Devices for Distance and Time Measurement at

the Time of Roman Empire

Flavio Russo

USSME Historical Bureau HQ Italian Army, Italy

Cesare Rossi

University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy

cesare.rossi@unina.it

Marco Ceccarelli

University of Cassino, Cassino, Italy

ceccarelli@unicas.it

Ferruccio Russo

USSME Historical Bureau HQ Italian Army, Naples, Italy

Abstract In this paper, devices for measuring distances and time intervals are pre-
sented as conceived and used during Roman Empire since they represent the most
important means of practices and developments both for scientist and engineers.
The constructions and operations of main devices are discussed by using modern
reconstructions and interpretations with the aim to sow the expertise in mechanism
design at the time of the Roman Empire.

Keywords Roman machines, Odometers, Water clocks, Ctesibius, Vitruvius

H.-S. Yan, M. Ceccarelli (eds.), International Symposium on History of Machines 101

and Mechanisms, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9485-9_8,
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
102 F. Russo et al.

Introduction

As many people know, the Roman Empire was one of the widest empires ever ex-
isted in the human history. On the other side, most people suppose that, at that
time, technology and science were quite primitive and the study of them almost
neglected. The study of the History the Engineering gives a great help to recognize
that, on the contrary, knowledge of Mechanics and its application was rather ad-
vanced. In addition, it can help also to recognize the use and function of some ar-
chaeological discovers by interpreting their operation and technical performance.
In particular, by joining efforts of Archaeologists and Engineers it can be possible
to understand that many devices of common use at the present days were invented
and built about twenty centuries ago. From a general point of view, the study of
the History of Engineering is a great help to understand the present through the
understanding of the past. In addition, it is probable that deeper studies in this field
could lead up to important new discoveries. Anyway, in order to correctly under-
stand the past, it is necessary that Archaeologists and Engineers work together.
The attention to machines of Antiquity has been addressed in several works
within the History of Science and Technology, like for example in [5,7,8,3,14],
but mainly from general viewpoints, even when with technical observations. In
some cases, the analysis has been even limited to bibliographic search with no en-
gineering comments, like for example [6,10]. Only recently, interest is arose to
technical investigations to understand design, operation and manufacturing of ma-
chines in Antiquity, like for example in [9,4,11,12,13] by looking at the mecha-
nisms and their operations through numerical analysis for performance evaluation.
This paper is within this research frame as an attempt to rediscover mechanisms
that were invented and/or implemented in instrument devices at the time of Roman
Empire.
In the wide Roman Empire, the measurements of distances, both in the ground
and sea, played certainly a very important role as related to the road develop-
ments. The wide road system can be considered one of the most important con-
structions that the Roman have built in Europe. Most of those roads are still in use
at present days. In addition, since sextants and marine chronographs were not jet
invented, the only way to know distances was to measure the space run by a ship
in the sea.
Even for the measure of time intervals, some devices of that time were rather
advanced from a mechanical point of view.

Devices for Distance Measurement

Among the many Roman devices for distance measurement, like stadia and di-
optre, this paper addresses specific attention to odometers that make use of
mechanisms as invented at the Roman time both for ground and sea applications.
 Devices for Distance and Time Measurement 103

The Odometer by Heron

The invention of the odometer device is attributed to Heron of Alexandria, [1].

