SEPT 22, 2020
LESSON 7: THE MORAL GOOD OF HUMAN
ACTS: NATURE OF HUMAN ACTS &
CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF
SATISFACTION
- Law → you have to be punished
- Do all in your means to save life
- Communal act → woman received way
beyond the price of a lawful bread
- Are my actions correct: legally or
morally?
NATURE OF HUMAN ACTS (ACTUS
HUMANUS)
- Act that proceeds form the knowledge
before, during or after (awareness →
self consciousness), free will,
voluntariness of a person
- Human act is an act which proceeds
from the deliberate free will of man
- Free act is called human because it is
an act that is proper to man as man
- Exercises or executes act into
reality based on the knowledge
the person has understood from
the intellect
- Free will: exercise of person
within free from any
entanglements
- Voluntariness: willingness to
exercise that choice (personal)
- The human act (actus humanus) is an
act of which man is master, one that is
consciously controlled and deliberately
willed, so that the man who performs it
is responsible for it
- No one can influence the person
- Human acts are to be distinguished from
acts of man (actus hominis)
NATURE OF ACTS OF MAN (ACTUS
HOMINIS)
- Acts of man include man’s animal acts
of sensation & appetation & acts that
are not deliberate & free
- No sense of control; involuntary
- An act of man is an act which man
performs but he is not the master of it
for he has not consciously controlled it,
has not deliberately willed it, and is
subsequently not responsible for it
KINDS OF ACTS OF MAN
- The natural acts of vegetaitive (growth &
nutrition( and sense faculties (5 senses)
- Acts of persons who lack the use of
reason (children → not fully functional)
- Acts of people who are asleep or under
the in influence of hypnosis or other
drugs (budol-budol)
- Quick, nearly automatic reactions, called
primo-primi acts (blinking)
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN ACTS
1. Complete or adequate cause of
human acts
- Some human acts begin & are perfected
in the will itself, and the rest begin & are
perfected by other faculties under
control of the will called
elicited acts”
- Everything ends and begins with the will
- Other human acts do not find their
adequate cause in the simple will-act,
but are perfected by the action of mental
or bodily powers under the control or
orders of and from the will; and these
acts are called “commanded acts”
- Will commands you to do
something → external
(observable)
2. Relation to the dictates of reason
- Manifest or expressed through
intellectual capacity to possess intellect
or will
ELICITED ACTS
1. Wish
- Simple love of anything; the first
tendency of the will towards a thing,
whether this be realizable or not
2. Intention
- Both tendencies (with wish)
- Purposive tendency (drive) of the will
towards a thing regarded as realizable,
whether this thing is actually done or not
- Intention is distinguished as actual,
virtual, habitual, and interpretative
intention
a. Actual intention
- Intention that manifests because of
actual action
- Coincides or is present in the actual act - Actualize a specific set of means to
in the particular moment (here and now) carry out or achieve your intention
b. Virtual intention 6. Fruition
- Resolution is a decision in the past - Enjoyment of a thing willed & done; the
- Actual intention is not realized so it just will’s act of satisfaction in intention
stays there with your given executive fulfilled
reason or power that would command - Satisfaction of the will because of the
you to do it precedence of fulfillment of an act
- Stays in the back of your mind → *All under the will → what should be done & not
lingers in you → distracted be done
- A righteous person even while he sins *Intellect → provides light for the will
vinally (does not destroy soul) still COMMANDED ACTS
habitually acts for the sake of God
- Venial sin: always be confessed
c. Habitual intention
- Repetition of a good or bad action
- Good: virtue
- Bad: vice
- Instance can have an occurrent (Always
there) or recurring intention towards an
end
d. Interpretative intention
1. Internal
- Someone acts for the sake of moral
- Action of internal or mental powers
goodness
(internal senses)
- Indirect voluntariness
a. Effort to remember
- One that does not have the power to
- lost phone → command your memory to
make their own decision
remember where it is
- Ex: parents make decisions for child
b. Conscious reasoning
3. Consent
- Better explanation of a particular
- Acceptance by the will of means
c. Effort to control anger
necessary to carry out intention
- Needs your effort
- Further intention of doing what is
d. Deliberate use of the imagination in
necessary to realize the first or main
visualizing a scene
intention
- Perfume → reminds you of someone
- Affirmative consent: consented to a yes
2. External
(not always affirmative → consented to
- Acts affected by bodily powers under
no)
command of the will
- Negation: consented to a no
- Ex: deliberate walking, eating, writing,
4. Election
speaking
- Selection by the will of the precise
3. Mixed
means to be employed in carrying out
- Acts that involve the employment or
an intention
bodily powers & mental powers
5. Use
- Ex: study which involves use of intellect
- The employment by the will of powers
& use of eyes in reading the lesson
(of body, mind or both) to carry out its
RELATION OF HUMAN ACTS TO REASON
intention by the means elected
- Human acts are either in agreement or
- Ex: giving your friend flowers &
in disagreement with the dictates of
chocolate
 reason, and this relation with reason
constitutes their morality
- Only with man because only
human being has the ability to
reason
- Fundamental basis that we can
measure or evaluate the
morality of an act
a. Good
- When they are in harmony with the
dictates of right reason
b. Evil
- When they are in opposition to these
dictates
c. Indifferent
- When they stand in no positive relation
(draw a connection that binds your
action) to the dictates of reason
- A human act that is indifferent itself
becomes good or evil according to the
circumstances which affect its
performance, especially the end in view
of the agent
- Ex: sleeping vs. sleeping guard (moral
breach of duty)
- Morally good or evil depending
on the motive
CONSTITUENTS OF THE HUMAN ACT
- In order for an act to be a human act it
must possess 3 essential elements of
constituents
- Knowledge (awareness or
consciousness of the person to
do the act), freedom,
voluntariness
1. Knowledge
- No human act is possible without
knowledge
- The will itself is a blin faulty that cannot
act unless enlightened by the intellect
- Job of the intellect to propose the good
to the will and the latter tends towards it
- Will without intellect is blind
- Intellect without will is lame?
- Provides information and pass
judgement pertaining to the means
choice that the will can decide upon
- Intellect (eyes); will (feet)
- Human act proceeds from the deliberate
will
- Advertence or knowledge in the mind of
what one is about an what this means
- Action can happen in a split second &
still be deliberate human act
- In ethics, deliberation means knowledge
- A human act → knowing act
- Preopposes self consciousness → that
you are aware of what is happening
inside of you while you are doing it
(conscious that you are consciously
doing it)
2. Freedom
- Determined (elicited or commanded) by
the human will & by nothing else
- Act controlled by the will, an act that the
will can perform or refuse to perform
- Such an act is termed a free act
- Therefore, every human act must be
free; freedom is an essential element of
it
- Your intention is your intention
and no one else’s
a. Freedom of choice
- Capacity to select from different options
presented to you
- Ex: parents gave you options where to
travel → you pick
b. Freedom of exercise
- Chosen a particular choice (course -
medtech) and you actualize your choice
into reality (enrolling)
- May be limited externally → parents
chose for you
c. Freedom from: free from something you
don’t want to (allergic)
d. Freedom for: those you do not have an
allergic reaction
e. Freedom for sin
f. Freedom for God: free for that 1 person
→ free from everyone (focused)
3. Voluntariness
- Human acts are voluntary acts
- Will-acts (ginusto mo)
- In order for a human act to occur an act
must not only be guided by knowledge
or deliberation but must also be willed
 - So an act which becomes from both
knowledge and will is called voluntary
- This will-act is not forced upon a person
from without nor does it aride in a
spontaneous manner from within
- Both from knowledge & will
- Act that has been fully
deliberated by intellect, freedom
of the will and willingness of the
person to do it or not to do it
- The agent (human subject) is the author
of his act must know not merely the
circumstance of the act but also the end
to which it leads
- It is the nature of a voluntary act that its
principle be within the agent together
with some knowledge of the end
- The inner principle referred here is the
will itself
- Is one which proceeds from the will with
a knowledge of the end
- Willed act wherein the agent knows
what he is about to do & wills to do it
- Aware of motive and nature of
the act
- Ex:
- Knowledge: seeing the injured
woman
- Freedom: to do it or leave it
unperformed (help the woman
or not)
- Voluntariness: does the moral
duty (calls ambulance & stays
with her until it arrives)
KINDS OF VOLUNTARINESS
1. Perfect and imperfect
- Full knowledge & full consent → to be
perfect
- Perfect voluntariness is present in the
human act where the agent fully knows
and fully intents the act
- Imperfect voluntariness is present when
there is some defunct in the agent’s
knowledge, intention or in both
- Cannot exercise full freedom &
voluntariness
- Ex: holdup → threat to life
2. Simple and conditional
- Simple voluntariness is present in a
human act performed, whether the
agent likes or dislikes doing it
- Performance of an act
- Ex: Medicine → cured take the
right meds
- Wish to address a specific mean
- Weather you want to take it or
not, you have to take this kind of
meds
- Conditional voluntariness is present in
the agent’s wish to do something other
than that which he is actually doing, but
doing w/ repugnance or dislike
- Sets a particular condition or
parameter to achieve particular
end
3. Direct and indirect
- Direct voluntariness (voluntary in se) is
present in the human act willed in itself
- Drink and you know you are
getting intoxicated
- Indirect voluntariness (voluntary in
causa) is present in that human act
which is the seen result (or a result that
ocuk and should have been foreseen) of
another act directly willed
- Drinking: say something you
can only say when you are
drunk
4. Positive and negative
- Positive voluntariness is present in a
human act of doing, performing
- Upon seeing the person
drowning, you get a stone and
