession. The authors further describe it as one where social
status is based on achievement rather than description and more open in terms of social mobility,
therefore, are free to move from social class to a higher status in life through education and
employment. (p.105). Exogamous marriages or marriage between people from different status,
and endogamous marriages or marriages between people from same social classes but does not
imposed and are entered freely by the individuals are the results of openness in a class system as
stated by Atienza et al.

Meritocracy is another system of stratification cited by Atienza et al, social status

is determined by personal effort and merit. Social standing and advancement isdetermined by
how well persons perform their social role. Ideally, as argued bythe authors, high level of efforts
will result in advancement while insufficient effortwill lead to a lower social status.

Different Theoretical Perspective on Social Stratification (Atienza et al, 2016)

Sociologists as cited by Atienza et al provides three lenses in examining social stratification.

Functionalism

Proponents of this view examines how different aspect of society contribute to ensuring stability
and continued function, they believed that social stratification is based on the intrinsic value of
social activities or role, and each part or aspect of society serves an important purpose or
function.

In 1945, the The Davis Moore Thesisintroduced by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert
Mooreproposed that a social role that has greater functional purpose will result in greater reward
and that that a social role that has greater functional purpose will result in greater reward. (p.106)

Melvin Tumin in 1953 proposed alternative perspective on significance of employment on

social stratification that criticized Davis Moore thesis, Tumin as cited by Atienza et al argued that
there are cases where individuals of little talent or skill are able to access better opportunities or
occupy higher positions on society. Tumin saw social stratification as lack of opportunities for
the less privileged sectors of society.

Conflict Theory

A critical view of social stratification and considers society as benefiting only on small segment
and conflict theorist such as Karl Marx views stratification as perpetuating inequality and is
influenced by economic forces and the factors of production.

Karl Marx considered society as made up of the Bourgeois or Capitalist who owns the factors
of production such as resources, land, and businesses, and who belongs to the elite; and the
proletariat or workers who belongs to the lower class (and suffers great hardships) and provide
the manual labor needed to produce goods. Marx believed that the inequalities brought about by
social stratification lead to class conflict.

Symbolic Interactionism

A perspective according to Atienza et al is one that rrefrains from looking into the larger
structural factors that define social stratification and contribute to inequality and poverty but
instead examines stratification from a microlevel view and attempts to explain how people’s
social standing affect their everyday interactions. Believers of this perspective view social
stratification as the one leading people to interact with others within their own social class.
Symbolic interactionists observe that people’s appearance reflects their perceived social
standing, giving rise to the theoryof conspicuous consumption which refers to buying certain
products to make a social statement about status. (p.109)

Social Mobility

Atienza et al (2016) describe social mobility as the ability of individuals or groups to change
their positions within a social stratification system; it also refers to how individuals progress
from lower to higher social class or lose their status and occupy a much lower position in society,
and this is influenced by economic status specifically by accumulation of wealth.

The authors (2016) identified two major types of mobility, namely; upward mobility which
refers to the upward movement of a person in social class while downward mobility refers to
the lowering of an individual’s social class.

Social mobility can also be classified in terms of the experience of the different generations,
Atienza et al described Intra-generational mobility which focuses on experience of people who
belong to the same generation as well as changes in a person’s social standing throughout their
lifetime; and Intergenerational mobility which refers to change in social standing experience
by individuals belong to different generation. (p.108)

Within society itself, Atienza et al stated that large scale changes in society also take place that
can result in the improvement or decline of the conditions and status of a large group of people,
this is known as structural mobility, example was the change brought about by the Industrial
revolution.

SOCIAL INEQUALITY

As mentioned at the beginning of this module, societies are usually characterized by divisions
which are reflected in the unequal distribution of wealth and power among members as well as
social status of people in the community.

Social inequality and poverty

Understanding social inequality requires the understanding of social class and stratification
according to Atienza et al (2016), they stated that social classes are derived from the inequalities
brought about by the possession and control of resources. Marx considered class as an essential
characteristic based on the economic structure of society, while Max Weber defined
stratification through the concept of status which he define as the esteem or social honor and
their success in economic transaction is determined by personal power, knowledge, skills, and
the scarcity of resources.
Atienza et al (2016) cited Warner, Meeker, and Eelssuggest that class is influenced by cultural
factors such as lifestyle and consumption of patterns.

The concept of class is evident in industrialized society according to Atienza et al, class is
divided into:
 upper class – composed of rich, well-born, powerful that wield greatest political
power
 middle class – fall socioeconomically between lower and upper class
 lower or working class – working class, refers to those employed in low-paying
wage jobs
 under class – segment of society that is not only affected by poverty but is also
subject to social exclusion

Income, affluence, and poverty are important factors that define social inequality according to
Atienza et al.

Poverty according to Merriam Webster is the state of one who lacks a usual or socially
acceptable amount of money or material possessions.

Classification of poverty according to Atienza et al. (p.110)

 Absolute poverty – lack of basic resources like food, clean water, safe housing, and
access to health care needed to maintain a quality life.
 Relative poverty – applies to those who may be able to obtain basic necessity but
still unable to maintain average standard of living.
 Subjective poverty – a poverty that is defined by how an individual evaluates their
actual income against their expectation and perceptions.

