Section 2.

Angular momentum

Important example of the use of operators in

quantum mechanics

Leads to analysis of spin

Lays the foundation for solutions of the

Schrodinger equation in 3D
2.1 Definitions, operators and commutators

In classical mechanics, the angular momentum

of a particle at position r and with momentum
p is:
L = r× p

In quantum mechanics we replace r and p with

the corresponding operators (see section 1.2),
so the angular momentum operator becomes:
Lˆ = rˆ × pˆ

Cartesian components are:

Lˆ x = yˆ pˆ z − zˆ pˆ y

Lˆ y = zˆ pˆ x − xˆ pˆ z

Lˆ z = xˆ pˆ y − yˆ pˆ x
What is the commutator of Lˆ x and Lˆ y ?

 Lˆx , Lˆ y  = Lˆ x Lˆ y − Lˆ y Lˆ x
 

= ( yp ˆ ˆ y ) ( zp
ˆ ˆ z − zp ˆˆ z ) − ( zp
ˆ ˆ x − xp ˆˆ z ) ( yp
ˆ ˆ x − xp ˆˆ y )
ˆ ˆ z − zp

The only non-commuting operators here are ẑ

and pˆ z , so

ˆ ˆ x ( pˆ z zˆ − zp
 Lˆx , Lˆ y  = yp ˆ ˆ z ) + xp
ˆ ˆ y ( zpˆ ˆ z − pˆ z zˆ )
 
= ( xp
ˆˆ y − yp ˆ ˆ x ) ( zp
ˆ ˆ z − pˆ z zˆ )
= iℏ ( xp
ˆ ˆ y − yˆ pˆ x ) = iℏLˆ z

We find
 Lˆx , Lˆ y  = iℏLˆz
 
 Lˆ y , Lˆ z  = iℏLˆ x
 
 Lˆz , Lˆx  = iℏLˆ y
 
We can also define the square magnitude of the
total angular momentum as
Lˆ2 = Lˆ2x + Lˆ2y + Lˆ2z

What are the commutators of L̂2 with Lˆ x , Lˆ y

and Lˆ ?
z

 Lˆ2 , Lˆ z  =  Lˆ2x , Lˆ z  +  Lˆ2y , Lˆ z  +  Lˆ2z , Lˆz 

       

We find that the first two commutators on the

rhs cancel, and the last commutator is zero, so

 Lˆ2 , Lˆ x  =  Lˆ2 , Lˆ y  =  Lˆ2 , Lˆ z  = 0

     
The separate components of angular
momentum are not compatible and can not be
measured simultaneously

Each component is compatible with the total

angular momentum

We can therefore look for solutions which are

common eigenfunctions of L̂2 and Lˆ z
To help in the analysis, we define two more
operators
Lˆ+ = Lˆx + iLˆ y
Lˆ− = Lˆ x − iLˆ y

Properties of L̂+ and L̂−

(
Lˆ+ Lˆ− = Lˆx + iLˆ y )( Lˆ − iLˆ )
x y

= Lˆ2x + Lˆ2y − iLˆ x Lˆ y + iLˆ y Lˆ x

= Lˆ2 − L2z − i  Lˆx , Lˆ y 

= Lˆ2 − L2z + ℏLˆ z

Similarly
Lˆ− Lˆ+ = Lˆ2 − Lˆ2z − ℏLˆ z
So
 Lˆ+ , Lˆ−  = 2ℏLˆz
 
  Lˆz , Lˆ+  =  Lˆ z , Lˆ x  + i  Lˆz , Lˆ y 
     
(
= iℏ Lˆ − iLˆ
y x )
So
 Lˆz , Lˆ+  = ℏLˆ+
 

Similarly
 Lˆz , Lˆ−  = − ℏLˆ−
 
2.2 Eigenvalues of L̂2 and Lˆ z

Because L̂2 and Lˆ z commute, they must have a

common set of eigenfunctions. We can write
Lˆ2 φn = α n φn and Lˆz φn = β n φn

The eigenvalues α n and β n can be determined

just using operator expressions, together with
the condition
α n ≥ β n2
The algebra….
Lˆ z φn = β n φn