throw it near to where the
person is drawing
- You did not just help the person,
but you also did something to
save that person
- Negative voluntariness is present in a
human act of omitting refraining from
doing
- See the person you hate is
drawing → ignore
- Deny yourself of immoral
responsibility (duty)
- Omitted something that you
should’ve done
DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY
- “Sources of morality”
- Morality of human acts depends on 3
elements or factors that make up the
sources or constitutive elements of the
morality of human acts
a. The object of the act (finis operis):
nature of the act
b. Intention (finis operantis): end of the
agent
c. Circumstances: situations, conditions
that surround the performance of the act
OBJECT
- Object chosen is a good toward which
the will deliberately directs itself
- Matter of a human act
- Object chosen morally specifies the act
of the will, insofar as reason recognizes
& judges it to be or not to be in
conformity w/ the true good
- Objective norms of morality (proximate -
reason and conscience and speculative
- reason provides you with all the
information) expresses the rational order
of good & evil, attested to by conscience
(practical judgement of reason)
- Remote: law → objective norm of
morality
INTENTION
- In contrast to the object, resides in the
acting subject because it lies at the
voluntary source of an action and
determines it by its end, intention is an
element essential to the moral
evaluation of an action
- Stabbing → hurting or
terminating (object)
- The one holding the knife
(intention) → what the person is
intending (motive) while the
knife is being stabbed
- Alms giving: doing it for media
or show off (government)
- End is the 1st giak of the intention &
indicates the purpose pursued in the
action
- The intention is a movement of the will
toward the end: it is concerned with the
goal of the activity
- Immediate end, proximate end,
remote end → primary
intentions but you have to go
through series of intentions
- To graduate → take a pre med
- The first in the series of
intention is the last to be
exercised
- End of the act (finis operis):
fulfillment of the act itself
- End of the agent (finis
operantis): fulfillment of the
motive as to why he is doing the
act
- Ingredients: graham crackers,
condensed milk, cream, mango
→ intending to make a graham
cake (graham ref cake - ending
of the act) → present for
someone’s bday (end of the
agent)
- It aims at the good anticipated from the
action undertaken
- Intention is not limited to directing
individual actions but can guide several
actions toward one & the same purpose;
it can orient one’s whole life toward its
ultimate end
CIRCUMSTANCES
- The circumstances including the
consequences, are secondary elements
of a moral act
- They contribute to increasing or
diminishing the moral goodness or evil
of human acts
- They can also diminish or increase the
agent’s responsibility
- Positive
- Give the poor your food
→ alms giving →
morally good
- Intention: want the
person to be filled
- You don’t know the
circumstance the
person is in → hungry
- Negative (aggravates)
- Gets shot inside the
Church → the place as
 a circumstance even
aggravates the moral
evil of what the criminal
did
- Killed the person while
praying → Makes the
whole crime more evil
- While sleeping → time
element
- Diminishing
- Less morally evil
- Parents gave you an
assignment to watch
over the rice cooking
- At the very moment,
you also have a
deadline to submit
online (torn to choose)
- You forgot about the
rice → you are
responsible but less
responsible because
you also had an urgent
matter
- Circumstances of themselves cannot
change the moral quality of acts
themselves; they can make neither good
nor right an action that is in itself evil
- Killing the person in self defense
→ you still killed the person
- Diminish moral responsibility
(self defense)
REMEMBER
- For a human act to be morally good all
the constitutive elements: the obj, the
end, or intention, and the circumstances
must be good together
- There are acts which, in and of
themselves, independently of
circumstances & intentions are always
gravely illicit by reason of their object,
such as blasphemy & perjury, murder &
adultery
- In themselves without the
qualifications of agent intention
→ qualified as morally evil
- One may not do evil so that good may
result from it
- Such acts are called intrinsically
evil & can never be done nor
justified for any reason
whatsoever
- It is never licit to do evil that
good may come of it (Romans
3:8)
- As long as you achieve the
good end in mind
- Even if your end is noble it
never justifies the means
OCT 6, 2020
DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY
OBJECT
MOTIVE
- Object, motive, circumstance
- Ex:
- The very nature of the act will remain
evil
- Nature of the act - can be mitigated by
indicators and determinants
- Object of the act - the end doesn't justify
the means
- An indiff act becomes evil -​ A neutral
act is an act of nature (ex sleeping) → it
becomes evil lang when for example
security guard sleeping letting the
enemies enter
- An indiff act becomes good- ​Example:
Eating - there's no morally good food or
bad food → but if you eat to sustain your
life and be healthy for your family then it
becomes more noble
- Objectively good act to evil example:
you give house to a girl but then you
give it cause you want to take
advantage of her
- Objectively good act to being more
good - ​intention (objectively good act) -
you don't want a grandma to
- Objectively evil → more evil ​- the one
having an evil intention → killing tas you
also have the intention pa of letting the
family suffer without him
- Quidditas: essence of what you do
CIRCUMSTANCE
- Conditions or situations that can either
aggravate (add) or mitigate the act
 - Circumstances: committed a crime civilians → mass
1. Person: ​who​ committed; who is the casualty or mass
victim casualty to fear the govt
2. Place:​ ​where​ was it committed and benefit itself →
3. Time​: ​when​ was it committed illicitly inflict threat to
4. Manner​: ​how​ was he murdered civilians
5. Means​: ​instrument​ used (knife); what - Tactical Bomber - goal
did he use to commit the crime is to bomb targets with
6. Things​: ​prevailing​ ​conditions​ and a foresight that may
situations​ that surround the omission of result to the death of ppl
something → foreseen effect but
THE PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE-EFFECT unintended
- Justification of the act of killing in consequence
defending oneself; means for the - Both bombers kills
preservation of life which justifies the civilians but the terrorist
indirect act of killing kasi part nang intention
- No way of escaping the act: 1 good, 1 is to kill civilians directly
evil intended na
- Ex: murder instead of self defense - Tactical bomber: not
4 CONDITIONS good but an indifferent
1. Act act)
- The act itself must be good or morally - Act: Bombing
indifferent - Act may be legally
- Object of the act must see that the permissible but morally
act/object of the act must be good even not
if it can have 2 effects (consequences of - Bomb just the
the act) instillations not the
- Incidental evil civilians
2. Time - Terrorist
- The good effect must come 1st before - Human shield
the bad effect simultaneously to protect
- The intention must be good from themselves
the start & all throughout - Terrorist
- Person who commits the act bomber inflicts
should not positively will that evil fear and threats
effect by killing
- Must achieve good effect civilians
without evil effect *Tactical bomber intends to bomb military
- Precedence and preceding targets → goal is not to bomb to have civilian
3. Proportionality casualties but to bomb military targets with a
- The good effect must be equal/ greater foresight (unforeseen effect but unintended
than the bad effect consequence)
- If the good effect is not 4. Motive
proportionate it cannot be - Intention must be good from the start
justified - The person who does the act must be
- Example: Terrorist bomber and good lang yung intention → he or she di
Tactical Bomber niya alam na may evil pala sa
- The terrorist want to magagawa niya
bomb inflict fear and kill
 - In case na no choice you have to do evil
even if youre intention is good →
indirectly willed → consequence to the
act of the good effect
- You cannot say that your intention is
balanced if there's a good effect and
bad effect
- Intention: aiming towards good and the
evil is just a consequence of it all
EXAMPLE
- Act: Americans bombing Intramuros
- Time: bombed → what happened first?
→ death or destruction = simultaneously
- Intention: moral or legal deliberation
(considered as the motive is following
the orders → can be good)
- Can change from destruction to
liberation
- Proportionality: everything turns into
ashes → nothing to celebrate after the
war
- Enjoy independence
- Act will result into massive
destruction of people then what
is the use of engaging in war
- Motive: liberate the people
- Rational people who have political goals
that use terrorist acts to achieve these
political goals → IN MORALITY, IS
UNACCEPTABLE
THE DOUBLE EFFECT CAVEATS
1. Should not be used as a justifying
principle to precede with an end that is
good but has bad means
2. Justification should be in the right
context → permit harm merely as a
foreseen side effect in foreseeing a
good effect → in achieving the good end
may foreseen harmful thing (diff from
permitting harm for a good end)
- Good naman lahat ng ginawa
may side effect lang na bad
- Doctor who provides medication
to terminally dying patients in
order to hazen their death and
alleviate suffering is ​not morally
permissible
3. Do not use this principle in
consequentialist philosophy
- Morality of the object of the act
and the means itself is
independent from the end
MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS
- Affect our human actions in terms of our
state of knowledge, freedom and
voluntariness
- Less moral quality of moral act = lessen
quality of agent
IGNORANCE
- Absence of knowledge
- Negative ignorance: absence of
intellectual knowledge; no
concept of a particular reality
- Having no concept of
what tuesday means →
intellectually absent
- Primitive ignorance: lack
something that you are
supposed to have (given by
nature or expected by you)
- eyes cannot see
(privation of sight)
- Positive ignorance: person who
is supposed to have a
knowledge of something but
possess a false knowledge
(mistake or error)
- It may be denied, in ethics, as the
absence of intellectual knowledge in
man
- It is thus a negation of knowledge; it is a
negative thing
- But when it is an absence of knowledge
that ought to be present, the ignorance
is not merely negative but privative
- Ignorance has a positive aspect when it
consists not merely in the absence of
knowledge, but in the presence of what
 is falsely supposed to be knowledge.
