Atmospheric Pollution Research xxx (2016) 1e9

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Original article

Natural mitigation factor adjustment for re-suspended particulate

matter emissions inventory for Bogota
, Colombia
María Paula Pe ~ a a, *, Barron H. Henderson b, Robert Nedbor-Gross b,

rez-Pen

n a
Jorge E. Pacho
a
n y Modelacio
Centro Lasallista de Investigacio
, Colombia

n Ambiental CLIMA, Universidad de la Salle, 111711 Bogota
b
Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, 32611-6455, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This work improves atmospheric emissions of particulate matter in Bogota
Colombia, and provides a tool
Received 23 January 2016 applying this technique around the world. Bogota
's air pollution is largely impacted by particulate
Received in revised form matter, and specifically by re-suspended particulate matter (RPM). RPM sources include paved and
31 May 2016
unpaved roads, agricultural tilling, construction activities, mining and quarrying. RPM emissions are
Accepted 11 July 2016
frequently estimated using annual emission factors, time-varying vehicle traffic activity, a time/space
Available online xxx
invariant meteorological scaling factor, and a time/space invariant correction factor. This work updates
the meteorological factors to be hour-specific, and replacing the correction factor with land use-specific
Keywords:
Re-suspended particulate matter
local deposition factors. These techniques are codified in a flexible Python tool based on EPA's AP42
Transportable fraction methods and the broader emission literature.
Precipitation Meteorology inhibits RPM emission directly via precipitation scavenging and indirectly by accumulation
Surface moisture of road surface moisture. The effects of precipitation and surface moisture are parameterized as mitigation
Paved roads factors differently for paved and unpaved roads due to their porosity and drainage characteristics.
Unpaved roads These estimates of hourly mitigation factors (on average for paved roads: 0.86 and for unpaved roads:
0.61) agree well with annual factors previously used (paved: 0.90; unpaved: 0.60), however hourly
factors have clear diurnal patterns that reduce emissions more significantly latter in the day for paved
roads (00e12: 0.95; 12e24: 0.78), and to a lesser extent for unpaved roads (00e12: 0.64; 12e24: 0.58).
Emissions are also significantly reduced by vehicle induced turbulence and local deposition. The
transportable fraction (0.59 ± 0.22), parameterized based on land use, significantly reduced emissions
and correlates with unpaved roads (r ¼ 0.30) more so than with paved roads (r ¼ 0.02). These fractions
were used to construct a new inventory, which might improve air pollution predictions compared to the
raw inventory, as well as new efforts to simulate exposure fields in Bogot
a and our understanding of local
particulate sources and sinks.
Copyright © 2016 Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control. Production and
hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction quarrying operations and re-suspension from roads as a conse-

quence of vehicular activity. RMP from paved and unpaved roads is
Emission of re-suspended particulate matter (RPM) can be of great concern in cities around the world (Amato et al., 2009, 2011,
attributed to various activities like commercial and residential 2012; Thorpe and Harrison, 2008; Zhao et al., 2014).
constructions, agricultural tilling, livestock operations, mining, In the past years, Bogota has experienced both population and
economic growth, leading to an increase in air pollution problems,

rate, 2007; Gaita
especially high levels of particulate matter (Za
n
* Corresponding author. et al., 2007; Pachon et al., 2007; Franco et al., 2009). Recent

rez-Pen
E-mail addresses: mpperezpena@hotmail.com (M.P. Pe ~ a), barronh@ufl. studies have highlighted the relevance of particulate matter from
edu (B.H. Henderson), rnedbor1@ufl.edu (R. Nedbor-Gross), jpachon@unisalle.edu. paved and unpaved road resuspension (Behrentz, 2009; Beltran

n).
co (J.E. Pacho
et al., 2012; Contreras and Ballesteros, 2014; Vargas et al., 2009).
Peer review under responsibility of Turkish National Committee for Air
Pollution Research and Control.
Dust emissions are known to be a large source of uncertainty in