Gender Inequality

Another important aspect of social inequality is gender inequality as mentioned by Atienza et al.
Gender according to them refers to culturally imposed characteristics that define masculinity
and femininity, and a fluid concept that changes based on mores, norms and values espoused by
particular society.

Gender inequality then is the idea and situation that women and men are not equal as well as
the unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals wholly or partly due to their gender. It also
arises from differences in (arguably socially constructed) gender roles. Gender as explained by
Atienza et al refers to the culturally- imposed characteristics that define masculinity and
femininity while sexrefers to the biological and anatomical differences that distinguish males
from females. (p.110)

Gender rolesrefers o specific task and behaviors expected of a person by virtue of their sex
(women perform domestic roles, men as masculine must be assertive and independence) while
gender identity refers to how a person identifies himself or herself as belonging to a particular
gender.
Atienza et al (2016), p. 111 stated that genderdefines stratification and define social hierarchy
and imposes certain divisions and limitations on certain group. Women, they added, are most
vulnerable to gender inequality for reasons that majority of societies are patriarchal in nature.
Patriarchyrefers to the socially sanctioned and systematic domination males over females and
express in various aspects of society.

In the Philippines, the country has shown great progress in addressing gender inequality as
claimed by Atienza et al by citing evidence such as the high ran king of the Philippines in the
2014 World Economic Forum, by allowing women to participate in the electoral process as early
as 1937, the Philippines having two Women President, and enactment of the violence against
women law among others.

Types of Feminists Approach on Gender Inequality, Atienza et al (p.113)

• Liberal feminists- believed that sexism and discrimination can be countered by political,
social, and economic reforms like giving equal access to both men and women.
• Radical feminists- argue that men are responsible for the exploitation of women through
patriarchy.
• Black feminism – identifies factors such as class and ethnicity, in addition to gender as
essential for understanding the oppression experienced by non-white women.

Ethnicity and Race issue

Presently, ethnicity and race issues have taken the national and world headlines in relation to the
death of a Black American in the United States in the hands of a white policeman. Continued
protests are happening not only in the America but from all over the world.

Ethnicity as defined by Atienza et al refers to feeling of affinity or loyalty towards a particular

population, cultural group, or territorial area, and a form of cultural identitywhile Race refers to a
group of people who share a common ancestry and also refers to physical or genetic differences
among humankind. (p.114)

Racismrefers to a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the superior treatment of
one racial or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of another racial or ethnic group. Racists
believe that some individuals are superior or inferior to others as a result of racial differences.
(Atienza et al, 2016)

Displacement and scapegoating according to Atienza et al refers to a set of attitudes, belief, and
practices used to justify the superior treatment of one racial or ethnic group and the inferior
treatment of another racial or ethnic group. In displacement feeling of hostility become directed
against object that are not the origin of anxiety, and those at receiving end become scapegoat.

Prejudice involves “stereotypes” or preconceived views that are often based on faulty
generalization about member of race or particular ethnic group and manifest close-mindedness or
an inflexible way of thinking regarding certain ideas and beliefs in society. While
discrimination refers to action or behavior of members of dominant social group that negatively
impacts other members of society that do not belong to the dominant group. (p.114)

Other minorities

Today’s society is a mixture or individuals belonging to different groups, sectors and

communities. Not only women or persons belonging to different race experience social
inequalities. Atienza et al (2016) identified groups that may belong to other “minorities”, they
may include persons with disabilities, elderly, certain religious groups and communities living in
isolated areas. Discrimination, lack of access to resources and opportunities and alienation
characterize social inequalities experienced by these people.

Global Inequality

Today’s world is characterized by the existence of extreme inequality in terms of wealth, power,
and resources among nations. The case of extreme poverty in African countries, the continued
migration of citizens leaving their country, and the dependency of developing countries to the
developed countries, and the present realities involving the response of each country to the
Covid-19 pandemic are just some example of Global inequality.

Atienza et al describe Global stratification as the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and
prestige on a global basis highlighting patterns of social inequality and resulting in people having
vastly different lifestyles and opportunities both within and among the nations of the world.

Theories Explaining Global Inequality

 Market- oriented theories such as Modernization theory

• Claims that cultural and institutional barriers to development explain poverty in
low-income countries.
• Poverty can be eliminated by overcoming or adjusting cultural values like
negative attitudes, limiting government intervention, and encouraging high rates of
savings and investments. 

 Dependency theories
• Claim that global poverty is the result of exploitation of poor countries by wealthy
ones, thereby creating a cycle of dependence.
• Low-income countries are trapped in a cycle of structural and economic
dependency on high-income countries.

 World-systems theory
• Focuses on the relationship among the “core” “peripheral” and “semipheripheral”
countries in the global economy.
• Focuses on the long-term trends in the global economy and global commodity
chains that erase national borders.
 State-centered theories
 Emphasizes the role of governments in fostering economic development
Atienza et al, 2016 stated that the stratification of nations highlights the growing inequality
worldwide, citing Credit Suisse in 2013, the authors claimed that almost half of the world’s
wealth is now owned by just one percent (1%) of the total population. If this trend continues, so
will global stratification and inequality.