Sustainable Practices

in Geoenvironmental
Engineering
Second Edition
Downloaded by [149.200.129.254] at 11:30 12 February 2017
 Sustainable Practices
in Geoenvironmental
Engineering
Downloaded by [149.200.129.254] at 11:30 12 February 2017

Second Edition

Raymond N. Yong
Catherine N. Mulligan
Masaharu Fukue
Downloaded by [149.200.129.254] at 11:30 12 February 2017

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 Contents

Preface to the First Edition......................................................................................................... xvii

Preface to the Second Edition..................................................................................................... xxi
Authors........................................................................................................................................ xxiii

1. Geoenvironment Management and Sustainability..........................................................1

1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Impacts on the Geoenvironment.................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Geoenvironment Impacts from Natural Events and Disasters.................. 3
1.1.3 Anthropogenic Forces and Impacts on Geoenvironment.......................... 3
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1.2 Geoenvironment, Ecosystems, and Resources.......................................................... 4

1.2.1 Ecozones and Ecosystems...............................................................................5
1.2.2 Natural Resources and Biodiversity in the Geoenvironment....................6
1.3 Geoenvironment Sustainability................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 Geoenvironment as a Natural Resource Base..............................................7
1.3.2 Impacts on the Geoenvironment.................................................................... 9
1.3.2.1 Impacts due to Population Growth................................................ 9
1.3.2.2 Impacts from Natural Resource Exploitation............................. 11
1.3.3 Stressors and Sources..................................................................................... 13
1.3.3.1 Natural Stressor Sources and Stressors....................................... 15
1.3.3.2 Anthropogenic Stressor Sources and Stressors.......................... 15
1.4 Geoenvironment Impacts on Soil and Water Resources........................................ 18
1.4.1 Impacts on Land Mass and Soil.................................................................... 19
1.4.1.1 Soil Functionality and Indicators.................................................. 19
1.4.2 Impacts on Water and Water Resources...................................................... 20
1.5 Sustainability................................................................................................................ 24
1.5.1 Renewable and Nonrenewable Geoenvironment Natural Resources.... 25
1.5.2 4Rs and Beyond............................................................................................... 26
1.6 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................... 27
References................................................................................................................................ 29

2. Stressors and Soil Contamination..................................................................................... 31

2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 31
2.2 Stressors and Impacts.................................................................................................. 31
2.2.1 Stressor Impacts on Soils............................................................................... 32
2.2.1.1 Hydraulic.......................................................................................... 32
2.2.1.2 Mechanical....................................................................................... 33
2.2.1.3 Thermal............................................................................................ 33
2.2.1.4 Chemical...........................................................................................34
2.2.1.5 Geochemical.....................................................................................34
2.2.1.6 Biologically Mediated.....................................................................34
2.2.2 Soil Contamination from Chemical Stressors............................................ 35
2.3 Contamination and Geoenvironmental Impacts.................................................... 37
2.3.1 Reference Frame.............................................................................................. 38
2.3.2 Characterization of Geoenvironmental Impacts........................................ 39

v
 vi Contents

2.3.3
Identifying and Assessing for Impact on the Geoenvironment.............. 41
2.3.3.1 Stressor Sources............................................................................... 41
2.3.3.2 Nature of Impacts............................................................................ 41
2.3.4 Man-Made and Natural Combinations.......................................................43
2.4 Wastes, Contaminants, and Threats.......................................................................... 45
2.4.1 Inorganic Contaminants................................................................................ 46
2.4.1.1 Arsenic (As)...................................................................................... 46
2.4.1.2 Cadmium (Cd)................................................................................. 47
2.4.1.3 Chromium (Cr)................................................................................ 47
2.4.1.4 Copper (Cu)...................................................................................... 48
2.4.1.5 Lead (Pb)........................................................................................... 48
2.4.1.6 Nickel (Ni)........................................................................................ 49
2.4.1.7 Zinc (Zn)........................................................................................... 49
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2.4.2 Organic Chemical Contaminants................................................................. 50