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.07.006
1309-1042/Copyright © 2016 Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

rez-Pen
Please cite this article in press as: Pe ~ a, M.P., et al., Natural mitigation factor adjustment for re-suspended particulate matter emissions
inventory for Bogota
, Colombia, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.07.006
2 M.P. P
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Nomenclature fl,x Modeled l from GRIDCRO files (non-dimensional

fraction)
x Grid cell (on a 64  64 modeling domain) fx Transportable fraction (non-dimensional)
t Hour in the modeling period fl Transportable fraction associated to l, estimated with
d Day in the modeling period fl,x (non-dimensional)
l Land use in USGS fo^,x Transportable fraction
o Observation k Empirical scaling factor (non-dimensional)
^
o Interpolated observations Ex Base line emissions inventory of RPM from paved and
RPM Re-suspended particulate matter from paved and unpaved roads in Bogota with no meteorology
unpaved roads influence from rain or humidity (g/s)
RMCAB Bogota's Air Quality Monitoring Network ^x
E Emissions inventory with yearly meteorological
hx,t Surface humidity suppression factor (non- influence (g/s)
dimensional) ex,t Emissions inventory with yearly meteorological
ho^,x Surface moisture suppression determined from influence and empirical scaling factor k (g/s)
measurements on unpaved roads (non-dimensional) ddx,t Dynamic dust emissions inventory of re-suspended
mx,t Surface moisture content (mass %) particulate matter (g/s)
sx,t Surface moisture in top soil from (m3 m3) CMAQ Community Multiscale Air Quality
rhx,t Relative humidity (%) MCIP CMAQ's MeteorologyeChemistry Interface Processor
Ev Evaporation (cm) GIDCRO2D Time-invariant 2-D cross points land use USGS fields
Ec Evaporation constant at cell centers MCIP output file
MAXm Maximum moisture METCRO2D Time-dependent 2-D cross-point meteorology MCIP
px,t Hourly precipitation inhibition factor (non- output file
dimensional) WRF Weather Research and Forecasting model
po^,x Yearly precipitation inhibition factor (non- MB Mean Bias
dimensional) NMB Normalized mean bias (%)
rx,t Hourly modeled precipitation events per grid cell NME Normalized mean error (%)
(mm)

inventories (Reff et al., 2009), thus, special efforts need to be
directed to characterize paved and unpaved roads in Bogota and
temporally and spatially resolved emission inventories need to be
develop to address issues regarding these sources.
Previous emission inventory of RPM built in Bogota included
mitigation factors implemented on a yearly basis, allowing to apply
emission suppression to the entire year independent of daily
meteorological conditions (Contreras and Ballesteros, 2014). How-
ever, given the behavior of precipitation across Bogota, a constant
reduction for the entire city is unrealistic. This is especially true if
morning humidity or rain events suppress the emissions leading to
lower concentrations.
Therefore, meteorological parameters to determine hourly
mitigation factors are used to accomplish greater temporal reso-
lution. This method that accounts for the reduction in the resus-
pension of dust allows for day-specific emission calculations, the
inclusion of hourly meteorological characteristics has proved
enhancement on model performance in other modeling systems
(Pay et al., 2011).
Near source vegetation and buildings act as impaction surfaces
that can capture emissions before they transport (Pace, 2005;
Cowherd et al., 2006a,b; Pouliot et al., 2010). It has been esti-
mated that up to 75% of RPM can be “captured” in this way and
therefore, only the 25% of RPM is left for resuspension, which is
called the “transportable fraction” (Pace, 2005), or fraction of
fugitive dust available for transport in the air quality model
(Cowherd et al., 2006a,b). The fraction of transported emissions
must, therefore, depend on the local land use/land cover.
This work builds on previous emission inventory development
efforts. We rely on annual emission factors previously developed
(Contreras and Ballesteros, 2014), but we add transportable frac-
tions and meteorological mitigation factors on hourly basis. Using
these enhancements, we develop a temporally and varying
emissions inventory for RPM from paved and unpaved roads in
Bogota. Here we document the methods used, and influence of
hour-specific meteorology and land use specific transportable
fractions in Bogota
. The results show that emission temporal vari-
ability is increased while spatial variability is decreased (due to
negative spatial covariance of transportable fraction and emission
intensity). These results suggest the need to account for spatially
varying emission feedbacks to capture observed concentrations.
2. Methods
2.1. Baseline emissions inventory of re-suspended particulate
matter
Previous emissions inventory developed by (Contreras and
Ballesteros, 2014) for RPM from paved and unpaved roads was
used. The inventory was built using information of vehicle speed,
traffic volume, vehicle type and weight, in addition to dust load and
silt content of the road and AP42 (EPA, 2011b) emissions factors
(Equation (1) for paved roads and Equation (2) for unpaved roads).
Ex ¼ q  SL0:91  W 1:02 (1)
where q is a particle size specific multiplier, SL is slit loading, W is
the average weight of vehicles. For paved roads, information of
vehicle activity was available on 40 monitoring points located on
main roads, the values were then extrapolated to all other paved
roads taking into account capacity and geometry of the roads
(Carmona et al., 2015).