Such positive ignorance is called
“mistake or error”
CONSIDERATIONS IN IGNORANCE
- In its Object ​or in the thing of which a
person may be ignorant (what you’re
ignorant of)
- In its Subject ​or in the person in whom
ignorance exists (person as the agent in
whom ignorance exists)
- In its Result ​or with reference to the
acts that are performed in ignorance
(act performed in the state of ignorance)
IGNORANCE IN ITS OBJECT
1. Ignorance of law
- Ignorance of the existence of a duty,
rule, or regulation.
- Not aware that there is such a law
- Excuses no one (people will always find
exceptions to the rule)
- Maintain status quo of the law
2. Ignorance of fact
- Ignorance of the nature or circumstance
of an act as forbidden
- Aware there is a law that forbiddens
buying alcoholic drinks during election
- Not ignorant of the law but the fact there
is the application of such law
3. Ignorance of penalty
- Lack of knowledge of the precise
sanction affixed to the law
- Negative sanction → positively (reward)
- You knew the law but you don't know
the penalty that would be given
IGNORANCE IN ITS SUBJECT
1. Vincible ignorance
- Conquerable ignorance or ignorance
that can and should be supplanted by
knowledge. Ignorance that can be
dispelled by the use of ordinary
diligence.
- Culpable (guilt)
- Ex: you aren't aware about the
submission of the PETA → the student
is as fault cause you can always ask
naman
- Due diligence → effort to know
about it
- Such ignorance is, therefore, due to lack
of proper diligence on the part of the
ignorant person, and is his fault. Vincible
ignorance is, in consequence, culpable
ignorance
2. Invincible ignorance
- Ignorance that ordinary and proper
diligence cannot dispel
- This sort of ignorance is attributable to
one or two causes: either the person in
whom the ignorance exists has no
realization whatever of his lack of
knowledge, or the person who realizes
his ignorance finds ineffective his effort
to dispel it. Hence, invincible ignorance
is never the fault of the person in whom
it exists, and it is rightly called inculpable
ignorance
DEGREES OF VINCIBLE IGNORANCE
1. Crass or Supine: ​little or no effort at all
to remove your state of ignorance
2. Simply Vincible:​ when you started to
work on your ignorance but did not
really persevere in studying → “mema
aral”
3. Affected: ​when a person deliberately
remain in ignorance to pursue what he
wants
- Not participate in a groupwork →
exempt yourself
- Worst kind: strays from moral
responsibility
*pretentious ignorance: pretend that you dont
know
IGNORANCE IN ITS SUBJECT
EXAMPLE
- A freshman who has been in college a
month and does not know the college
rules of order is in the state of vincible
ignorance in the matter. If he has made
 no effort, or scarcely any, to know the
rules, his ignorance is ​crass or supine.​ If
he has positively avoided learning the
rules so that he may have a ready
excuse for faults, his ignorance is
affected​. If he has made some inquiries
about the rules, or has tried once or
twice, without success, to procure a
copy of the rule book, his ignorance is
simply vincible.
DEGREES OF INVINCIBLE IGNORANCE
1. Physically invincible:​ no human effort
can dispel it (kakayahan mo)
2. Morally invincible:​ such effort as good
& prudent men would expend to dispel it
taking into account the character &
importance of the matter about which
ignorance exists is found to be
ineffective ​(not able to understand
despite giving physical effort)
- You take into account the seriousness
of the matter but the effort is ineffective
PRINCIPLES THAT APPLY TO IGNORANCE
& ITS RESPONSIBILITY
1. Supine ignorance
- Prevents the human act from being
voluntary in regard to that which is not
known
- May not be responsible of what he does
not know
2. Vincible ignorance
- Does not take away the voluntariness.
Diminishes voluntariness, as long as the
ignorance is not affected
- Not knowing that deadline of the PETA
→ but you can have the responsibility to
know
3. Simple negligence/laziness
- Does not usually imply a full consent to
all the possible evil consequences which
may come therefrom
- If you have done something because of
simple negligence you may just be lazy
example → lazy to study
- Doesn't mean that you would consent to
the possible consequence of your action
- Lazy but you don’t want to fail
(consequence) → you are directly
consenting because → u r responsible
4. Invincible ignorance
- In a serious matter generally makes the
sin grave
- Destroys voluntariness, so no
voluntariness = person is not involved
- Just because you do not know, it doesnt
mean you should stop
- 1ST Bona Fide (In good faith): ​you
thought after checking the room wala na
tao - ​Voluntary - Unintentional
- Unintentional Harm
- Second Kind​- You know that you are
ignorant of something so you try to unds
pero di mo talaga gets → you have
given your due and moral diligence
5. Affected ignorance
- Does not diminish guilt because there is
full consent to the sinful affects which
result from such ignorance
- Remain in ignorance to achieve
personal goal → intention that is not
bona fide
IGNORANCE IN ITS RESULT
1. Antecedent ignorance (before the act
of the will)
- That which precedes all consent of the
will. It does not differ from invincible
ignorance
- Ex: waiter in a resto → aware that there
is the presence of molds in the food
- Stop serving that food
2. Concomitant ignorance (performed
despite the knowledge of it - aware)
- Ignorance that accompanies an act that
would have been performed even if the
ignorance did not exist
- You choose not to attend in spite of
awareness → carried through your
decisions
3. Consequent ignorance (after the act
of the will/made the decision)
- That which follows an act of the will. The
will may directly affect it or supinely
neglect to dispel it. It does not differ
from vincible ignorance
- Ex: doctor → discovered that the
disease that can be considered as covid
→ does not inform → after making the
 decision which of that you are supposed
to know = formally responsible for it
ERROR, FALSE JUDGEMENT OR
CONVICTION
- It arises from deficient education, bad
company or misleading information →
one is not responsible for the
consequences of error made in good
faith
- Class on theology (not sure if may
classes or asynchronous)
- You are responsible to check if
the info is correct or not → given
that you are full of
responsibilities (error made in
good faith) → check if you had
time you would've known it but
you did not → not responsible
- Culture that believes in abortion/human
sacrifice is morally acceptable
- Ancestors would offer babies to deities
as acts of sacrifice → prayer/petitions
be granted by gods
- During the time that you understood it
and know what should've been done in
the dignity of a human person to
preserve his life → you are responsible
for the state of error that you choose to
believe
a. Deficient education: lacks full skills,
training expected to be good enough for
him to achieve a purpose in life
b. Bad company: people that show signs
that enjoys when something bad
happens to others; anger issues, BI’s →
leads to falsity of who you are and who
you can be as a child of God
c. Misleading info: incorrect; element
where something is added or omitted to
the essential and factual data of the
truth of the matter
- Effort made, info give, transaction done
→ doing business in good faith
INATTENTION
- Refers to momentary deprivation of
insight → if attention is completely
lacking, there is no human act
- Driving: you thought of something and
you almost ran over a person
- If attention is completely lacking,
there is no human act
- Fully unaware, you may not be
responsible
- If you ran over the person → u r
at fault
- Homicide: did not intentionally
kill → reckless imprudence
- Murder: intentional
- Able to prove: you are
responsible but mitigated (less)
IGNORANCE
CONCUPISCENCE
- Not a modifier of knowledge but a
modifier of freedom
- The term is often used to signify the
frailty, or proneness to evil, which is
consequent in human nature upon
original sin. However, in Ethics, it refers
to those bodily appetites or tendencies
which are called the passions
- 2 meanings
- Proneness to evil (sense of
frailty) due to the consequence
of original sin
- Classified as an
appetite/tendency/passion
- Passion: movement of the sensitive
appetite that precedes the free decision
of the will
- Takes place before the decision
of the will
- Movement of the sensitive appetite
which is moved by the good or evil
apprehended by imagination
- Takes place after the person
has fully understood the
element of good/evil
apprehended by imagination
- 2 types of passions
a. Concupiscible
- The soul is completely include to seek
what is suitable acc to the senses that
dictate a person and to fly away from
what is hurtful
- Ex: when you see a dog barking → the
passion that invokes in you is fear
(natural)
i. Attraction towards presence of
good →
1. Love: enjoyment; when
you love a person it
exemplifies a
connection/attachment
2. Joy: you feel the deep
affection with you;
evokes a feeling of
pleasure/jubilation
3. Desire: strong tendency
to want a thing/person
ii. Repulsion away from the object
of evil
1. Hatred: feeling of
intense
resentment/anger
2. Sadness: presence of
evil is infront of you
3. Aversion: dislike;
presence of evil
b. Irascible
PRINCIPLES OR CRITERIA THAT JUDGE
THE MORALITY OF AN ACT INFLUENCED
BY PASSIONS
- An animal resists the attacks of any
agents that hinders what is suitable &
inflicts harm
- Its object is something arduous because
its tendency is to overcome & rise above
obstacles
- Ex: the dog is a clear and present
danger because the dog runs faster
than you → the fear is now an argos
fear that is difficult to overcome
a. Hope: caused by the knowledge of an
absent good, difficult to obtain but still
achievable
- We hope for something we can achieve,
bec it is difficult to achieve
b. Courage: rebellion against & rejection of
a present sensible evil
- Signals that you can overcome it
c. Despair: when the same good is
perceived as ​unattainable
- Is despair the same as frustration?