The biography of this very important ancient scientist and engineer is not very
clear for what the dates are concerned. The century in which he lived, can be indi-
viduated by dating on March 13, 62 A.D. a moon eclipse that he described. Thus,
he was probably born on 10 B.C. and died on about 70 A.D. He studied the works
of Ctesibius, Philon, Euclid and Archimedes. His activity is recognized as scientist
and practical engineer since a lot of inventions are attributed to him, mainly in the
field of Pneumatics, Mechanics and Automatics as applications of his studies. In
addition to the odometer, he was probably the inventor also of optical devices for
distance measurement.
The odometer by Heron can be considered, without any doubt, the predecessor
of the modern mechanical mileometer and tripmeter that has been used in modern
motor vehicles untill less than ten years ago. Although it was designed about two
thousand years ago, it works with the same principles of modern tripmeters.
The odometer device was of great importance during the Roman Empire since it
was used to locate the mileage stones indicating miles along roads. This permitted
to plan the movements of the army units and to estimate military costs. In addi-
tion, it is reported that an odometer was installed on the chariots of emperors.
The description of the odometer by Heron is given from Vitruvius in Barbaro
[2]. Vitruvius was an officer of the Roman Army Engineers and an inventor him-
self. From the description of Vitruvius it is possible to propose the perspective re-
construction in Fig. 1. The ring R is connected to the wheel and moves a pin of the
input wheel through a small flap. On the axle of this first wheel is installed a
pointer that indicates the steps named as “passus”. A dial (indicated as 1 in Fig. 1)
was graduated from 0 to 9. This first axle moves a second axle by means of worm
gears with a gear ratio 10. On the second axle w a second pointer is installed to in-
dicate the ten steps. This axle (indicated as 2 in the Fig. 1) moves a third axle
again with a worm gear, and so on.
A kinematic scheme of the mechanism is shown in Fig. 2. Because of such a ki-
nematic scheme, the odometer can be understood to have up to five pointers that
indicated units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and thousand tens of steps. Of course,
the gear ratios will be all equal to 10. This means that probably the worms could
have 2 principles and, consequently the wheels had 20 teeth.
As for the pins on the input wheel and wheel of the carriage, Vitruvius wrote
that the standard wheel diameter of a roman chariot was 4 roman feet. Since a ro-
man feet was 0.2964 m, the wheel circumference was 3,725 m. Therefore, we can
suppose that, for a correct continuous transmission between chariot wheel and in-
put wheel, the latter should have 8 pins. Thus, the distance measurements can be
computed through the following expression

8 chariot wheel revolutions = 10 roman steps = 14.785 m

104 F. Russo et al.

Consequently, with 8 pins, the wheel diameter can be computed as

Fig. 1 A perspective modern reconstruction of the odometer by Heron

Fig. 2 A kinematic scheme for gear connections in the Heron odometer in Fig. 1

14.785 / (8·π) =0,588 m ≅ 2 roman feet

This is exactly one half of the standard wheel.

It must be observed that the small flap is not rigidly installed to the axle but it
can rotate, with a certain amount, with respect to it. This particular, that is shown
in Fig. 3, is not reported in some later designs by later technicians but it was very
useful for a correct working of an odometer.
 Devices for Distance and Time Measurement 105

Fig. 3 A zoomed view of a detail for flap connector in the Heron odometer in
Fig. 1

The Odometer by Vitruvius

It is well-known that at the time of the Roman Empire it was not possible to de-
terminate the position of a ship by astronomical device. For this reason the only
way to determinate the distance that were run by a ship was to measure its dis-
placement. A first device for this task can be considered the naval odometer that
was designed by Vitruvius. A perspective reconstruction is shown in Fig. 4. A
paddle wheel was installed at each side of a ship so that it was moved by the
ship’s motion. Both the paddle wheels were fitted on an axle that moved the
mechanism of the odometer.
Each revolution of the paddle wheels causes one teeth rotation of the first gear
wheel, which through other gears (that are not represented in the reconstruction
drawing) moves the counting pointers. A scheme is reported in Fig. 5, in which
the axle 1 is that one of the paddle wheels.
As far as we know, this devices can be considered as the first log example for
measuring ship speed. It has to be pointed out that “log” in English indicates the
piece of wood that was tied to a small rope and was thrown outboards. The rope
had a number of knots, that were located 1/10 of nautical mile from each other. By
means of an hourglass, the number of knots in the unit of time where counted,
hence the speed was computed. This device, in the shape that has been just de-
scribed, was considered as invented in the 18th century. That is to say more than
18 centuries after the naval odometer by Vitruvius, and it is clearly much more
unsophisticated. The term “log” is still used for mechanical or electrical devices
that are used to measure speed and distances in the sea in more recent times.
106 F. Russo et al.

Fig. 4 A perspective modern reconstruction of the naval odometer by Vitruvius

Fig. 5 A scheme of the first three axes in the mechanism of the naval odometer
in Fig. 4

Before the (very recent) use of the GPS, the coastal navigation, both for sporting
and professional activity, was made possible by log and compass until the present
days. At the time of the Roman Empire, the navigation was mainly coastal as they
were helped by a wide system of long range lighthouses.