s  a  W b
Ex ¼ g    ho^;x  C (2)
12 30

rez-Pen
Please cite this article in press as: Pe ~ a, M.P., et al., Natural mitigation factor adjustment for re-suspended particulate matter emissions
inventory for Bogota
, Colombia, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.07.006
 M.P. P
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~ a et al. / Atmospheric Pollution Research xxx (2016) 1e9 3

where g, a, b are empirical constants, s is the surface material silt

content (%), W is the mean vehicle speed, ho^,x is the surface mois- b
E x ¼ Ex  po^ (3)
ture suppression determined from measurements on unpaved
roads, and C is the emission factor for brake wear and tire wear, the where E ^x represents the emissions inventory with meteorological
value for C was considered to be negligible since those emissions inhibition applied. Different approaches are used to calculate the
represent only 0.05% of the unpaved road dust emissions. Unpaved precipitation factor for paved (Equation (4)) and unpaved roads
roads traffic counts were collected at 16 sites where road dust was (Equation (5)).
also sampled for silt load and surface moisture, the highest
measured value of humidity was 3.4% while the lowest value was P
po^ ¼ 1  (4)
0.021%, the methodology is further described by (Contreras and 4N
Ballesteros, 2014).
Meteorological inhibition is mostly due to precipitation wet 365  P
po^ ¼ (5)
scavenging of pollutants (EPA, 2011a, 2011b). The AP42 method 365
obtains this natural inhibition factor from precipitation on a yearly
where po^ is the yearly precipitation inhibition for which P is the
basis, which may not be applicable in Bogota where annual pre-
number of wet days with at least 0.254 mm (0.01 inches) of rain and
cipitation patterns are very seasonal and quite different than that of
N is the number of days in the averaging period.
the United States. Nonetheless, the AP42 annual method was
To correct the possible overestimation of RPM emissions, an
applied in Bogota by (Contreras and Ballesteros, 2014) using
empirical scaling factor was applied uniformly to all emissions as
measured values of precipitation from the Bogota's Air Quality
described in Equation (6).
Monitoring Network (RMCAB) stations (Fig. 1). Precipitation re-
cords showed a total of 145.7 days during the study year of 2012,
ex;t ¼ b
Ex  k (6)
which was used in Equation (3),

Fig. 1. Main road network in Bogota and location of the air quality monitoring network RMCAB.