- Frustration: not able to
overcome the desire
- Despair: complete loss of
absence/hope
- Depressed: you are not in despair bec
you could not say that there is a
complete loss of absence/hope
- God will not give you something that will
destroy you but make you stronger :)
d. Fear: uneasiness toward a future evil
that is deemed unavoidable
- Fear does not make you are a coward
→ you are facing the danger in front of
you; there is a reason to be afraid of
- Fear also makes you have courage →
facing it
- Full of courage making you face your
fears (as you walk through fear, you are
walking with courage)
e. Anger: prompting a wish to revenge a
present sensible act
- Way for humans to express emotion
- Express anger responsibly
- We don't eliminate anger but manage
(anger management)
 1. Antecedent passions
- (1) Antecedent passions may
completely destroy freedom. Antecedent
passions are passions that occur prior
the act. For example, many people were
injured due to a stampede that was
caused by panicking (fear) people
- Takes before the will can decide
on smth
- Ex: many people were injured
due to a stampede (panicking)
→ can they be responsible for
those who died → you won’t
even know who are responsible
→ may completely destroy you
freedom (panic) → your state of
sanity to a certain extent is
deprived of you (you cannot
think what to do)
- May completely destroy
freedom and take away moral
liability
- (2) Antecedent passions do not always
destroy freedom for we can always
control these feelings. We are masters
of our action
- Anger controls you (sudden
burst of emotion) you slap the
person on the face → you are in
anger you are not able to control
your passion → theres always
that part in yourself that tells you
“okay i know what i am doing”
(aware that you will hurt the
person)
2. Consequent passion: ​makes person
responsible
- Why?: takes after the intellect
has processed and known what
should’ve been done
- The intellect has shown to the
will what should or not be done
- If you choose to do whatever
you want that is against your will
→ you are fully responsible
OCT 10, 2O2O (ASYNCHRONOUS)
3. Concomitant passion:
- Warning sign
- Takes place during a performance of an
action where the passion doesn't listen
to conscience
- Ex: while cheating during an exam u
have that sense of fear in you that it is
not right (guilt) you still continue
cheating that guilt is concomitant to you
(reminds you to stop) → you are
responsible
FEAR
- Mental trepidation due to an impending
evil. It is fear of the senses and not
intellectual fear which is one of the
passions
- Mental trepidation - anxiety or
stress
- Iminent -incoming, you don't
know when it will come but will
- Intellectual fear: e.g. threat of torture
does not justify denial of faith
- Intellectual apprehension (ex.
Fear of torture), fear of
something that may happen,
anticipation
- Fear that controls our
mind → immediate
evokes the mind even
though wala ka pa
nafefeel (sense)
- The emotion of fear which completely
darkens the mind or paralyses the will
excuses from imputability
- Emotion of Fear​ - fear that arises from
5 external sense (ex creepy sound at
night) → feeling of distress
- Senses → emotion of fear →
effects by the mental
disposition→ then recognized
as passion of fear by our system
- Factual → taking away the
proper disposition of your mind
- Passion of Fear ​- diff from
intellect
- Paralysing you will in knowing
what is right and wrong
- Phobia ​- since they are real fear
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING FEAR
1. Fear as the emotional reaction to
something as perceived by the sense
(intense fear ) may completely darken
the mind and paralyze the will thus
you are excused from moral
imputability
- But if proven that there is still
part of it that you can still think
right and wrong then you are not
excused from moral imputability
- You have to remember that the
person could not mistake
responsibility and cause to
whatever consequence that may
happen
- Still responsible to cause that
happens
- However while performing the
act free siya from moral
imputability
2. Actions that are done ​with fear ​are
VOLUNTARY → actions that are done
that predisposes fear
- You fear the exam so you don't
take it
3. Actions done ​out of fear​ however
great may be is simply voluntary
however may also be conditionally
involuntary
a. Not taking the exam because
you fear it is ​voluntary
b. Out of fear for your life you did
not tell the crime you witnessed
→ because you are scared →
conditional voluntary
- You have the moral
responsibility to tell so
that justice may be
served
c. Conditional Voluntariness of
the Person
- Ex. NBI - will give
witness protection
program → fear is
regulated by the
condition of safety that
is on the positive side
- Analyze the situation carefully in
evaluating grounds
4. Actions done because of fear is
INVOLUNTARY
- Fear is a source of involuntary
action
- In a bank robbery you give your
cell phone
- Fear of the safety of your life
- Fear got into your mind and will
- Fear because you may lose
your life is the most important
value of all and is a justifying
reason in saying that your act is
INVOLUNTARY
5. Actions done​ in spite​ of fear is
VOLUNTARY and in FULL
RESPONSIBILIT​Y
- You went uphill then there was a
warning of a typhoon --. In spite of that
warning your grp still continues trekking
- What happened you is your
responsibility
- Act that takes place after the
deliberation mind and will
- Fear is the shrinking back of the mind
from danger. More accurately, it is the
- agitation of the mind brought about by
apprehension of impending evil
- Actions may proceed from fear
as their cause, or may be done
with fear as an accompanying
circumstance
VIOLENCE
- Violence or coaction is external force
applied by a free cause for the purpose
of compelling a person to perform an act
which is against his will
- External force​ applied by a free
agent → free because in against
his own mind
- Compelled to something against
your own will is a manifestation
of violence
- Physical, Psychological and
Verbal Abuse
 - Psychical Violence -(psyche -
soul) - violence that is inflicted in
your psych
- Violence cannot reach the will
directly. It may force bodily
action, but the will is not
controlled by the body. Still, the
will has the command of bodily
action, and since this command
is limited or destroyed for the
moment by violence, the will is
said to be indirectly affected by
violence
- Experience torture →
ultimately your will is
your will
- The will has the
command of bodily
action → you aren't
supposed to be
governed by bodily will
so that you wouldn't
succumb
- Internal resistance is always
necessary. While external
resistance may not be always
called for it is required only to
the extent that is foreseen to be
efficacious in preventing action
or forestalling scandal
- Will is totally destroyed
by violence → will is
indirectly involved in
violence → you are
affected by the violence
- If violence is inflicted
and taken upon us then
our will is fully affected
- If you are used to
violence the you my
withstand it and if not
you may just succumb
to the fear
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
- When you are forced by a man and
inflicts violence on you → you should
have a principle IN YOURSELF → that
violence is taking place so you need an
internal resistance
- Necessary to ascertain that the person
resist by his will the force that is inflicted
to him or her
- The force that you can let out when you
are forced to be in a bad situation or an
event that is against your will
- Cocit Concores​ - agreement to the
external force of the oppressor
- Under the resistance of force a persons
will may freeze
EXTERNAL RESISTANCE
- May not always be necessary
- Only necessary and called for when you
are in danger of death
- Required to the extent that when
external resistance is predisposed
- By your calculation you can outsmart
the oppressor you can do it then go →
but if you can’t resist internally nalang →
you know you are against his will but
cant do anything in your part
IN SUMMARY
A person that is acting on violence may not be
responsible on his actions → not morally
imputable
- Internal resistance in all means is
necessary
- External Resistanceisnt always
necessary except in your calculation you
can overcome the oppressor if you cant
dont for you not do endanger your life
- Ex - Saint Maria Goretti → subjected to
many stabs (violence) → but she
forgave the man who raped her then the
man was converted to goodness
HABITS
- A habit is a facility and readiness for
acting in a definite way, acquired by the
frequent repetition of a certain kind of
act
- It is a comparatively permanent
quality disposing a thing well or
ill in its being or operations.