2.4.2.1 Persistent Organic Chemical Pollutants....................................... 52
2.5 Surface and Subsurface Soils...................................................................................... 52
2.5.1 Soil as a Resource Material............................................................................ 52
2.5.2 Nature of Soils................................................................................................. 53
2.5.3 Soil Composition............................................................................................. 56
2.5.3.1 Primary Minerals............................................................................ 56
2.5.3.2 Secondary Minerals........................................................................ 56
2.5.3.3 Soil Organic Matter......................................................................... 56
2.5.3.4 Oxides and Hydrous Oxides......................................................... 56
2.5.3.5 Carbonates and Sulfates................................................................. 57
2.5.4 Soil Properties Pertinent to Contaminant Transport and Fate................ 57
2.5.4.1 Specific Surface Area and Cation Exchange Capacity............... 58
2.5.5 Surface Properties........................................................................................... 60
2.6 Contaminant Transport and Land Contamination................................................. 61
2.6.1 Mechanisms of Interaction of Heavy Metal Contaminants in Soil......... 61
2.6.2 Chemically Reactive Groups of Organic Chemical Contaminants.........63
2.6.3 Partitioning of Contaminants and Partition Coefficients.........................65
2.6.4 Predicting Contaminant Transport.............................................................. 67
2.7 Geoenvironmental Land Management.................................................................... 67
2.8 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................... 69
References................................................................................................................................ 70

3. Sustainable Water Management......................................................................................... 73

3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 73
3.1.1 Geoenvironment Sustainable Water Management.................................... 73
3.1.1.1 Water Availability and Quality..................................................... 74
3.2 Uses of Water and Its Importance.............................................................................. 74
3.2.1 Hydrological Cycle......................................................................................... 75
3.2.1.1 Human Interference on Infiltration and Runoff......................... 76
3.2.2 Harvesting of Groundwater..........................................................................77
3.2.2.1 Excessive Groundwater Abstraction and Land Subsidence...... 78
3.2.2.2 Uses of Water................................................................................... 78
3.3 Water Quality Characterization and Management................................................. 79
3.3.1 Classes of Contaminants Characterizing Chemical Stressors................. 79
3.3.2 Monitoring of Water Quality........................................................................83
 Contents vii

3.3.2.1 Remote Sensing............................................................................... 86

3.3.2.2 Biomonitoring.................................................................................. 88
3.4 Sustainable Water Treatment and Management..................................................... 89
3.4.1 Techniques for Soil and Groundwater Treatment...................................... 90
3.4.1.1 Isolation and Containment............................................................90
3.4.1.2 Extraction Treatment Techniques................................................. 91
3.4.1.3 Electrokinetic Applications............................................................ 93
3.4.1.4 Natural Attenuation........................................................................ 93
3.4.1.5 Biostimulation.................................................................................. 95
3.4.1.6 Bioaugmentation............................................................................. 95
3.4.1.7 Enhanced Natural Attenuation..................................................... 96
3.4.1.8 In Situ Reactive Regions—Treatment Zones............................... 96
3.4.1.9 Permeable Reactive Barriers.......................................................... 97
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3.4.1.10 Ex Situ Processes............................................................................. 99

3.4.2 Groundwater and Water Management...................................................... 101
3.4.2.1 Evaluation of the Sustainability of Remediation
Alternatives.................................................................................... 102
3.5 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................. 104
References.............................................................................................................................. 105