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Please cite this article in press as: Pe ~ a, M.P., et al., Natural mitigation factor adjustment for re-suspended particulate matter emissions
inventory for Bogota
, Colombia, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.07.006
4 M.P. P
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^ x corresponds to
where ex,t is the emission per grid cell per time, E
the emissions inventory with meteorological influence and k is an
empirical scaling factor of 60% based on CMAQ high-biased
concentrations with the unscaled inventory (Henderson et al.,
2015).
2.2. Dynamic dust emissions inventory
Considering how different the precipitation patterns in Bogota
are compared to that of the United States, and the known
improvement to the AP42 methods using finer temporal resolution
of precipitation data (Pollack et al., 2004), a new emissions in-
ventory using hourly modeled meteorology to influence local
deposition estimates is proposed. This method presents a higher
time resolution of the emissions, thus, allowing a daily variability,
which the previous inventory did not have.
The tool that this study has developed to build a new emis-
sions inventory (based on EPA's methods) hereafter the dynamic
dust emissions inventory of RPM, can be applied to any region
with complex meteorological patterns adding beneficial temporal
resolution of emission mitigation and also considering local
deposition estimates related to land use in the study area. It builds
upon modeled meteorological and land use information pro-
cessed by CMAQ's MeteorologyeChemistry Interface Processor
MCIP (Otte and Pleim, 2010) on netCDF format. The developed
codes can be found at (https://github.com/mpperezp/RPM_
MITIGATION).
Based on the variables that affect RPM emissions variability, the
general expression to calculate the dynamic dust for the emissions
inventory is shown in Equation (7).
ddx;t ¼ Ex  hx;t  px;t  fx  k
where k is an empirical scaling factor, Ex is the base line emis-
sions inventory for paved and unpaved roads separately. For
paved roads, it corresponded to 132,514 road segments or links
that add up to 7305 km (85% of city's roads), while unpaved
roads are constituted of 12,501 segments that add up to 1300 km
(15% of city's roads). Unpaved roads are divided into two cate-
gories: public roads (12,082 segments) and industrial roads (419
segments). px,t is the inhibition by precipitation at each grid cell x
per hour t, hx,t is the suppression caused by surface humidity for
each grid cell x per hour t and fx is the transportable fraction
associated to inhibition by local deposition for each grid cell x.
px,t, hx,t, fx were included in the inventory as non-dimensional
fractions.
Meteorological information was obtained from the Weather
Research and Forecasting (WRF) model (Nedbor-Gross et al., 2016),
and processed using the Meteorology/Chemistry Interface Proces-
sor (MCIP). MCIP output METCRO2D files and land use cover from
GRIDCRO2D were used to calculate px,t, hx,t, fx.
2.3. Surface humidity influence on emissions
Daily variation of humidity has been shown to heavily influence
PM concentrations (McMurry et al., 1996; Hien et al., 2002; Kumar
et al., 2007). For the effects on road dust mitigation this study
considered surface humidity, which is a function of road moisture
content, quantity of water added by a precipitation event, relative
humidity, evaporation, traffic volume, soil density, soil thickness,
and surface moisture from preceding hours. These variables affect
the drying process of the road and therefore the RPM emissions.
The suppression due to surface humidity is calculated using
Equation (8) (EPA, 2011b).

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Please cite this article in press as: Pe ~ a, M.P., et al., Natural mitigation factor adjustment for re-suspended particulate matter emissions
inventory for Bogota
, Colombia, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.07.006

m 0:2
hx;t ¼
x;t
(8)
0:5
where mx,t is the surface moisture content in mass percentage, with
a lower bound of 0.2% and a maximum bound of 20%. Surface
moisture in mass percentage is obtained from modeled volumetric
surface moisture through a conversion using a fixed value for soil
density of 1440 kg/m3 (EPA, 1985). A spin-up process was con-
ducted for the surface moisture on mass percentage for the first
days in the modeling period to make the values fulfill the maximum
and minimum bounds established by the methodology. The vari-
able depends on the presence of rain events. In this work hourly
rain rx,t was evaluated to account for the daily variability in pre-
cipitation as recommended by EPA (2011c) as follows:
▪ If the evaluated hour had no rain (rx,t ¼ 0 mm), suppression by
surface humidity is determined by whether or not relative hu-
midity (rhx,t) generates condensation. If the value for rhx,t was
equal or greater than 1.0, water is generated. If the addition of
water can saturate the surface material, the moisture was set to
the maximum bound of 20%. If the addition of water would
cause no soil saturation, the amount of water was added to the
surface material by adding the rx,t magnitude to the hour. For the
scenario where the relative humidity did not generate
condensation, the previous hour of surface humidity (mx,t1)
was taken into account as shown in Equation (9).
 