Virtues and vices are particular
types of habits
- Habituation is not the last end but the
beginning of the presence of the reality
of habits
 - An act that you repeat time and again
(habituated to a particular act) which
proposes a value/principle (something
good) to our soul → “virtue”
- Something evil → “vice”
- Principles that govern habit
a. 1st principle: ​habits preside in the
person's facility of doing things
- Becomes part or “second nature” of
operations of faculties of intellect & will
- The facility is called “force of habit”
which enables us to experience a kind
of habituation of doing things
- Habituation → lets nature make its own
appearance and progress as a virtue or
vice in you (enables the nature in us to
through our actions)
DELIBERATELY ADMITTED HABITS (2nd
principle)
- Do not lessen voluntariness and actions
resulting therefrom are voluntary at least
in their cause
- Actions that may result from these
deliberately admitted habit is considered
as voluntary at least in cause
- Admitting of lying to your teacher →
admitting that you are a liar upon or
after your admission of a particular habit
of lying does not excuse you from your
moral responsibility to the
consequences of any action that
proceeds from that habit
- It does not mean you admitted it
→ you are freedom from
responsibility
- Admittintance of saying bad words →
you are responsible of saying bad habit;
you are responsible for what you have
confessed (you are the cause of it)
- Admitting depends on the
circumstances in which when you admit
you are GUILTY
- However, when you are required to
admit something that is factual and the
admission of guilt will resolve a
particular crime/problem/situation → you
are contributing to the resolution to the
problem and makes situations better
- You are responsible for the
cause of the act but the
admission is a
show/sign/participation to the
resolution of the problem = may
lessen your voluntariness
(repentance upon
consequences)
OPPOSED HABITS (3rd principle)
- Lessen voluntariness and sometimes
preclude it completely. The reason is
that habit weakens the intellect and will
in a concrete situation in a similar way
- Habits that counteract the presence of
an existing habit
- Ex: habit of smoking
- Physiological habit (system
wants it time & again)
- Elements of smoking as a habit
a. First time
b. Submitted yourself
c. Propensity or inclination to smoke again
d. Repeated (you gave in the inclination)
= habituated to smoking
- Smoking is bad → you realize when ure
30 yrs old
- You made a resolution to stop
(you contracted an opposed
habit)
- Exert an effort to take away your
opposing habit → your renewal
or change
- Make you less responsible if
you experience regression in
the habit of smoking
- Opposed habit → process of changing
your old habits or totaitly removing you
previous habit
- Presence of opposed habit: ignifies your
voluntary intention and habituation of
self renewal, change or conversion
- Lessens voluntariness and
destroy it completely
(sometimes precludes it →
prevents from happening)
- Ex: masturbation
- You realize that it has a
physiological bad effect
 - You made a resolution to not do
it again (you developed a habit
to counteract your previous
habit)
- If you fell again to the act → you have a
lessened voluntariness bec the effect pf
the previous habit is still strong (when
you smell the smoke it engages you to
smoke → weakens your intellect & free
will → temptation)
- Presence of opposed habit tells you:
you are less voluntarily as long as you
signify the presence of opposed habit
that justifies the act and precludes
voluntariness
VIRTUES
- A virtue is a permanent inclination and
facility to perform morally good acts. It is
a good operative habit. Cardinal virtues,
which are the principle virtues among
several groups of virtues, are four in
number, namely: prudence, justice,
temperance, fortitude
- “Vir”: “man” or “man made”
- “You are a virtuous person” →
you are mirroring or excluding
an aura of manliness or
worthiness of being a man
- Perfection of the nature of being
a man & woman
- The sense of manliness or womanliness
or worthiness of being a man & a
woman
- Even if virtue is male oriented we would
use the word virtue in its connotation to
both male and female
- Development of man’s nature in male &
female
- Virtuous: living the life worthy to be
called a man or woman
- Repetition of the same good act of
morality
- Virtue ethics vs. duty ethics
a. Virtue ethics: emphasis on the
development of virtues & role of
character as the basis of morality
- How a person would contract & develop
virtues & emphasize on the role of good
conduct or development of your
character as the basis of your morality
as a person
- A person can still be considered virtuous
even if he does not perform his duty
when his duty does not promote him
personal well being and communal good
- Self development or personal
development that focuses on the
acquisitions of virtues for character
building
b. Duty ethics
- Basis of morality is the performance of
your duties and responsibilities
- Less performance of duty = less morality
as a person
c. 4 cardinal virtues, 3 theological virtues,
7 fundamental sources of virtues of the
spirit, 7 vices
4 VIRTUES (focused on cardinal virtue)
- Cardinal virtuous
- “Cardinal”: “cardo” or “cartines” means
hinge (4 hinges of a door) that connects
door to the wall
- Fundamentally anchors us to the
development of virtues as a child of God
- Development of moral virtues in which
cardinal virtuous are the principal &
principle virtues that become the source
(4 pillars) or fount of all moral virtues
- Signifies a permanent inclination/facility
- Called cardinal because it is the source
or fount of all moral virtues for man to be
called virtue or honorable as a person
1. Prudence
- An intellectual virtue which enables man
to judge correctly in each individual case
presented to him just what the moral
order requires of him. It is a habit of the
practical intellect
- What is the moral order that is required
for me to decide upon/apply
- Habit of a practical intellect
- “The good reason in action” -
Thomas Aquinas
- “Good reasonable foresight as what you
should do in all situations that you face”
- Ex: You see a cloud outside → it is thick
(greyish) prudence dictates that
 sometime later it will rain and that you
have to bring your umbrella
- Presence of the good moral
order that you should implement
in every situation that you face
2. Justice
- A moral virtue which inclines man’s will
to render unto each one his due
- Comes from the Latin word “Uris” or use
- Moral virtue that inclines us our will to
render unto each other what is due to
us, ourselves, to God
- Striking the balance → being fair to
people
- Being equitable to people
- Equitable is not the same as
equality → in the case of how
you treat people
- Equality: maintain justice in
terms of properties & needs but
it is not possible bec there will
always be rich & poor
(economic gap)
- You have to give hat is due to
people as they deserve (ex:
salary to employees)
- Equality to dignity & human rights
- Equitability: giving you what you
deserve by effort, fairness, and justice
3. Temperance
- The moral virtue which regulates the
desire for sensible pleasure within the
limits of right reason
- Sense of self regulation or moderation in
everything (food, pleasure, studies)
- Moderation in everything
- Striking a balance or equilibrium in what
you do so you don’t exceed beyond the
limits and fall below the limits
- Abnormal: persona falls below the norm
or exceeds (bec u are going away from
the norm) → temperance is maintaining
the balance
4. Fortitude
- Inclines the will to overcome grave
danger and to sustain severe hardship
in the pursuit and maintenance of the
moral good
- Fors: nominative case (1st depletion)
- Fortis: genitive case (3rd depletion)
- “Fors fortis”: force, strength, power,
capacity
- Inclines the will as a kind of force/
strength to overcome great danger and
to sustain severe hardship in the pursuit
and maintenance of the moral good
- Ex: St. Thomas Aquinas tempted when
he was put in custody in a tower when a
woman appeared to him and wanted to
tempt him but he was a man of fortitude
and was able to overcome and resist the
sexual temptation → maintain moral
goodness in him
- He was given a chastity belt
which was a gift for him fo r sign
of great fortitude to resist
temptation
- “The angelic doctor”
- Angeliucm: strength of fortitude
of St.Thomas Aquinas
- Will to resist temptation then you have
fortitude
WHY IS IT CALLED CARDINAL
- “Cardinal” for which other virtues
emanate
- Ex: honesty → emanates from justice
(makes you feel good) and prudence
(you can suspend the truth & tell it later
→ telling ur bff abt her bf cheating the
day before board exams)
VICES
- A permanent inclination and facility to
perform morally bad acts. It is a bad
operative habit which inclines the will to
acts at variance with right reason. Pride,
which is the inordinate desire for one’s
own excellence, is the queen of all vices
- Vices vs. virtues
- Repetition of the same bad act
- Virtue: repetition of the same
good act
- Humility is the mother of virtues;
pride if the father/queen of vices
- 7 capital vices;7 capital virtues
that emanate from the 4 cardinal
virtues
- Faith: believing to the truth of faith that
is revealed by God to us;
 - Mental agreement of a person
that God has revealed about
Himself and His plan for man
- Hope: anchor that enable us to aspire
for the things that prepared for us to
remain faithful throughout
- Charity: fundamental expression of
practical chirsitiany
- Only virtue that will exist
eternally bec love will live
forever when you are with God
SEVEN CAPITAL VICES
1. Vainglory
- An inordinate desire to manifest one’s
own excellence and to receive praise
from men
2. Avarice/covetousness
- The inordinate love of having
possessions or riches
3. Lust
- The inordinate desire for sexual
pleasure
4. Anger
- The inordinate desire for revenge
5. Gluttony
- The inordinate desire for food and drink
6. Envy
- Sadness on account of the goods
possessed by another which are
regarded as harmful to oneself since
they diminish one’s own excellence or
renown
7. Sloth
- Sorrow in the face of spiritual good
inasmuch as it is God’s good, or sorrow
regarding the means of salvation
conferred on us and prescribed by God
LESSON 8: GENUINE FREEDOM: PURSUIT
OF GOOD
- “The dignity of the human person is
rooted in his or her creation in the image
and likeness of God. Endowed with a
spiritual and immortal soul, intelligence
and free will, the human person is
ordered to God and called in soul and in
body to eternal beatitude.” CCC
1699-1715
- Our destination, goal and true
hope → live in eternal beatitude
w God) → face to face
encounter with Him
- Beatific vision: person acquires
through the light of glory in
resurrection → change to live
co-naturally as if living through
and with the presence of God
sharing partly the nature of
eternal existence with God =
external happiness
- Dignity is not measured from
where we come from (our image
and likeness) but it should also
be measured to where he is
going and the promises God
has made
HUMAN BEINGS ENJOY A TWOFOLD
DIGNITY
- Firstly, we have an intrinsic dignity as
human beings, made in the image and
likeness of God
- Ontological dignity: inherent in
us
- Secondly, there is a dignity which man
can acquire as he grows: the dignity of
intelligent and free persons who freely
choose to shape their lives and actions
in accord with the truth
- Acquired dignity → social, moral
attribution of dignity:
attributed/gained through life;
acquire in life
- Moral dignity: acquired in life →
we are shaped by our choices
and decisions
HUMAN FREEDOM
- In social terms it means the absence of
social demands and restrictions, thus
the freedom to do as one pleases
- Human freedom in social sense
- Do as you please → agreeing to
social demands of freedom
1. Personal freedom
- Concerns the inner man: his ability to
shape his own life, free from
psychological determinisms and limiting
phobias
- The freedom you develop is
your personal freedom
 - Freedom you enjoy based on
you personal actions &
behaviors
2. Christian freedom
- It is first and foremost the liberation from
sin and evil: the freedom which
reconciliation with God brings, to live in
grace and share God's life
- Freedom that brings
repentance, conversion,
enables a person to live in a
state of grace and thus share in
god’s life
- Directed towards the fulfillment
of your relationship with God as
a believer, as His child
3. Genuine freedom
- An outstanding manifestation of the
divine image in man
- Chirstian freedom is also
considered as genuine freedom
- As you are living under
the grace of God → you
are also achieving the
divine image in you
- Development of genuine
freedom in chrisitan perspective
is the development/pavement to
Christian freedom
FREEDOM IS BASICALLY ANCHORED ON
MAN’S DIGNITY
- Human person as the perfect and the
crowning glory of God’s creation must
participate in God’s creative works
which are good
a. Gratuitous gift: a gift freely given by God
- Even if you don’t, deserve it God will still
give it (ex: dignity, life, natural rights)
- Creation of man is not the
consequence of the merits of
man → out of God’s love
- We are his perfect crowning glory → we
must participate in God’s creative works
which are good
- To participate genuinely is for
man to understand His dignity &
the fundamental attributes of
who he is as a person
(intelligent being w/ intellect and
free willing person w/ his
freedom)
- A freedom in God’s embrace →
achieved if we work constantly with our
personal conversion → dignified child of
God
- Gratuitous gift of freedom → dignity as
the crowning glory of God
- Freedom towards the good can only be
achieved and perfected in God while
being totally aware of the call to be
always faithful to one’s dignity
- True freedom​ is a freedom only for the
good
- Thus, man is always expected
to elect the good in all his/her
undertakings
- You do what you want as it
pleases you
- It is not personal freedom
- When we think of something
good may not actually be good
for us → we need to do moral
evaluation (moral perspectives)
- We go for freedom that defines
us who we really are
- Children of God → innate
goodness, beauty, and truth
(heirs to his kingdom)
- Genuine freedom​ must be given
emphasis in order to straighten man’s
path toward the awareness of one’s
fidelity to the dignity which was lost to
sin
- Freedom is a gift form God in
order for us to find the path that
will lead us ultimately to His
kingdom → righteousness →
realization of the kingdom of
God in us is a
- Living in His kingdom is a forsite
to eternal beatitude
- As man strives to become ‘like-God’,
he/she is called to always be reminded
that the more we become like God, the
more we become human and the more
we become humans, the more we
should be like God
 - The more that we strive to be
like him we are called to be
reminded that we are
images/reflections of God
- The more that we become more
humans (we realize the
humanity in us) → the greater
the intensity that we should
realize that we should be like
God
- To be like God → recognize in
image of Christ (capacity to be
divine)
- Popper francis → the more we
realize, we are able to define
what is common among us that
can be developed that rests
upon a social contract of social
friendship and human fraternity
- “Beyond the clouds there is the
sun that shines on every human
being” → hope that we can
contribute to a better world
- Man's free obedience to God's law
means that human reason and will are
participating in God's wisdom and
providence. Man is called to share in
God's dominion over the created world -
Veritatis Splendor 41
- The nuns → are they in prison
in the monentery?
