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O$@P
x 1
.Ob '# @{7 @ x 1 >
F g! f ( x) x
x 2 1
.H @y! @*# C )! H x o 1 '_ @-# Y
O g! f (x ) x
H >
F B
0* ? V m x 1 '_ f# V % 9r '% @ g! f (x ) ? x
:
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06 $(
0
V % @"%* @ '?J} g! * '? V m #
Y
O NH @y! @)2* 5L @ g! V?
_ @#
0
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F Y
O '?
! W @a(* @ ("L6 @z
2,)5* . C )! #

.#
@j
O f:?$Q
x2 4 x2 6x 8 x 4
1) lim , 2) lim , 3) lim
x o 2 x2 x o2 x2 x o16 x 16
:# ] @y! Y
O * :E/
x2 4 (2) 2 4 0
1) lim
x o 2 x2 22 0
0
@ >
F Y
O @[b # V % @ @"% '? @"%* @ '?J} NH @y! @j
O '(% '_ @~b
0
:W Ef @ 9r f
( x 2)( x 2)
lim lim ( x 2) 2 2 4
x o2 ( x 2) x o2
x 2 6 x 8 2 2 12 8 0
2) lim
x o2 x2 22 0
0
:H 5L \)2* Y
O \
! :E/
0
( x 2)( x 4)
lim lim ( x 4) 24 2
xo2 x2 xo2
x 4 0
3) lim
x 16 0
x o16
0
&^ P# V m W @"%f Y
O NH @y! \
! Y
O W* '_ HÒ# 9
:E/
0
:!i '# UJ* @ &^ U[*
x 4 x 4 ( x 16)
lim lim
x o16 x 16 x 4 x o16 ( x 16)( x 4)
1 1
lim
x o16 x 4 8
"T

5
5
3 x x4
1) lim ? 2) lim 2 x 2 3 ? 3) lim ?
xo3 x 1 2 x o1 x 1 x o4 x 2
2x 4 1 1

4) lim x 1 5 ? 5) lim x 3 3 ?
2
xo 2 x2 x o0 x

f
EH .MI -II
f
-# ] Y
O g! * [* ?
x 3 3x 8
lim
xof 2x2 2
O$@P
.Ob x o f '_ Y
O g! f ( x) 2 x 4 x 3 4 x 1 x
.Ob x o f '_ Y
O g! g ( x ) x 3 2 x 4 x
5
.Ob x o f '_ Y
O g! y x
x2
f ( x)
.H# x o 0 '_ NW Ef @ >, @t Y
O g! x
g ( x)
f ( x)
.H# x o f '_ NW Ef @ >, @t Y
O g! x
g ( x)
:$< Ef @ @-? f @[b >
06 (% @
f
:# @# '% '? V m #
Y
O H @y! '_ g! @t :$
f
'? @[b # V % @ @"% Nev H c ] '_ N98"* @t @ U[* &^ g!
.$< Ef @ Y
O
x2 1
.#
lim :?$Q 85

xof 3x 2 2
x2 1 f 1 f
lim :# ] @y! Y
O * :E/
xof 3x 2 2 f2 f

f
:ev ! x 2 @ U[* &^ NH 5L @("M '_ @~b
f
x2 1 2 1
2 1 1
x2 1 2
x2 f 1 0 1
lim lim x x lim
xof 3x 2 2 x of 3 x 2 2 xof 2
3 3
2 30 3

x2 x2 x2 f
x2 2
.#
lim :?$Q .
x of x2
x2 2 f
lim :E/
xof x2 f
f
:ev c W @ ] @ x U[* &^ NH 5L @("M '_ @~b
f
x2 2 2 2
2 1 1
x2 2 2
x2 f 1 0 1
lim lim x x lim f
xof x 2 x of x 2 x of 2 1 2 0 0

x2 x2 x x2 f f
x 1
.#
lim :?$Q .
x of x2 2
x 1 f
lim :E/
xof x2 2 f
f
:ev c W @ ] @ x U[* &^ NH 5L @("M '_ @~b
f
x 1 1 1 1 1
2 2
x 1 2
f f 0 0
lim 2 lim x 2 x lim x x 0
x of x 2 xo f x 2 x of 2 2 1 0 1
1 1
x2 x2 x2 f
f
f @ N f# % @% @
-. '_ @ @ NH @y! '_ ' h0! @t :'$
f
:W Ef @ Y
O t 9r