0:0254
mx;t ¼ mx;t1 þ (9)
20
(7) ▪ In the case where the previous hour's surface moisture minus
the evaporation of the evaluated hour, was greater than the
lower bound of 0.2% for the surface moisture as demonstrated in
Equation (10), the evaluated hour's surface moisture was
reduced as a function of evaporation and vehicle flux as shown
in Equation (11).
Ec  Ev  v
mx;t1  > 0:2 (10)
MAXm
Ec  Ev  v
mx;t ¼ mx;t1  (11)
MAXm
where Ec is the evaporation constant suggested by EPA with a value
of 7.5E-04 cm, Ev is the evaporation in the area of study with a value
of 7.60 cm (IDEAM, 2006), MAXm is the maximum moisture in cm
and v is the average vehicle flux. For this work, v was established as
a fixed value of 19.18 vehicles, that resulted from the average traffic
flow at the 15 monitoring points in unpaved roads (Contreras and
Ballesteros, 2014). For an hour where Equation (10) was not true,
the surface moisture in the evaluated hour was set to the minimum
bound of 0.2.
▪ If the evaluated hour had rain (i.e. rx,t s 0 mm) it was deter-
mined if the amount of rain would exceed the maximum level of
water that the surface could hold. If so, the surface moisture mx,t
was set to the maximum bound of 20%, if not the amount of rain
was added to the surface moisture of the previous hour and
input as the moisture in the evaluated hour as described in
Equation (12).
rx;t
mx;t ¼ mx;t1 þ (12)
MAXm
 M.P. P
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2.4. Precipitation inhibition
Following the methods from EPA (2011a), the inhibition by
precipitation, px,t, was determined using modeled precipitation
values for each hour (rx,t) from METCRO2D files. EPA (2011a) defines
complete inhibition by rain when there is 0.254 mm (0.01 inches) of
precipitation. For paved roads, a value higher than 0.254 mm of
hourly rain (rx,t  0.254 mm) causes complete inhibition of RPM
emissions. Furthermore, the remnant effect of a precipitation event
on emissions for hours following an occurrence of rain was carried
up to the maximum time that a paved road requires to dry; 12 h.
Such an effect, hereon described as a credit, reduces emissions by
20%. Credits are cumulative for hours where rain occurs consecu-
tively, they can only be applied to hours where there is no pre-
cipitation, and the credits expire if the drying period of 12 h has
passed (EPA, 2011a). These three cases can be summarized as:
1. px,t ¼ 0, if rx,t  0.254 mm
2. px,t ¼ (10.2) ¼ 0.8, if rx,t < 0.254 mm and t in drying period
3. px,t ¼ 1, if rx,t < 0.254 mm and t not in drying period
For unpaved roads, precipitation influence on RPM emissions
followed a similar approach, the inhibition was attributed to be a
20% reduction on each hour that had a rain event greater than the
0.254 mm threshold (EPA, 2011b). This is expressed as:
1. px,t ¼ 0.2, if rx,t > 0.254 mm
2. px,t ¼ 1.0, if rx,t < 0.254 mm
2.5. Non-meteorological losses
Local deposition phenomena not attributable to meteorology
were related to retention by surfaces near the emission source of
RPM. Pouliot et al. (2010), whose methodology was applied in this
work, discusses the transportable fraction defined as the fraction of
dust that is not captured by a surface and is therefore transported in
the atmosphere. The transportable fraction is calculated by sum-
ming the fractions of land cover at each grid cell and multiplying
them by the suggested transportable fraction associated to each
land cover type shown in Table 1 (Equation (13)).
X

fx ¼ fx;l  fl
ið1;24Þ
where fx is the Transportable Fraction in each grid cell x in the
modeling domain (obtained from GRIDCRO2D files), fl,x is the
fraction of modeled land cover l on each grid cell x and fl is the
Transportable Fraction associated to the land cover l. Both fl,x and fl
are based on USGS land classification (Table 1). Because of Bogota's
Table 1