- It depends on how you
see imprisonment
- We are imprisoned in
the world
- The nun is free from
influence of the world →
free to be with God
- We are imprisoned in
the world with worldly
affairs, materialism,
consumerism,
secularism
- Freedom is the search
for the presence of God
(hold onto it)
- The nun found freedom
in God
DIGNITY & FREEDOM: THE FULFILLMENT &
MANIFESTATION OF GOD’S PRESENCE IN
MAN
- Man’s life is from God & god alone has
the sole right to take it away
- Washing man’s inequities through the
blood of Christ makes man acceptable
before God
- By virtue of baptism, as adopted sons
and daughters of God, man’s body
becomes the temple of the Holy Spirit
- By the Dignity that god has
given us until we will achieve
the promises of God in eternal
beatitude → God has given us
that Godly divine dignity in us
- Our response: means of taking
good care seeing that our
freedom will ultimately be a
freedom of God → that walks
towards that realization of the
dignity in us
- God’s presence in man makes him/her
holy, sacred
- Freedom enters when man treats the
other with utmost respect and high
regard for the presence of God in each
person
- It is by virtue of our dignity that
we are equal before the eyes of
God
- The realization of genuine
freedom is when humans
recognize the true essence of
who he is as the childs of God
- We are equal before the
eyes of God
MOTHER TERESA AS AN ICON OF
HOLINESS
- She exercised the genuine freedom that
Christians are all called to do: the works
of God
- Freedom is freedom to do the
things that define us as the
children of God
CONTINUATION
- Creation happened because of the
unconditional, undying & unending love
of God
 -Man’s response to that overflowing love
is faithfulness (& fidelity)
- So, the recognition of one’s & other’s
dignity must be the basis of a person’s
genuine exercise of genuine freedom
- Remain faithful to our calling
and vocation
- To live in holiness of life
- Live according to how God
designed/the expectations He
demanded of us
- As man navigates the ins and outs of
genuine freedom, ideally, the good must
always take precedence
- The responsibility in exercising
freedom entails that a person
must always bear consciously
and unconsciously that he/she
is the only one answerable and
accountable for all the actions
he/she committed
- The intrinsic goodness of man is
exercised through the aid his/her freewill
and intellect
- The exercise of freedom cannot
be separated from the moral
evaluation of our
intelligence/intellect and of the
free decision of our will
- The election toward the good is only
achieved if the person is definitively
bound to God and is totally aware of the
call to be always faithful to one’s dignity
- Through this, man is able to perfect
himself/herself and is capable of arriving
at the promised salvation of Christ
- Our dignity should compel us to
live in the genuine freedom of
our true vocation as childrens of
God → being faithful,
righteous,and holy in order to
achieve eternal beautidue
SUMMARY
- Freedom is our ability to be faithful to
our dignity
- We become Christ-like → we
live the image of Christ in us →
we forgive and choose
righteousness
- Capacity to choose the good
and become God-like
- We can still be free in this world but it is
our task to find our vocation and
remaining faithful to our 1 true calling
which is to be holy
a. Freedom from: freedom from sins
(things that make us ungodly) → take
our dignity and destroy our vocation
b. Freedom for: marching towards God;
realization that man needs God’s grace
c. Freedom of choice: capacity of a person
to select from different options
- As he chooses 1 choice, he
disregards the rest
- The person becomes totally free
from that choice
- The one singular choice has a
value →
d. Freedom of exercise: freedom to
exercise choice in reality
- Doing God-like actions: loving, showing
mercy, extending compassion, forgiving,
etc
- Therefore, freedom is the ability to
choose the good
- “The more we choose the good, the
freer we become”
OCT 9, 2020
LESSON 9: LAW: ABIDING IN TRUTH
LAW: ​conduct of human actions
I. ESSENCE & NATURE OF LAW
A. DEFINITION
- “Is an ordinance of reason, properly
promulgated and decreed by competent
authority for the sake of the common
good.”
B. ELEMENTS
1. Ordinance of reason (formal cause):
this means the law must be based on
the insight of reason into the value. It
must be reasonable.
- Requires a sense of obligation →
commands us to do something (to put
things in proper order)
- Perfection of man → we forget to put
things in proper order → man should
live in right order
 - Sinterisist: knowledge of the first
principles
- You make a law that is based on the
people and think of something that
would regulate and mitigate accidents
2. For the sake of the Common Good
(final cause):​ It must have as its goal
the value lying in the good of the
community upon which it is imposed
- Formal cause: form that gives shape to
the ordinance/law (traffic colors laws);
based on evaluation of human
reasoning
- Barriers for crossing to the other side
(difficult)
- Evaluation of human experience and
motorist
3. Competent Authority (efficient
cause): ​only those ordinances have the
force of law which are imposed by
competent or legitimate authority (single
human being or a group formed to act
as a governing power
4. Promulgated​: that is, the law must be
known or promulgated
ORDINANCE OF REASON
- Contains a decisive command to
perform (Ordinance).
- Latin: ordinare; ordinantia which
means to put order
- A good law is a product of careful and
serious deliberation
- It should not be based merely on whim,
emotions or sentiments of an individual
or group
PROPERLY PROMULGATED
- It must be clearly communicated to all
people concerned
- Ignorantia juris neminem excusat:
Ignorance of the law is not an excuse
(ignorance of the law does not excuse
you)
- Declaration of a law
- Promulgation: approved by
authorities
- To be informed properly abt the
law & its penalties
DECREED BY COMPETENT AUTHORITY
- Only persons with legitimate authority
have the power to create and implement
laws for their respective communities
- Promulgated by the one who is
given the care for the common
good of the community
- Ascertain the faculty:
a. De facto: a person can be elected to an
office/appointed; ​not demanded by the
law but you have to do it
b. De jure: you become the competent
authority → commander in chief of the
PH; ​instructions and order of the law
- By representing the ppl you bring them
to the realization of their goals being the
members of the particular state (know
your job limits)
- Given the legitimate authority → thus
implement laws in their respective
communities
- Cabinet official → bound to follow orders
of the president
- Ex: if you are having problems with your
health, you go to DOH
- You are given this authority → you have
to function according to the description
of your state (constituted
order/mandated)
FOR THE SAKE OF THE COMMON GOOD
- Common good: sum total of benefits by
individuals from govt. & from the nation
as whole
- Promulgated should be based
on common good
- Common good (measured in 2 ways):
should benefit all the members of the
community (even if it is just directed to a
particular sector of a society)
a. Individual (respond to the personal good
of individuals)
b. Communiratiran good: some ppl will
receive it directly (immediately) and
others indirectly (remotely)
- Ex: parents paying tax, vat, tuition (may
tax)
Additional on common good:
- Should not be measured just for the
good of a sector; transcendent principle
of common good → beneficial to all
 - Following traffic law: no one is hurt
(reward)
- When people participate & take their
part in terms of obedience & observance
to the law
- Do your part in terms of common good
and when we achieve that we will also
simultaneously
- It is not a means to an end but it is an
end in itself because why we achieve
the common good, we also achieved the
universal happiness of all men by
respecting and promoting the dignity
and the fundamental rights of every
citizen of every faithful fostering the
well-being and authentic development of
the community
- “Universal Happiness of All
Men”
- It presupposes the
promotion of and
respect for the dignity
and true freedom of
each person
- It should also foster the
well-being and authentic
development of the
community itself
II. PURPOSE OF LAW
- The direction of the goal of law itself; not
only what you wanted to carry out but
the goal and integral understanding the
purpose of law
- Jurisprudence: study of the providence
of law, understanding and interpretation
- Where does it come from? Why was that
particular law made? What are the
contingencies of the situations? What
are the conditions around which the law
was created and to what purpose does
the law would like to serve or achieve
for that matter?