a0 x m a1 x m 1 ... am
@" H # ( x o f )
_ @# P
'# C @ g! f ( x )
b0 x n b1 x n1 ... bn
:H BL* @"
a0
. @ & 2. Y
O P# W* V m m n -1
b0
. @[b Q^ @ & 2. Y
O P# W* V m m n -2
. @[b r f @ & 2. Y
O P# W* V m m ! n -3
.#
@j
O f :?$Q 1
&
5x 2 6 x 4 x3 x 1 8 6 x3 x 2 x 3x 2 2
1) lim 2) lim 3) lim
x of x4 2x2 3 x o3 5 x3 x 4 6 x 1 xof x 1
:E/
5x 2 6 x 4 x 3 x 1 6x4
lim lim 6 : N m n '_ @hb -1
x of x4 2x2 3 x of x 4
8 6x3 x 2 x
lim 0 . Q^ Y

g! W* N m n '_ @hb -2
x of 5x3 x 4 6x 1
: V% f @ H P* Y

g! HW* N m ! n '_ @hb -3
3x 2 2
lim f
x of x 1
Ef @ @"% @[b % @% '
-. '# # @ @!< H 9# $L#V :'$
.HW

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#
@j
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6 x4 x2 x 6 x5 x2 x 9
1) lim 2 2) lim 3) lim
xof x x xof x 3 3x 4 xof x4 x2 x 5
x3 x 2 x 7 3x 2 2
4) lim 5) lim
xof x3 x 5 x of x 1

'
H .MI (0 f) (f f) -III
.#
"
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O * [*
1 x 1
lim 2 2
xo 2 x 4 x 4
2 x3 4
lim ( x 2 9)
x o3 x 3
O$@P
.L
UJ* a 1 x
.L
UJ* x 1 x
.H# 7 x o f '_ @-# N#
Y
O f ( x) x x 1 x
.H# 7 x o f '_ @-# N# ] Y
O g! f ( x) (2 x 1)( x 1) x
:
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Y
O NH @-L \)2* (0 f) (f f) '_ h0! t
f 0
V @y! ? '_ b N# V % '% @t -, @jT @[b UJ* i N# gX
f 0
.W Ef @ Y
O '? @"% NH#
.#
@j
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9 8 x 10 1
1) lim ( 2 ) ? 2) lim ( x 1)( 2 ) ?
x o1 x 1 x 1 x o1 x 2x 3
9 8 x 10 9 8 1 10 9 18
lim ( ) ff :1E/
x o1 x 1 x2 1 1 1 12 1 0 0
:'_ N 3L
H @y! (f f) Y
O * '_ @hb
9 x 9 8 x 10 x 1 0
lim lim 2
x o1 x 2 1 x o1 x 1 0
x 1 1 1
lim lim
x o1 ( x 1)( x 1) x o1 x 1 2

1
2) lim ( x 1)( 2 ) ?
x o1 x 2x 3
1 1 1 1
lim ( x 1)( ) (1 1)( 2 ) 0 0 0f :2E/
x o1 x2 2 x 3 1 23 33 0
: NH 5L (0 f) Y
O W* '_ HÒ# 9

x 1 x 1 1 1
lim lim lim
x o1 x2 2x 3 x o1 ( x 1)( x 3) x o1 x3 4
"T

.#
@j
O f
1 1
1) lim ( x 1 x ) 2) lim ( )
xof x o1 1 x 1 x2
ª 1 º
3) lim ( x 5 8 x 3 ) 4) lim «( x 2 25)
x of xo5
¬ x 5 ¼»
5) lim ( x a x )
x of