.
Transportable fraction and associated model land cover used present in Bogota
Fraction class Modeled land cover Transportable fractiona
Urban USGS LUFRAC_01 Urban 0.50
LUFRAC_02 Dry crop pastures
LUGRAC_05 Crops grassland
Grassland USGS LUFRAC_07 Grassland 0.75
LUFRAC_10 Savanna
LUFRAC_21 Wooden tundra
Barren/Water USGS LUFRAC_08 Shrubland 1.00
LUFRAC_15 Mix forest
Forest USGS LUFRAC_13 Evergreen 0.05
broadleaf forest
a
Pouliot et al. (2010).
tropical latitude there is no seasonal variation to land cover, making
this transportable fraction time independent.
3. Results
3.1. Estimated fractions
Mean values of the resulting px,t and hx,t per source and
modeling period were calculated and compared against yearly
values (po^ and ho^,x) estimated by Contreras and Ballesteros, (2014)
(Table 2). The values were calculated for February and October
2012 so that they can be applied to regulatory air quality modeling
simulations. For February, px,t applied to paved roads had the same
domain wide value as po^ of 0.9, but there was a decrease of 8%
observed on px,t for October. This result occurred because the
month of October is during the rainy season for Bogota. On unpaved
roads, values show even more significant differences for the pre-
cipitation inhibition. For February precipitation factor increased by
56%, while for October increased by 48%.
The average influence of rain and spatial variability estimated
for the two road types presented similar behavior. Fig. 2b shows the
mean effect of mitigation by precipitation, px,t, from unpaved and
paved roads. There was more restriction for paved roads because
rain credits were carried forward for that road classification. As for
the mean values for hx,t and ho^,x, there was a difference of 4% in
February and 11% in October. Higher spatial variability was seen for
the influence of the surface moisture factor (Fig. 2a) compared to
px,t. This is a consequence of the inclusion of evaporation, relative
humidity and vehicle flux in its calculation.
In general, for the rainy period in October, emissions are subject
to more constrictive meteorological influence. Fractions calculated
using modeled information had a more limiting effect than the
yearly based fractions previously used by (Contreras and
Ballesteros, 2014). The daily pattern of the meteorological frac-
tions applied is also more restrictive on average in the afternoon for
both paved and unpaved roads with average values of 0.78 and 0.58
respectively, while in the morning the average value for paved
roads is 0.95 and for unpaved is 0.64.
Thus, the daily variation of fractions is more significant on paved
roads, which in turn results in more variation between the morning
and the afternoon emissions once factors are applied. This differ-
ence in time of day occurs because it is more likely to rain in the
afternoons in Bogota, and therefore the meteorological mitigation
(13)
is more effective.
The values found for the transportable fraction, fx, which is
associated with near source retention, were dominated by urban
land class, particularly in the center of the city as shown in Fig. 3.
The emissions of RPM from both paved and unpaved roads were
attributed to be transportable on average by a factor of 59%,
implying a city wide capture fraction of RPM of 41%. The impact in
RPM caused by applying a transportable fraction is similar to the
60% influence found for the western United States by Pollack et al.
(2004). This fraction has more influence on constraining emissions
when compared to precipitation and humidity inhibition, although
it does not add temporal variability.
Considering that fx has a more heterogeneous behavior,
compared with the precipitation factor for paved roads, the trans-
portable fraction dominates the restriction on those road's emis-
sions. The fraction correlated more with unpaved roads with a
coefficient of r ¼ 0.3 while for paved roads r ¼ 0.02.
Spatially unescaled PM emissions Ex from paved roads (Fig. 4)
show a more homogeneous behavior when compared to unpaved
roads. This is due to the fact that unpaved roads (although present
in all the area) are located mostly at the south-west part of Bogota,
where industrial areas prevail and in a smaller portion to the north-

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Please cite this article in press as: Pe ~ a, M.P., et al., Natural mitigation factor adjustment for re-suspended particulate matter emissions
inventory for Bogota
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Table 2
Maximum, minimum and mean values for inhibition by precipitation on a yearly basis po^ and on an hourly basis px,t, inhibition by surface moisture on a yearly ho^,x and on an
hourly basis hx,t, calculated per source and modeling period. Mean, minimum and maximum values for transportable fraction fx.

Source Period Yearly based fractionsa Hourly based fractions Time invariant

po^ ho^;x ho^;x ho^;x px;t px,t px,t hx;t hx,t hx,t fx
max min max min max min

Paved roads Feb 0.90 1.00 0.91 ± 0.27 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.59 ± 0.22
Oct 0.82 ± 0.34 1.00 0.00 min: 0.0
Unpaved roads Feb 0.60 1.13 1.80 0.68 0.94 ± 0.21 1.00 0.20 0.67 ± 0.28 1.20 0.48 max: 0.9
Oct 0.89 ± 0.27 1.00 0.20 0.63 ± 0.26 0.97 0.48
a
Inhibitions used in previous RPM emissions inventory (Contreras and Ballesteros, 2014).