- True law tends to make men good, and
tends to liberate them from the perverse
and mistaken judgments that would lead
them astray in the quest for their
ultimate end.​ The man who accepts the
direction of true law is the man who is
free to attain his goal. He who refuses,
as he thinks, in the name of freedom, is
enslaved by his own liability of error
- Not just good for you → living
your life that is also good for
others
- Righteousness, uprightness &
holiness of life so the man who
had set the direction of true law
is a man whose goal is to live in
order (peaceful & safe society)
- You to your part → accept the
law & own it
- The purpose of law, therefore, is ​to
protect and promote true freedom
among members of a society in
common,​ by insuring the unhampered
and unthwarted exercises of free acts
which will carry man to his proper end
- what does remember thisGood
sense of public space (you
maintain and promote order) →
segregate
- Recipio → i receive
- Purpose of law should be
purpose of man
III. EFFECTS OF LAW
MORAL GOODNESS
- The proper effect of law is to lead it
subjects to their proper virtue; and since
virtue is that which makes its subject
good, it follows that the proper effect of
law is to mak they have develop those
to whom it is given good
- To develop or improve the well-being of
the people living in the community
- Law: an instrument for people to
develop certain values, principles and
virtues (makes us follow then the proper
effect of law is to make us virtuous
people)
- Even without the presence of a traffic
sign → maybe because they have
developed already the virtue of common
sense when you drive (mastered)
MORAL OBLIGATION
- Law by itself requires a certain
obligation that we have to do
- The precepts of law are concerned with
human acts in which the law directs.
 These acts are either good generally, as - Immaculate conception,
for example, acts of virtue, and in christmas day, theotokos day -
respect of the acts of the law is a celebrating the motherhood of
precept of command, for the law mary - jan 1, easter sunday)
commands all acts of virtue. Some are - To fast and abstain on the days
evil generically​ (acts of vices → appointed
provokes something bad)​, as for - 16-60 yrs old at least - ash
example, acts of vice and in respect of wednesday & good friday
these, the law forbids. All acts that are - Abstinence: Catholics (friday of
either distinctively good or not the year and holy week)
distinctively bad may be called - To confess at least once a year
indifferent ​(actions that you cannot - To receive the Holy Eucharist during
ascertain that it is a violation of the law Easter Time
or to the extent of a - you cannot - To contribute to the support of the
distinctively qualify if it is a violation of a Church
law - no positive relation bet action & - Maintenance of the church
application of the law to such action). - Priests
And it is in the fear of punishment that - Money that goes to the vatican
law makes use of in order to ensure (projects & programs)
obedience in which respect punishment - Feast day of peter &
is an effect of law ​(we are bound to the paul
law; law is there to mitigate the effects - Christmas/kiss of the
of violations to the safety & harmony in baby jesus
the society) - To never violate laws concerning
- Drinking: danger to liver marriage
- Lying: habit that becomes a vice - According to their Duration, laws are
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF LAWS Eternal or Temporal
- According to their Immediate Author, - The Eternal Law is God’s plan
laws are distinguished as ​Divine Laws and providence for the universe.
which come directly from God, and All human laws are in
Human Laws​ (promulgated by man), themselves temporal, although
which are the enactments of Church and some of them give expression to
State requirements of the Eternal Law
- Human Laws enacted by the - Nature that is part of
Church​ are called ​Ecclesiastical who we are rationality);
Laws​ (canon law - legislation of design of the universe
the church - govern the faithful - Abstract of God (Eternal
of the church), while human design of God;pure plan
laws enacted by the ​State​ are of God) in the universe
called ​Civil Laws → eternal law
- Fashioned by god and legislated - Concretize (temporalize
by man it as experience) of
THE SIX COMMANDMENTS OF THE CHURCH eternal law → natural
- Not created by god but by the church in law
order to maintain proper order as the - Promulgated by
members of the church man; laws are
- 10 commandments & beatitudes revised
- To hear mass on Sundays and Holy because
Days of Obligation sometimes it
 will no longer
serve the
purpose of the
common good
- According to the Manner of their
Promulgation, laws are distinguished
as the Natural and Positive laws
- The Natural Law, in widest
sense, is that which directs
creatures to their end in
accordance with their nature,
and, so understood, it coincides
with the Eternal Law. Usually,
however, the laws that govern
irrational creatures in their being
and activities are called physical
laws, while the moral law which
is apprehended by sound and
matured human reason is called
natural law. Hence, in Ethics,
we understand natural law as
the Eternal Law apprehended
by human reason while Positive
laws are laws enacted by
positive act of a legislator. This
falls in the classification already
made as divine and human
- Eternal law: god’s providence for the
universe
a. Natural laws: given by nature as part of
God’s creation; encompasses of man as
a rational being (eternal law)
i. Natural moral law: as it goes
down → in the context of
rationality (manifests in man’s
reason)
ii. Physical laws:→ goes to others
b. Positive laws:
i. Divine Human positive law:
enacted by man; all laws
God-given to us (church
commandments & constitutions)
ii. Divine positive law: made by
God (10 commandments &
beatitudes)
PROPERTIES OF THE NATURAL LAW
1. Universal
- Binds all men at all times and in all
places, for it is the very nature of men.
- Unus: for one and Versus: for all →
“one for all, all for one”
- Common to all people
- Eg. Gravity, Sunrise, Sunsets,
Evaporation, Conception,
growing old, dying, etc
2. Indispensable
- In: not and Dispense: excused from a
demand/order → which cannot be
excused
- Man has no authority over natural law.
- God is the source of natural law.
- Dispensation from natural laws are
violations of the divinely willed order.
- Manifestations of nature
a. By way of god himself by dispensing the
occurrence of natural law or man
himself who violates the law
- Gok “God only knows”
b. God may allow exception from natural
law, as long as this does not contradict
God’s own nature. For example the
miracles
- Suspension/application of nature →
miracles
- Miracle of resurrection/light of glory of
the proclamation of Jesus
3. Immutable
- It will exist as long as human nature
exists
- Ex: same water (H2O)
4. Dynamic
- Changes in the condition of man results
in modified or new demands of the
Natural Law
- Natural law does not change but
it may manifest dynamically in
human
- Same water from time of moses
is not the same bec the quality
now is different (purity changes)
- Fact: man himself and his conditions of
existence change
- According as they prescribe an act or
forbid it, laws are Affirmative or
Negative​.
- Negative laws are also called
prohibitory laws. Affirmative
laws bind always, but not at
 every moment. On the other - Fundamental principle is the
hand, Negative laws of the same as the natural moral law
natural order bind always and at → it is in this principle where all
every moment other laws emanate
a. Affirmative: prescribes you to do - All laws promulgated by man
something - Beatitudes (fundamental
b. Negative: does not prescribe you to do it precepts) and 10
- According to the effect of their commandments (express the
violation natural law): exemplifications of
- Laws are distinguished as ​moral the natural moral laws
(violation of which is fault or - “Do unto others as you want others
sin), ​penal ​(violation of which do unto you”
renders the violator liable to an - Golden principle of all religions
established penalty, but does (everyone has it)
not infect him with sin), and LESSON 10: CONSCIENCE: MAN
mixed ​(violation of which SANCTUARY
involves both fault and penalty) - Cum- with and sciensia - knowledge
- Literally means With knowledge
- Having knowledge in your interiority and
consciousness
I. DEFINITION OF CONSCIENCE
- Judgement or dictate of the
practical intellect deciding from
I​MMEDIATE AUTHOR general principles the
a. Divine law goodness/evil of some act which
b. Human law is to be done here and now or
- Ecclesiastical laws has been done in the past
- Civil laws already
DURATION - The practical judgment
a. Eternal law of reason
b. Temporal law - Judgement of the practical
MANNER OF PROMULGATION intellect or reason
a. Natural law - Follow Certain principles that
- Physical law are from the 10 commandments
- Natural law of god
b. Positive law - Principles that emanate from the
- Positive divine law objective law legislated by man
- Positive human law or the government
PRESCRIBE AN ACT OF FORBID IT - Guide, direct, govern or provide
a. Affirmative laws a sense of direction for
b. Negative laws conscience
EFFECT OF VIOLATION JUDGEMENT OR DICTATE OF THE
a. Moral laws PRACTICAL INTELLECT
b. Penal laws - It is not a power or a habit but an act,
c. Mixed laws viz-a-viz the application of knowledge to
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF THE an individual fact, and this application is
NATURAL LAW & ETHICS a judgement or dictate of the practical
- “Do good and avoid evil” intellect, not speculative intellect or of
the will.
 - Power / Habit ​(authority)-
potentiality
- Act ​(has been decided upon →
structured) → seen the
categorized and is structured →
lying bad and helping is good
- Conscience is actualized already side
by side with knowledge
- Application of knowledge of dictate of
the practical intellect and not the
speculative intellect or will
- Practical judgment of the practical
intellect​ → does not follow speculative
operation of intellect bec it is an
inferential thinking (fabrication of ideas)
- Conscience is very practica​l →
immediately it will tell you the bad or
good
- Judgement of the practical intellect-
doesn't follow the speculative judgement
of the intellect
- Conscience is very practical →
immediately it'll tell when something is
good or bad
- Practical judgment of the practical
intellect → does not follow speculative
operation of intellect bec it is an
inferential thinking
FROM GENERAL PRINCIPLES
- It derives its judgement from these since
it presupposes as true the general
principles of faith and of natural reason,
and applies them to individual cases.