1f , f 0 , 00
1
# ] 5L \)2* Y
O * [*
lim(1 sin x) x ?
x o0

.H# x o 0 '_ #
'# &^ @t @ Y
O g! y xx x
1
.H# x o f '_ # ] '# &^ @t @ @y! Y
O y (1 x) x x
. 9! i @ @-L 1f , f 0 , 00 '_ f# @"%* @ '
-. '*# x
:
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24 @t H# V @" < @-L \)2* $( g! V?
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lim ( f ( x )) g ( x ) ln( lim f ( x) g ( x ) ) lim (ln f ( x ) g ( x ) ) lim >g ( x ) ln f ( x )@ :'(0? NH W
x oa xoa xoa x oa
:'$
1
.H# 7 @ . e 2.71828182 d an (1 )n H# n o f
_ @# -I
n
1
lim (1 ) n e
n of n
:H`v LM '# 9X f @ '_
1 1 1
n 1 (1 ) n
n n n
1 1 2 2
2 0.5 1.5 2.25
5 0.2 1.2 2.48832
10 0.1 1.1 2.59374246
100 0.01 1.01 2.704813829
1000 0.001 1.001 2.716923932
10000 0.0001 1.0001 2.718145926
100000 0.00001 1.00001 2.718268237
1000000 0.000001 1.000001 2.718280469
1000000000 10 9 1 10 9 2.718281828

1
.$? . Euler @ . e 2.71 ... '_ lim (1 )n e 2.718281828
n of n
-II
1
D
1) lim (1 D ) D e 2) lim (1 ) E x eD E
D o0 xof x
Ln(1 x ) ex 1
3) lim 1 4) lim 1
xo0 x x o0 x
.H @-L \)2* 1f '("M VW -b '_ Ò :
1
1 1 1
1) x D , D o0 xof lim (1 D ) D lim (1 ) x e
D x D o0 xof x
D
2) lim (1 ) E x eD E
x of x
D D
u x , x o f u o0
x u
D DE
E ª 1
º
lim (1 u ) u
lim «(1 u ) u »
u o0 u o0
¬ ¼
1 1
x o u , u o0 xof
u x
DE DE
ª 1
º ª 1 º
lim «(1 u ) u » lim «(1 ) x » eDE
u o0
¬ ¼
x of
¬ x ¼
ln(1 x ) ª1 º ª 1
º
3) lim lim « ln(1 x)» lim «ln(1 x) x »
xo0 x ¬
xo0 x
¼ xo0
¬ ¼
ª 1
º 1 1
ln «lim (1 x ) x » , x u , xo0 u of
¬ xo ¼ u x
0
ª 1
º ª 1 º
ln «lim (1 x ) x » ln « lim (1 ) u » ln e 1
¬
xo0
¼ ¬ u of u ¼

4) y ex 1 ex 1 y x ln(1 y )
ex 1 y 1 1
lim lim lim
x o0 x y o0 ln(1 y ) y o 0 ln(1 y ) ln(1 y )
lim
y yo0 y
1 1 1 1
1
, y x , yo0 xof
1 x y
lim ln(1 y ) lim ln(1 y ) y
y o0 y
y o0
1 1 1
1
1 ln e 1
ln lim (1 ) x
x of x
5L \)2* 1f lim >u ( x)@v ( x ) '(0? Y
O g! 5
e(mP#
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EH .MI 1f
x oa
:'# @}
" @ N?0 V% D u 1 '# > @ H# V @" <
lim ( vD )
ª v
Dº ª º
1 x oa
lim >(1 u 1)@ u 1
v
u 1
lim u v lim «(1 D ) D » lim «(1 D ) D »
x oa xoa xoa xoa
¬ ¼ ¬ ¼
: '# @-? @ HÒ# ` @ D o 0 u o 1
_ @# D u 1 '_ @hb
lim >v ( u 1) @
ª º
1 xoa
lim >v ( u 1) @
lim >u ( x)@ «lim (1 D ) »
v ( x) D
e xoa eP
¬D o0
x oa
¼
lim >u ( x)@ lim >v(u 1)@
v ( x)
eP , P
x oa xoa
2
.W Ef @ >
F Y
O lim (1 ) x :?$Q 85

xof x
:-, # @[b 9*6 @ NH 5L \)2* 1f Y
O '_ HÒ*-0* # ] @y! Y
O * :E/
2
u 1 , v x
x
2 ª 2 º
lim (1 ) x e P , P lim « x(1 1)» 2
xof x x of
¬ x ¼
2
lim (1 ) x e P e 2
xof x
x 5
1
.# @2% 8* >
F lim (1 ) 2
:?$Q .
xof x
1 x 5
lim (1 ) 2 1f # ] @y! Y
O *:E/
x of x