4. Industrial Ecology and the Geoenvironment................................................................ 109

4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 109
4.2 Concept of Industrial Ecology.................................................................................. 110
4.2.1 Geoenvironmental Life Cycle Assessment............................................... 110
4.2.2 Geoenvironment Impacts and Sustainability........................................... 112
4.3 Upstream, Midstream, and Downstream Industries........................................... 113
4.4 Mineral Mining and Processing Downstream Industries................................... 115
4.4.1 Metallurgical Industries.............................................................................. 115
4.4.1.1 Metal Fabrication and Processing............................................... 116
4.4.2 Nonmetal Mineral Resources Processing................................................. 118
4.4.3 Land Environment Impacts and Sustainability Indicators.................... 120
4.5 Agroprocessing Industries....................................................................................... 122
4.5.1 Leather Tanning Industry........................................................................... 124
4.5.2 Pulp and Paper Industry............................................................................. 125
4.5.3 Palm Oil Industries....................................................................................... 126
4.5.4 Land Environment Impact and Sustainability Indicators...................... 127
4.6 Petrochemical and Chemical Industries................................................................. 127
4.6.1 Petrochemical Industries............................................................................. 127
4.6.2 Chemical Industries..................................................................................... 128
4.6.2.1 Stressors and Impacts on Geoenvironment.............................. 129
4.6.3 Land Environment Impacts and Sustainability Indicators.................... 129
4.7 Service Industries....................................................................................................... 129
4.7.1 Hospital Wastes and the Geoenvironment............................................... 130
4.8 Energy Production and the Geoenvironment....................................................... 130
4.8.1 Fossil Fuel Energy Production.................................................................... 130
4.8.1.1 Geoenvironment Stressors........................................................... 131
4.8.2 Nuclear Energy............................................................................................. 131
4.8.3 Alternative Energy Sources and the Geoenvironment........................... 133
4.9 Contaminating Discharges and Wastes................................................................. 133
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4.9.1
Physicochemical Properties and Processes............................................... 135
4.9.1.1 Solubility......................................................................................... 135
4.9.1.2 Partition Coefficients.................................................................... 135
4.9.1.3 Vapor Pressure............................................................................... 136
4.10 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................. 136
References.............................................................................................................................. 138

5. Natural Resources Extraction: Stressors and Impact Management.......................... 139

5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 139
5.2 Stressors and Impacts................................................................................................ 140
5.2.1 Mining-Related Activities............................................................................ 140
5.2.2 Biohydrometallurgical Processes............................................................... 141
5.2.3 Underground In Situ Hydrocarbon Extraction........................................ 144
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5.2.4 Sulfide Minerals and Acidic Leachates..................................................... 145

5.2.4.1 Acid Mine Drainage...................................................................... 145
5.2.4.2 Arsenic Release.............................................................................. 147
5.2.5 Sustainability and Resource Exploitation................................................. 148
5.3 Resource Extraction and Stressor Impacts............................................................. 149
5.3.1 Mining-Related Industries........................................................................... 150
5.3.1.1 Pit Mining....................................................................................... 150
5.3.1.2 Discharges from Beneficiation and Processing:
Stressor Sources............................................................................. 150
5.3.1.3 Solid Waste Materials and Stressors........................................... 152
5.3.1.4 Liquid Waste Streams, Discharge, and Stressors..................... 154
5.3.2 Underground In Situ Hydrocarbon Extraction........................................ 155
5.3.2.1 Fluid Usage and Stressors............................................................ 155
5.4 Tailings Discharges.................................................................................................... 156
5.4.1 Containment of Tailings.............................................................................. 156
5.4.2 Nature of Contained Slurry Tailings......................................................... 160
5.5 Geoenvironment Impacts and Management......................................................... 162
5.5.1 Geoenvironmental Inventory and Land Use............................................ 162
5.5.2 Acid Mine Drainage Impact Mitigation.................................................... 164
5.5.2.1 Acid Mine Drainage Management............................................. 165
5.5.2.2 Wetlands......................................................................................... 166
5.5.2.3 Biosorption..................................................................................... 167
5.5.3 Slurry Tailings Ponds Impact Management............................................. 168
5.6 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................. 172
5.6.1 Mining Activities.......................................................................................... 172
5.6.2 Contaminated Water Management............................................................ 172
5.6.3 Tailings Discharge and Mine Closure....................................................... 173
References.............................................................................................................................. 173

6. Agricultural-Based Food Production Geoenvironment Stressors............................ 177

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 177
6.1.1 Food Production............................................................................................ 177
6.1.2 Geoenvironment Engineering: Sustainable Issues.................................. 178
6.2 Land Use for Food Production................................................................................. 179
6.3 Stressor Impacts on Water and Soil......................................................................... 181
6.3.1 Water Utilization........................................................................................... 181
 Contents ix