Fig. 2. Mean fractions over the modeling domain (64  64) a. Average surface humidity influence hx,t b. Average precipitation inhibition px,t.

east part of the city. It is observed that in this areas emissions are
considerably higher, estimated fractions are not as restrictive as in
the center of the city, as mention previously, where urban land use
dominates.
Fig. 3. Transportable fraction fx in the modeling domain (64  64).
3.2. Dynamic dust emissions inventory of RPM
Total emissions of RPM calculated for paved and unpaved roads
and adjusted with the natural mitigation factors show a domain
wide daily variability in both modeling periods (Fig. 5). The aver-
aged RPM emissions in the dry February and rainy October periods
are less than averaged RPM emissions calculated with the yearly-
based natural mitigation factor by 40% in February and 46% in
October. This demonstrates that emissions are reduced significantly
when hourly precipitation and soil moisture is included in the es-
timates, as well as the consideration of the transportable fraction.
Furthermore, Fig. 5 demonstrates that there is day-to-day vari-
ability that occurs when including natural mitigation caused by
meteorology. Particularly in October, the rainy period, there is a
noticeable reduction in emissions between 12 and 10e05 to
12e10e07 compared to other days. This feature could not possibly
be captured with a static mitigation factor and should lead to more
accurate air quality modeling.
The hourly behavior of emissions is shown in Fig. 6, which con-
tains the average variability throughout the day for both the dynamic
dust inventory ddx,t represented by the boxes and the base emissions
inventory E^x represented by the dots. The base inventory uses yearly
meteorological factors and therefore cannot have a range of emission
on an hourly basis. During the morning hours, the ranges of emis-
sions are small, because there are not frequent rain events in the
morning in Bogota. However, there is very significant variation in the
emissions during the afternoon hours for both the rainy and dry
periods. Using an annual mitigation technique would not be able to
account for this range of emissions caused by the varying meteo-
rology. Having an emissions inventory that is sensitive to conditions
could have significant benefits for air quality modeling in any region
that has highly varying meteorology.

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Please cite this article in press as: Pe ~ a, M.P., et al., Natural mitigation factor adjustment for re-suspended particulate matter emissions
inventory for Bogota
, Colombia, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.07.006
 M.P. P
erez-Pen
~ a et al. / Atmospheric Pollution Research xxx (2016) 1e9 7

Fig. 4. Ex of PM with no meteorological influence and non-scaled a. For unpaved roads b. For paved roads.

Fig. 5. Total emissions of RPM from paved and unpaved roads for the dry period February 7th to March 3rd (left), and rainy period September 30th to October 24th (middle). The far
^x shows the previous inventory with annual mitigation (no
right shows behavior of ddx,t for each period per day. Far left presents the average of ddx,t for February and October, and E
empirical scaling factor) that was applied to all days equally. Date format is %Ye%me%d.

3.3. Sources of uncertainty
There are two main sources of uncertainty associated with the
input data used to estimate the dynamic dust emissions inventory
Fig. 6. Hourly emission variability of total PM. Red boxes are the ddx,t (both paved and
unpaved roads), blue dots are the E ^ x (both paved and unpaved roads) with annual
mitigation factor applied (no empirical scaling factor).
of RPM. First, since modeled precipitation rx,t is subject to error.
Therefore, it is evaluated against observations at the RMCAB's
monitoring sites.
The normalized mean bias (NMB) and error (NME) were
determined for the monthly average precipitation values of the dry
and rainy periods, and compared against literature references
(Table 3). Both February and October modeled precipitation values
present an over prediction of rain, in particular the dry period with
the higher NMB. The over prediction of rain has the potential to
lead to underestimates for PM in air quality modeling.
The over prediction of rain in Bogota might be due to poorly
represented surface features such as topography, and soil classifi-
cation. The low quality surface data is a result of Bogota being an
understudied region compared to more frequently modeled areas
such as the United States and Europe. Future work can be focused
on better representing the region for meteorological modeling.
However, the tool that this work develops should still lead to
improved emissions estimates especially when used with more
accurate meteorological data.
Secondly, the transportable fraction was evaluated using USGS
land use dataset which, similar to the terrain and soil classification
data, may not be accurately representing the region. For this, the