Lˆ+ Lˆz φn = β n Lˆ+ φn

 Lˆz , Lˆ+  = ℏLˆ+ so Lˆ+ Lˆ z = Lˆ z Lˆ+ − ℏLˆ+

 

⇒ (
Lˆz Lˆ+ φn ) = (β n + ℏ )(ˆ φ
L+ n )
Similarly, we can show

(
Lˆ z Lˆ− φn ) = (β n − ℏ() ˆ φ
L− n )
Lˆ+ φn is an eigenfunction of Lˆ z with
eigenvalue β n + ℏ

Lˆ− φn is an eigenfunction of Lˆ z with

eigenvalue β n − ℏ
More algebra….
Lˆ2 φn = α n φn

⇒ L+ L φn = α n Lˆ+ φn
ˆ ˆ2

Lˆ− Lˆ2 φn = α n Lˆ− φn

L̂2 commutes with Lˆ x and Lˆ y , so it must

commute with L̂+ and L̂−

(
⇒ Lˆ2 Lˆ+ φn ) = α ( Lˆ
n + φn )
Lˆ ( Lˆ
2
− φn ) = α ( Lˆ
n − φn )
Lˆ+ φn and Lˆ− φn are eigenfunctions of L̂2 with
eigenvalue α n
For each eigenvalue of L̂2 there are a set of
eigenfunctions with different Lˆ z eigenvalues.
The L̂+ and L̂− operators “raise” or “lower” the
eigenfunctions within this set.

L̂+ and L̂− are called “ladder operators” or

“creation” and “annihilation” operators

We now use the condition α n ≥ β . This

2
n
implies there is a maximum and minimum
value of β . Call these β max and β min , with
corresponding eigenfunctions φmax and φmin
Yet more algebra….
Lˆ+ φmax = 0 so Lˆ− Lˆ+ φmax = 0

From above
Lˆ− Lˆ+ = Lˆ2 − Lˆ2z − ℏLˆ z
so

( )
Lˆ2 − Lˆ2z − ℏLˆz φmax = 0

ie

( max − ℏβmax ) φmax = 0

α − β 2

∴ α = β max ( β max + ℏ )

In a similar way, starting from Lˆ− φmin = 0 we

find
α = β min ( β min − ℏ )
It follows that
β min = − β max

Neighbouring values of β on the Lˆ z “ladder”

differ by ℏ , so
β max − β min = nℏ (n integer)
n
⇒ β max = − β min = ℏ ≡ ℓℏ
2

Finally, we have

Eigenvalues of L̂2 are α = ℓ (ℓ + 1) ℏ 2 , with ℓ an

integer or “half integer”

For each value of ℓ , eigenvalues of Lˆ z can be

written as β = m ℏ , where m varies in integer
steps between −ℓ and +ℓ
For orbital angular momentum (ie what we’ve
been talking about so far) only integer values of
ℓ matter.

However, for more general angular momentum,

the half integer solutions are also relevant.
2.3 Eigenfunctions of L̂2 and Lˆ z
These cannot be obtained just from operator
algebra – we have to solve the equations. It is
most convenient to use spherical polar
coordinates.

Start from
Lˆ = rˆ × pˆ = −iℏ r × ∇

In spherical polars
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ = e r + eθ + eφ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

So

ˆ  ∂ 1 ∂ 
L = −iℏ  eφ − eθ 
 ∂θ sin θ ∂φ 
Unit vector in z direction is
e z = e r cosθ − eθ sin θ
and

ˆ ˆ ˆ ∂
Lz = e z . L ⇒ Lz = −iℏ
∂φ

For L̂2 we find

 1 ∂  ∂  1 ∂  2

 sin θ
ˆ
L = −ℏ  + 2
2 2
2 
 sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  sin θ ∂φ 
We want to solve

Lˆ2 Yℓm (θ ,φ ) = ℓ(ℓ + 1) ℏ 2 Yℓm (θ ,φ )