:-, # @[b 9*6 @ H 5L \)2* 1f Y
O W* HÒ*-0* '_ @hb
1 x 5
lim (1 ) 2 e P
xof x
1 x5
u 1 , v
x 2
ªx 5 1 º ªx5 1 º x5 1
P lim >v (u 1)@ lim « (1 1)» lim « ( ) lim
xoa xof
¬ 2 x ¼ xof
¬ 2 x ¼» x of 2x 2
5
1 x
1
lim (1 ) 2 eP e2 e
xof x
1
lim (cos x) x ? :?$Q .
xo0
1
lim (cos x ) x 1f N# ] @y! Y
O * \
! c @ O :E/
xo0
:# @2% 8* '? @"%* @ 9*6 H 5L \)2* 1f Y
O HÒ*-0* '_ @hb
1
u cos x , v
x
1
lim (cos x) x eP
x o0
ª1 º cos x 1 (cos x 1)(cos x 1)
P lim >v(u 1)@ lim « (cos x 1)» lim lim
x oa
¬
xo0 x
¼ xo0 x x o0 x(cos x 1)
cos 2 x cos x cos x 1 cos 2 x sin 2 x cos 2 x
lim
x (cos x 1) x o0 x(cos x 1)
sin x sin x
lim lim 1 0 0
x o0 x xo0 cos x 1
1
lim (cos x) x eP e0 1
x o0
"T

.# @2% 8* @jO f
1 x 1
1) lim (1 ) x 2 2) lim
x of x x o1 ln x
x 3 x2 1 n2
3) lim ( ) 4) lim (1 )
x 1
x of x of n2
1
5) lim (cos 2 x) x
x o0

3
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Trigonometric functions limits
HW* NH (1unit) ? 0 ? ? @#
o .$? V? 9r @b @ ?
O$@P
.# \% @? HJ#* T '# V? $ z-z* @ C (o , r ) '# \jP
% @
# @
0i x
.# \% . MB E * CA 8* ox ! V? @ @[b $L] $)! @ C x
.# 5^ V% J#* @ ? L] C x
.# @T @ # V EF 5! 7* '? HJ#* x
:2 c
! '% @
F @[b >
06 $( @
.H# 7 @ Q^ @? '_ @-# NH (1) @ H P* YO >2P '? 't B? % '? ? :^_
sin T
lim 1
T o0 T
:W Ef @ @" P* {F OMA z-z* COA MOA '# 5L f @ :
I\
1 1 BM
> P* -z* MOA OA BM r BM r
2 2 2
1 2 y
> P* {F OAM Tr
C
2
.W @"%f c ? @ ? ! , '? T M
' 1 1 AC
> P* COA OA AC r AC r
2 2 2 T
x
O B A
:# @- V% > P* @ {F OMA @" P* z-z* COA MOA
1 1 AC
r BM T r 2 r
2 2 2

2
:!i '# @ , VW P*
r2
BM AC T 1
T sin T T tan T 1
r r sin T cosT
sin T sin T
cosT 1 lim cosT d lim d lim 1
T T o0 T o0 T T o0
N lim 1 1 @h lim cosT 1 '_ HÒ*-0* YP(! '
F vk %
T o0 T o0
sin T
. lim 1
T o0 T
:H# 98 (* . (1) (1) B? % '? '_ Ò
1 d sin T d 1
1 sin T 1
d d
T T T
1 sin T 1
lim d lim d lim
T of T T of T T of T
:'_ 3L
E % '
F vk %
1 ½
lim 0
T of T °° sin T
¾ Tlimof T
0
1 °
lim 0
T of T ¿°
'_ >, @t Q^ @ H P* Y
O >2P '? 't B? % '? ? '_ 3? '# @-? @
.$ ` @ >? )'! @?
sin 2 x
.#
lim :?$Q 85

x o0 x
D
: 3L
NH# D o 0 N # x o 0 '_ @hb NHÒ# x 2 x D @# :E/
2
sin D sin D
2
D D
2
:$< @ Ef @[b P* @ @
sin 2 x sin D sin D
lim lim 2 lim 2 1 2
xo0 x D o0 D D o0 D
2