Topographic Instruments

Other relevant instruments for distance measurements were developed for topog-
raphy purposes. They may have not been based on mechanisms but on the geome-
try properties which are strongly linked with displacement evaluation. In this
paragraph we have reported some of those ancient devices which made possible
the developing of topography during the Roman Empire.
 Devices for Distance and Time Measurement 107

A Groma is an instrument that was used intensively by Roman engineers. It

would be difficult to determine when the Groma was invented since it may have
been originated in Mesopotamia, from where it may have been imported by
Greeks around the IV century B.C., an indicated as gnomona or little star. Then,
Etruscans brought it to Rome and named it as cranema or ferramentum. It was
made of a cross made of iron or bronze, whose arms supported four plumb
weighted lines, as represented in Fig. 5 a. Looking through the opposite pairs, the
instrument could identify two perpendicular directions, which were used to subdi-
vide the land into orthogonal alignments. In Fig. 5 a modern reconstruction of a
Groma is proposed as compared with an artistic representation in bas-relief from
roman imperial time.

a) b)
Fig. 6 A Groma instrument: (a) a modern reconstruction; (b) an artistic repre-
sentation in archeological found

Although this instrument was invented in other civilization, it was used for many
centuries in the Antiquity and was extended during the Roman Empire. Proof of the
instrument and its uses are found in the remains of a Groma discovered in Pompeii
and its illustration is reported on several funerary steles of the time of Roman Em-
pire. As far as we can understand, the approximately two meter long rod supported
the cross well above the eye level of a user, who could therefore look freely through
the plumb weighted lines. The real limitation of the instrument can be identified in a
situation when there was even a weak wind that could cause the lines to oscillate and
prevent a correct observation of line alignment.
Another important instrument for topography purposes was considered the
Heron’s lever. In Fig. 6 (a) modern reconstruction of Heron’s level is reported by
108 F. Russo et al.

showing communicating pipes and slots for optical sightseeing that were the basic
components for the mechanism and its operation. In Fig. 6b a reconstruction is re-
ported for a similar devices as proposed by Giovanni Branca in the table XXXIX
of the book “Macchine”, that was published in Rome in 1629.
The basis of the instrument is the Mechanics of levers which will require long
rod for proper accurate measurements. Obviously a topographic instrument six
meters long, even though precise, was too cumbersome to transport in a filed or
even during a military campaign. In addition, rain and wind could prevent its prac-
tical use.

a) b)
Fig. 7 Reconstruction of Heron’s level: (a) a modernperspective; (b) from
G. Branca in 1629

A real innovation was made when Hero succeeded in constructing a dioptre fit-
ted with a special accessory in lieu of the alidade. Thus he transformed the instru-
ment in a compact design even with a high precision operation. In many ways this
is the forerunner of the theodolite. Etymologically, dioptre in Greek comes from
two words: dià= through and opteuo= observe: observe or look through. This
definition is suitable for all sighting instruments that are used to identify a direc-
tion. These instruments were replaced by telescopes only in modern times.
Hero wrote a very detailed description of the instrument in his Treatise on Diop-
trics, translated from the Greek by Giambattista Venturi in 1804. The instrument
was intended for angular measurements by using an alidade or dioptre that could
rotate both horizontally and vertically. Two semi-cogged wheels used two worm
screws with knobs to rotate in the horizontal and vertical directions. In this
 Devices for Distance and Time Measurement 109

manner, they could achieve lines of sightseeing with target rods in order to deter-
mine azimuth or elevation angle. By using a crosswire at the ends of the dioptre,
they were able to improve precision apparently up to 30 min of a degree. A small
tripod column, rather like our trestle, was used to support the instrument and a
plumb weighted line or bob along its side ensured perfect verticality.
In his interpretation Venturi supposed that, in addition to the goniometric plate
to measure the azimuth angles, in the instrument there must have been installed
also a vertical semi-disk to measure elevation angle. In effect, the device would
resemble a modern inclinometer. However, since there is no mention or supposi-
tion to this in the Hero’s treatise, we prefer to believe that the sight slot only had a
vertical rotation and that it occurred in the traverse fork on the goniometric plate.
Such a location makes the functionality of the instrument as similar to a today
telescope, which makes the dioptre even more modern.
As for its operation for a level measurement, this occurred by replacing the sight
slot with a wood rule containing a small copper tube with U shape. At the ends of
the U rod tube two transparent glass pipes were installed. When an opaque liquid,
such as red wine, was used, the two cursors could be made to coincide perfectly
with the level of the liquid. In effect, this was two communicating vessels with
one index.
The cursors were actually two metal ties, each one with a line of sight that could
slide along the exterior of the glass tubes. Once the liquid was stationary, these
cursors were moved to align with the liquid. The regulus containing the tube is de-
scribed as being 12 fingers long, approximately 25 cm, as a measure that is per-
fectly suited to its purpose.
The most interesting and least known accessory is the pair of leveling rods that
completed the dioptre. However, since it was not possible to read the rod from a
distance without a telescope, a solution was found to allow for a direct reading. By
looking through the sight slots of the level tube, a mobile pointer along the rod
was brought to coincide with its direction. Since this had a wide disk that was half
white and half black, collimation was not particularly difficult. In fact, once the
assistant had blocked the disk after it had been aligned, the measurements could be
read on the rod, as registered by a lateral pointer.
In Fig. 7 reconstructions are reported for an Heron’s dioptre and a Roman sta-
dia, according to Heron’s description.
In 1907, the remains of a Roman ship was found off the coast of Mahadia. Many
decades later, when it became possible to bring the ship cargo out of the sea, among
the several valuable works of art they found also several bronze flanges, two of
which were semi-cogged. This was a symmetrical pair and was most likely intended
to rotate the horizontal plane of a dioptre, as a ship instrument.
110 F. Russo et al.