Lˆ z Yℓm (θ ,φ ) = mℏ Yℓm (θ ,φ )

Yℓm (θ ,φ ) are the common eigenfunctions of L̂2

and Lˆ z with eigenvalues ℓ(ℓ + 1)ℏ 2 and mℏ
respectively

The solutions Yℓm (θ ,φ ) are called spherical

harmonics. Derivations of them can be found in
textbooks and in other units.
The lowest few spherical harmonics are
1
Y00 =
4π

3
Y10 = cosθ
4π

3
Y1±1 = ∓ sin θ exp(±iφ )
8π

Y20 =
5
16π
( 3cos 2
θ − 1)

15
Y2±1 = ∓ cosθ sin θ exp(±iφ )
8π

15
Y2± 2 = sin 2 θ exp(±2iφ )
32π
2.4 Spin angular momentum

The Stern-Gerlach experiment allows us to

measure the z component of angular
momentum.

Orbital angular momentum is insufficient to

explain results for atoms

We therefore postulate that quantum particles

have an intrinsic angular momentum, or spin

We postulate spin operators Sˆx , Sˆ y , Sˆz with the

same commutation properties as Lˆ , Lˆ , Lˆ , ie
x y z

 Sˆx , Sˆ y  = iℏ Sˆz
 
 Sˆ y , Sˆ z  = iℏ Sˆ x
 
 Sˆz , Sˆx  = iℏ Sˆ y
 
We can also define
Sˆ 2 = Sˆx2 + Sˆ y2 + Sˆz2

All of the previous analysis follows through,

and we can conclude that:

Eigenvalues of Ŝ 2 are s ( s + 1) ℏ 2 , with s an

integer or “half integer”

Eigenvalues of Sˆz are ms ℏ , where ms varies in

integer steps between − s and s

For spin, the half integer solutions matter.

Atoms with no orbital angular momentum and
a single unpaired electron split into two beams
in a Stern-Gerlach experiment.

1
∴ Electrons are spin-half particles, ie s =
2
2.5 Pauli spin matrices
What are the eigenfunctions of Ŝ 2 and Sˆz for a
spin-half particle?

These cannot be functions of the particle’s

position, and so we need a representation that
doesn’t depend on spatial coordinates

In section 1.11 we discussed the matrix

representation of quantum mechanics. This
turns out to be a natural representation for spin
angular momentum
The Pauli spin matrices are defined as

0 1  0 −i  1 0 
σx =   σy =  σz =  
 1 0   i 0   0 −1 

The spin components are

ℏ ℏ ℏ
Sx = σ x
ˆ Sy = σ y
ˆ Sz = σ z
ˆ
2 2 2

These obey all the commutation relations, eg

ℏ 2
  0 1  0 −i   0 −i  0 1  
Sx , S y  =  
ˆ ˆ
  4 1 0  i 0  −  i 0  1 0  
     
ℏ 2   i 0   −i 0  
=   −  
4  0 −i   0 i 
ℏ 1 0  ˆ
= iℏ  = i ℏ S
2  0 −1
z
It is simple to calculate the eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions (ie eigenvectors) of Sˆx , Sˆ y , Sˆz :

Component Eigenvalue Eigenvector

ℏ 1 1
Sˆx + 1
2 2  
ℏ 1 1
Sˆx −  −1
2 2  
ℏ 1 1
Sˆ y + i
2 2  
ℏ 1 1
Sˆ y −  −i 
2 2  
ℏ 1
Sˆz + 0
2  
ℏ 0
Sˆz − 1
2  
What about Ŝ 2 ? We find

ˆ ˆ ˆ ℏ 1 0
2
Sx = S y = Sz = 
2 2 2

4  0 1 
so
3 2 1 0
Ŝ = ℏ 
2

4  0 1 

As expected, Ŝ 2 commutes with Sˆx , Sˆ y , Sˆz

All of the above eigenvectors are also

2 3 2
eigenvectors of Ŝ with eigenvalue ℏ , as
4
1
expected for s =
2