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Please cite this article in press as: Pe ~ a, M.P., et al., Natural mitigation factor adjustment for re-suspended particulate matter emissions
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8 M.P. P
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~ a et al. / Atmospheric Pollution Research xxx (2016) 1e9
Table 3
Normalized mean bias NMB% and Normalized mean error NME% of monthly average
hourly precipitation for February and October modeling periods.
February modeling period October modeling period Literaturea
NMB (%) NME (%) NMB (%) NME (%) NMB (%)
186.93 186.93 143.84 143.84 40.90
a
Queen et al. (2008).
estimates were re-calculated as fo^x using Equation (13) but with
local information of land use (fol,x) (IDEAM, 2014) instead of USGS
land cover fraction (fl,x). Local land use types were adjusted to
match the USGS categories and the information was applied to a
domain of 55  55 km at 1 km resolution. When comparing the
mean values obtained (fo^x ¼0.64 and fx ¼0.59) a difference of 7% was
found among the fractions.
The transportable fraction estimated with USGS information
presents differences with local data. Fig. 7 shows the different
spatial patterns, especially toward the eastern hills where natural
forest reserve are present. However, in both approaches the value of
the transportable fraction within the city came close to 0.5, similar
to Pouliot et al. (2010) for the urban class. Because of the similarity
in transportable fractions between the local and USGS modeled
land use data, land use is not considered a significant source of
uncertainty.
4. Conclusions
Summary: This study developed and applied a tool which pro-
duces hourly natural mitigation factors for RPM based on modeled
precipitation and humidity, which can be applied to any domain in
the world. Furthermore, the tool applies time independent trans-
port fractions on a grid cell basis to account for RPM uptake by
surfaces. The tool was applied to an emissions inventory for Bogota,
Colombia which will be used for regulatory air quality modeling.
The inhibition factor due to precipitation from the tool was
more restrictive for paved roads than for unpaved roads, given the
fact that credits were used for its calculation. The surface humidity
Fig. 7. Transportable fraction fo,x calculated with local database on a 55  55 grid cell.

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factor for unpaved roads, had more heterogeneous distribution
compared to precipitation factor and caused more suppression of
emissions of RPM from this sources. Transportable fraction esti-
mates were applied based on the land use from USGS and a dif-
NME (%) ference of 7% was found between the modeled transportable
fractions and locally developed.
94.10
Hourly meteorological fractions in the dynamic dust emissions
inventory, allowed temporal variability on an emissions inventory
that previously accounted for inhibition on an annual scale with no
local deposition phenomena influence, which is now included
considering land use information that agrees with the predominant
classification that is urban. This fraction was found to be the pre-
dominant source of emission's reduction for both paved and un-
paved roads, although it does not add the temporal variability
accomplished by meteorology driven fractions.
The underlying dust emission inventory has remaining room for
improvement. While outside of the scope of this work, further ef-
forts are required to better estimate the sources of uncertainties
and assess which part of the emissions inventory calculation need
further development. Candidates for future development include:
improved silt load sampling methodology (Amato et al., 2013) and
spatial interpolation of silt loading. Silt loading in Bogot

a is much
higher than in typical U.S. cities, but is within the range of AP-42
calculations. Improving the silt estimation could further improve
the inventory.
The fractions applied served as constraint of the emissions to be
used as input in a photochemical model for regulatory purposes.
The application of hourly meteorological influence, transportable
fraction and empirical scaling is highly applicable in order to have
better results out of the photochemical model.
Acknowledgments
This project was funded by COLCIENCIAS0 young research pro-
gram and by Secretaria Distrital de Ambiente de Bogota SDA, under
contract 1467 of 2013 celebrated with Universidad de La Salle.
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