5 tan 2 x
.# 5 lim :?$Q .
x o0 7x
:E/
sin 2 x sin 2 x sin 2 x
5 5 2x 10
5 tan 2 x cos 2 x 5 sin 2 x 2x 2x
7x 7x 7 x cos 2 x 7 x cos 2 x 7 cos 2 x
sin 2 x
lim
5 tan 2 x 10 x o0 2 x 10
lim
xo0 7x 7 lim cos 2 x 7
xo0
1 cos 2 x
.# 5 lim :?$Q .
x o0 x
: N V% 1 cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x '_ Ò :E/
1 cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x
lim lim
xo0 x x o0 x
sin x
2 lim lim sin x 2 1 0 0
xo0 x xo0
tan 3x
:#
lim :?$Q 1
&
x o0 sin 5 x
:E/
sin 3x
sin 3x lim
3x xo0 3x
sin 3 x 3x 1
tan 3 x 3 x lim cos 3x 31 3
lim lim cos 3x lim cos 3 x x o0
x o 0 sin 5 x x o 0 sin 5 x xo0 sin 5 x 5 x lim sin 5 x 51 5
5x
5x x o0 5x
cos 4 x cos 6 x
.W Ef @ lim :?$Q .D
xo0 x2
D E D E
: cosD cos E 2 sin sin '_ Ò :E/
2 2
4 x6 x 4x6x
2 sin sin
lim 2 2
x o0 x2
2 sin 5 x sin( x ) 5 sin 5 x sin x
lim 2 lim lim
x o0 x2 xo 0 5 x x o0 x

: NH# y o 0 x o 0 NH V% 5 x y @#
sin y sin x
10 lim lim 10 1 1 10
y o0 y xo0 x
"T

.# @2% 8* @j
O f

sin( x )
6 sin 2 x 1
x o0
x
x o0 x x o0 1 tan 2 x
6
sin x x tan 2 x
4) lim 5) lim 6) lim sin 5 x cos 3x
x o0 x x o0 sin 3x x o0
tan(2 x 1)
7) lim 8) lim cos 2 x cos x 1 9) lim (cos2 x sin 2 x)
x o0 4x2 1 xo0 x o1

O$"
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Continuity of functions
.# C @ -L
.# c
! D 5m, NH
@b @- \? *
@ @[b # @ @#b \-F '_ @ @ \-F V? @ '? '(
< '_ NH @-L -"[* @6T h0!
@ \% '(0? fO% $ @ \-F V? @ '? '(
< HÒ# 5-! ' h0! H "* ? '-/"* NHÒ% $
NH dT '? '# @,! V? @ @L< N$ @ @[b # '-,
.HÒ# 5-! ' h0! H "*
? '-/"*
'# 'L] W* @ ' ~0! 9r @

.# \% dT g! f ( x ) x 2 4 x x
.#
'# @{7 @ x 1 Y
O g! f (x) x
.# @- V% 'L?W VW @"%
'# @{7 @ x 1 >
F g! f (x) x
:$< Ef @ @-? f @[b >
06 $(% @
.H# x^ '# @ @4 f '_ NHÒ# @--! H "* '# $L] @ x a g! y f (x ) :$
.H H ?0 '# 'L] @ a g! f (x ) -1
.H Y
O '# 'L] @ a g! H 9# -2
lim f ( x ) f (a ) :H H P* V% Y
O @ f (x ) ? ! >
F f (a ) -3
x oa