a) b)
Fig. 8 Modern reconstructions of topographical instruments: (a) Heron’s di-
optre; (b) a Stadia

The Water Clock by Ctesibius

Water clocks were quite common two thousand years ago but generally they were
very simple and not very accurate. Essentially they consisted in an upper water
tank that filled a lower one through a regulated water flow. In the lower tank a ball
cock was activated by the water flow and moved a pointer that indicated the time.
 Devices for Distance and Time Measurement 111

Fig. 9 A perspective reconstruction of Ctesibius’ water clock

112 F. Russo et al.

Beside the motion and power transmission, there was another problem to solve.
The length of a roman hour was not constant since it was defined as 1/12 of the
time between sunrise and sunset during the day and 1/12 of the time between sun-
set and sunrise during the night. Thus, the time duration of one hour was different
from day and night (except at the equinoxes) and from a given day to another one.
The water clock that was designed by Ctesibius, solved this problem. A perspec-
tive modern reconstruction of it is shown in Fig. 8 on the basis of what was de-
scribed by Vitruvius.
A bottom tank was filled by a constant water flow from a top tank that is con-
tinuously maintained full. An yarn was connected to the ball clock and to a
counter weight and was wrapped in coil around the pointer axle. Daily the bottom
tank was drained and the cycle started again. The main parts of the mechanism are
shown as an orthogonal section in Fig. 9.
The problem of measuring hours of variable length was solved by Ctesibius by
fitting the dial on a shaft that was off the centre of the pointer shaft and by moving
the dial during the year. The mechanism is shown in Fig. 9b.
Any time the ball cock passes through a certain position (once a day), it moves a
rod that pushes one tooth of a gear. This last gear has 365 teeth, so it made a revo-
lution in one year, and was fitted on an hollow shaft coaxial to the pointer shaft
and connected to a rod, as shown in Fig. 9b.
The dial was installed on an hub having two orthogonal slots. Through the ver-
tical slot passed the pointer shaft and in the horizontal one a crank was connected
to the gear shaft. While the crank rotates, the dial could move just along the verti-
cal direction. In this way, the dial centre moves with respect to the pointer axis
from the higher position to the lower position to the higher again, once in a year.
The 365 teeth gear moved also another pointer to indicate the day of the year.

Conclusions

The presented devices show that twenty centuries ago the knowledge in the field
of mechanics, and specifically in measuring time and distances, was much more
advanced than what is commonly supposed. In this paper, measurement devices
are presented and discussed in order to understand their designs and operations as
important examples of high technical level in Mechanism Design at the time of
Roman Empire.
Measuring distance, together with the measuring of mass and force, represented
the first steps in developing science and technology in Antiquity. In addition, the
first western scientists and engineers (e.g. Thaletes, Pitagoras, Archimedes, etc.)
were very deeply interested in the study of Geometry, as fundamental for the study
of Mechanics and design of mechanical systems. It is also well-known that an ac-
curate measuring of distances is also essential for civil engineering in building
temples and towns. A relevant impulse in this field of knowledge and its practical
application was given during the Roman Empire, as discussed in this paper
through few significant examples.
 Devices for Distance and Time Measurement 113

Fig. 10 A kinematic scheme of Ctesibius’ clock in Fig. 8: (a) the clock mecha-
nism; (b) a details of the mechanism for the dial motion
114 F. Russo et al.

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