Conscience, then does not pass
judgement on the truths of faith and of
reason but decides whether the act be
done(or has been done) in conformity
with existing just laws
- Reason why the laws from the
outside given by the state or by
the church as the objective
norm of morality whereas in this
context → conscience as the
subjective norm or standard of
morality operates on the
principles of faith and natural
reason based on the natural
understanding of man's reason
(natural moral law)
- What dictates our conscience is
our faith and sense of reason
- Stealing from a millionaire
maybe nothing to the millionaire
but stealing from a beggar you
might be stealing his or her life
- Conscience does not pass act
or reason → ​ essence of
natural moral law → abides or
disconformity of infor is what
conscience do
- Conscience has principles and
is independent to the situations
- Believer → faith also shapes
your conscience
- Conscience may be legally good
but morally not right (abortion --
lol)
DECIDES THE GOODNESS OR EVIL OF
SOME ACT WHICH OS TO BE DONE HERE
AND NOW (OR HAS BEEN DONE)
- Conscience is the subjective standard of
morality.
1. Joseph Butler ​“Conscience is our
natural guide assigned to us by the
Author of Nature”
- Author: god
2. St Thomas Aquinas​ “Conscience is the
reason making moral judgements”
- Right reason
3. Origen​- “Conscience is the connecting
spine and companion teacher of the
soul is dissociated from evil and clings
to good”
- Window of the soul to the
presence of the divine
4. John Macquarrie​ “The built in monitor
of moral action or choice or values”
- Monitor- overseer of action
GAUDIUM ET SPES, 16
“As man’s most secret core, and his sanctuary.
There he is alone with God, whose voice echoes
in his depths. By conscience, in a wonderful
way, that law is made known which is fulfilled in
the the love of Godand one’s neighbor”
- Fulfillment of law in its practical manner
by loving God and neighbor
- Conscience operationalized the
decalogue in a practical way
DECLARATION OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY
- It is through his conscience that man
sees and recognizes the demands of
the divine law. He is bound to follow this
conscience faithfully in all his activity, so
that he may come to God, who is his
last end. Therefore, he must not be
forced to act contrary to his conscience.
Nor he be prevented from acting
according to his conscience, especially
in religious matters”
- Conscience is the guide to our
last end
TAKE NOTE:
1. Synderesis- ​habitual knowledge of the
first principles whose proper act is to
decide in a general way that good must
be done and evil must be avoided while
conscience decides in an individual
case. The moral habit of synderesis
never errs; conscience may err.
- Knowledge of the first principle,
- What you have learned in a very young
age ​accustomed principles​ of good
and evil
- Whereas Conscience​ is particularized
in terms of its operation (judges
case/cases)
- Even though it receives general
principles it is still different
- Synderesis is universal
- Can be uninformed &
miseducated
- Parents must be able to form a
good foundation on the children
at home
2. Moral Science-​ deduces objective
conclusions from the first principles;
while conscience is something
subjective and may or may not agree
with moral science
- Ex: health - bioethics (ethics of
life)- comes from synderesis →
deduce objective principles
- Make a general principle​→ life
is indispensable→ life is the
highest value
- Deduce from that moral
principle and apply that to
particular application
- Ex, how do you apply
tht statement in old ppl
or unborn child.
- Deduce a particular
observation→ formulate a
rule
- Ex. No abbortion and
identify its limitations
- From that make specific
guidelines
- however , Conscience- ​does
not undergo deduction,
immediate judgement lang→
very much subjective and does
not involve rational deduction of
principles
3. Prudence ​is a virtue- a habit sometimes
however the act of prudence coincides
with conscience
- Right reason in action ​by
Thomas Acquinas → what is the
reason as to why you are doing
something
- Why do you study med → what
is your right reason→ help
people (what prudence and
conscience is telling)
4. Natural law​ embraces the objective
principles of morality while conscience
uses these principles to decide whether
an act should be done/omitted.
- encompassing→ provides
transcending all
- Conscience is not like this but it
is more of a particularize an
action no transcendental
II. DIVISION OF CONSCIENCE
WITH REGARD TO THE ACT CONSIDERED
BY CONSCIENCE
a. Antecedent- ​moment which is the
conscience in discernment and very
much concerned where the movement
of the spirit is leading the person;
- ​takes place before a will
precedes the act ​(warning
conscience)
 - BEFORE
b. Concomitant conscience-​ moment
which is then considered as the
conscience in action. In here, the
conscience asks the question whether
he/ she is following the spiritual
consolation during the act.
- Takes place before the will
happens while you perform the
act ​(sense of consolation of
remorse)
- Ex Cheating → there's a part
you that tells you that its isnt
good
- DURING
c. Consequent ​- moment wherein the
person evaluated and review the action
done.
- Evaluation (sense of remorse
AFTER ​you have done
something)
- the judgement where the
conscience is already evaluating
your action
- Evaluative Conscience
WITH REGARD TO ITS CONFORMITY WITH
THE ETERNAL LAW (JUDGEMENT IN
ACCORDANCE WITH FACT)
a. True or correct: ​when it deduces
correctly from the principles that the act
is lawful.
- deduces correctly from church
or govt law
- When something is lawful
b. False or Erroneous-​ when it decides
from false principles considered as true
that something is unlawful
● ttle or no reason judges an act to
● Scrupulous-​on that for li be morally evil
when in fact it is not.
○ sees it as sinful when in fact it is
just temptation
● Perplex- ​ judges wrongly that sin is
committed both in the performance or
omission of an act.
○ whether you do this or that you
might commit something wrong
(IN DOUBT)
● Lax- ​judges on insufficient ground that
there is no sin in the, or that the sin is
not as grave it is in fact
○ justifies an action that is not
really good by using something
like that is just the beauty of
nature
○ Justifies the action when it is
bad
● Pharisaical-​ minimizes grave sins but
maximizes the small ones
○ Self righteous consciousness
○ tendency to be so perfectionist
NOTE:
- Invincibly erroneous or​ in culpably
erroneous​. ​Conscience that is
erroneous without the knowledge or
fault of the agent,
- Invisible - not responsible
- Ill informed conscience
- Culpably erroneous-​ conscience that is
erroneous through the agent’s fault, is
- By your fault you commit that
kind of sin
WITH REGARD TO THE ACT OF THE
ASSENT
A. Certain conscience- ​when without any
prudent fear of error it decides that the
act is either lawful or unlawful
- you are sure without error→ that
what you decided upon is in
accordance with law
B. Doubtful- ​when it fails to pass a moral
judgement on the character of the act
due to fear of error
Moral Certainty may be: perfect when it
1. Perfect (strict) ​when it excludes any
prudent doubt
- excludes beyond reasonable
doubt
- accretion
2. Imperfect ​- when some slight reasons
militate against truth of a doubt which is
founded on serious motive
- Slight reasons as to why some
moral may not be perfectly truth
3. Speculative​ - when the intellect
considered the truth of some matter
 objectively without any direct reference
to a particular case
- stating a general principle
without a diff direction and
particularizing it in a specific
case
4. Practical​ when it is concerned with an
act to be done here and now
- moral certainty of conscience
5. Direct-​ based on intrinsic principles that
clearly reveal the moral character of the
act
- Invoke a certain principle that is
not in your claim
6. Indirect- ​derived from what are called
reflex principles
- principles that may be assumed
but not particularly assigned
good or bad
DOUBTS MAY BE:
1. Dubium iuris​ - same as de jure, doubt
as to the existence of of some law
2. Dubium Facti​ - doubt as to the
existence of some fact
3. Positive- ​when the fear of error is
based on grave reasons
- Your error may be positive in
context there should be a good
reason why you are afraid of
that
- Fear of error is based on grave
reason → doubt
4. Negative- ​when the fear of error rests
on slight reasons
- slight reason lang that validates
fear
5. Speculative- ​considering that morality
of an act objectively considered
irrespective of its actual commission or
omission
- in principle the law should be
moral but sometimes for
practicality some laws are legal
but aren't moral
6. Practical- ​concerned with the morality
of the act to be performed here and now
III. FORMING ONE’S CONSCIENCE
- From the law outside conscience can be
formed
- To form one's conscience one must not
have doubts → to achieve moral
uncertainty
1. To form one's conscience is to get rid of
doubt and achieve certainty; it is to
make up one's mind clearly and
definitely in what what is required in a
given individual instance; it is to reason
out the right and wrong of a given
situation
- Conscience can be certain and
erroneous or truthful or actual
- You are sure but in fact you are
actually in a certain error
2. It is not always possible to have
absolute certitude in matters of
conscience, but it is always possible to
achieve moral certitude directly or
indirectly
- Personal judgement of the
matter with personal certainty
for you only→ and not everyone
3. Moral certitude is sufficient and requisite
for the guidance of the conscience --
judgement when there is question of the
lawfulness of unlawfulness of an act
here and now to be determined upon
- What is your goal in the
operation of conscience
- Achieve moral certitude
- Conscience needs to be
educated
By Julianna Academic Review Center haha thx
Bye I give up :)
GO JULIANNA!! 
-dana < 33 
LOVING THIS 31 
page reviewer! 
-Ishna