.V H "* '# $L] @ x0 2 g! f ( x ) x 2 2 x 1 '_

M :?$Q 85

: 3L
@[b 4 @ >? "* NH @. $7
7 9] @ % ?0 g! '_ @hb:E/
1) 2 Dom f ( x ) IR
2) lim ( x 2 2 x 1) 4 4 1 7 °½
¾ lim
xo2
f ( x) f ( 2) 7
xo2
3) f (2) 22 4 1 7 ¿°
.V H "* g! (! NH >7
7 '# @ @4 VW >? "* '_ @hb
2x 1
.Ob '# $L] @ x0 1 >? "* g! f ( x) :?$Q .
x 1
IR \ {1} :@ V & 2. @ % ?0 g! f (x ) :E/
2x 1 3
. V% lim f
x o 1 x 1 0
H "* '# $L] @ 1 g! W* (! N @ 5* '# @ % @ ?0 g! 1 H`
# 9
'_ @~b
.V @
° x 2 2 x 1 ; x 2
.Ob '# $L] @ x 2 >? "* g! f ( x) ® :?$Q .c
°̄ x 2 3 ; xt2
:
b @jO , 'y
# $M g! * :E/
lim f ( x ) lim ( x 2 3) 1 ½
x o2 x o2 °
¾ lim f ( x) lim f ( x ) lim f ( x) f ( 2)
lim f ( x) lim ( x 2 2 x 1) 1 ° xo2 xo 2 xo2
x o2 xo 2 ¿
'# $L] HW* @ g! '_ 3? '# @-? @
y
.HÒ# 9
'# 5L @ '_ @L NV H "*
x

2 x 1 ; x t 1
.
b >? "* g! '# $L] @ x 1 NH f ( x ) ® @# :?$Q 1
&
¯1 x ; x 1
:E/
½
lim f ( x) 1 x 0 °½ lim f ( x) lim 2 x 1 3
x o1 x o1 °°
x o1
¾ ¾ xlim f ( x ) z lim f ( x)
f (1) 0 ¿° lim f ( x) lim 1 x 0 ° o1 x o1
x o1 x o1
¿°
.V H "*
'# x 1 @ g!
@ f ( g ( x)) NH H "* '# x g (a ) @ f (x ) '# $L] @ x a g! g (x)
_ @# :$
:'(0? NV H "* \ '# x a
lim f ( g ( x )) f (lim g ( x)) f ( g (a))
x oa x oa
1) lim ( f ( x))D (lim f ( x))D , D IR
xoa x oa
lim f ( x )
2) lim a f ( x ) a xoa
x oa
3) lim log a f ( x) log a (lim f ( x))
x oa x oa
4) lim sin f ( x) sin( lim f ( x))
x oa xoa
x2 9
.H x z 3 H f ( x ) @#:?$Q .D
x 3
V H "* '# $L] @ x 3 g! f (x ) ?
@ ?0 g! . 3 & 2. 5! @ ? ?0 V @ '# @{7 @ x 3 g! '_ @hb :E/
.V @ H "* '# 'L] @ x 3 g! @-* @ N5* @ '# @ %
@ f '_ ? H @ @[b 4 f @ ? '# x a @ g! f (x )
_ @# :O$" )d
. @r @ 9 /Q . L] 9 /Q '? a V H "*
'# a
.H @ H P* , H @j
O H
# $M '# $L] @ a g! f :?- 85

.H @ X* @[b (@j
O H
# $M )j
O @ ? @# \# :?- .
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O '# $L] @ a g!
_ @#:?- .
(.H L] $ , ?

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.

x3
a) f ( x) x 2 5( x 2)7 ; x 3 b) f ( x) ; x 1
( x 2 2 x 5)
8 x2 1
c) h( x) ; x 2 d ) f ( x) ; x 3
2 x2 5 ( x 3)3
| x|
e) f ( x) | x 3 | ; x 3 f ) g ( x) ; x 0
x
x3 x
° ; xz0 x2 9
g ) f ( x) ® x h) f ( x) ; x 2
°̄ 3 x 3
; x 2

'
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>7
7 '_ # % VW @ P* * [*
( f r g )( x ) f ( x) r g ( x) @ @# H
( f g )( x ) f ( x) g ( x)
( f y g )( x ) f ( x ) y g ( x) , g ( x ) z 0
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2
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f c( x) 0 1
1
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1
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1
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2a 2 15

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