6.3.2 Soil and Water Quality Stressors................................................................ 182

6.3.2.1 Chemical Soil Nutrients............................................................... 182
6.3.2.2 Pesticides........................................................................................ 185
6.4 Food Production Stressor Impacts.......................................................................... 188
6.4.1 Impact on Health.......................................................................................... 189
6.4.2 Impact on Biodiversity................................................................................. 189
6.5 Managing Geoenvironment Stressor Impacts....................................................... 191
6.5.1 Examples of Practices to Reduce Stressor Impacts.................................. 191
6.5.1.1 Soil Degradation............................................................................ 191
6.5.1.2 Soil Erosion.................................................................................... 192
6.5.1.3 Integrated Crop Management..................................................... 192
6.5.1.4 Water Quality................................................................................. 193
6.5.1.5 Source Control............................................................................... 194
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6.5.2 Impact of Soil Additives............................................................................... 195

6.5.3 Mitigating Manure Treatment Stressors’ Impacts................................... 197
6.5.3.1 Aerobic Composting..................................................................... 197
6.5.3.2 Anaerobic Digestion..................................................................... 198
6.5.3.3 Wetlands......................................................................................... 199
6.5.3.4 Integrated Manure Treatment..................................................... 199
6.6 Tools for Evaluation of Geoenviroment Impacts from Farming Stressor
Sources......................................................................................................................... 202
6.6.1 Agricultural Sustainability.......................................................................... 202
6.6.2 Development of Analytical Tools............................................................... 204
6.6.3 Indicators of Agroecosystem Sustainability............................................. 207
6.7 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................. 210
References.............................................................................................................................. 211

7. Urbanization and the Geoenvironment.......................................................................... 219

7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 219
7.2 Land Uses by Urbanization...................................................................................... 220
7.3 Impact of Urbanization on WEHAB....................................................................... 221
7.3.1 Impact on Water............................................................................................ 221
7.3.2 Effect of Traffic and Energy Use................................................................. 223
7.3.3 Implications on Health.................................................................................225
7.3.4 Impact of Land Use.......................................................................................225
7.3.5 Impact of Urban Waste Disposal................................................................ 226
7.3.6 Greenhouse Gases........................................................................................ 232
7.3.7 Impact on Ecosystem Biodiversity............................................................. 232
7.4 Impact Avoidance and Risk Minimization............................................................ 233
7.4.1 Waste Management...................................................................................... 233
7.4.1.1 Contamination Management and Prevention.......................... 233
7.4.1.2 Waste Reduction............................................................................ 235
7.4.1.3 Recycling........................................................................................ 237
7.4.2 Water Resources Management.................................................................... 240
7.4.3 Reduction in Energy Usage, Ozone Depletion, and Greenhouse
Gases............................................................................................................... 241
7.4.4 Minimizing Impact on Biodiversity........................................................... 242
7.4.5 Altering Transportation............................................................................... 242
7.4.6 Brownfield Redevelopment......................................................................... 242
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7.4.7 Sustainability Indicators for Urbanization............................................... 244

7.5 Mitigation and Remediation of Impacts................................................................. 246
7.5.1 Mitigation of Impact of Wastes................................................................... 246
7.5.1.1 Fresh Kills Urban Dump, New York City, New York, USA..... 247
7.5.1.2 Vertical Barriers and Containment............................................. 248
7.5.1.3 Excavation...................................................................................... 249
7.5.1.4 Landfill Bioreactor......................................................................... 249
7.5.1.5 Natural Attenuation...................................................................... 251
7.5.2 Remediation of Urban Sites.........................................................................254
7.5.2.1 Case Study of a Sustainable Urban Area................................... 259
7.6 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................. 260
References.............................................................................................................................. 260
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8. Coastal Marine Environment Sustainability................................................................ 265

8.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 265
8.2 Coastal Marine Environment and Impacts............................................................ 265
8.2.1 Geosphere and Hydrosphere Coastal Marine Environment................. 265
8.2.2 Sedimentation............................................................................................... 266
8.2.3 Eutrophication............................................................................................... 266
8.2.4 Food Chain and Biological Concentration................................................ 267
8.2.5 Contamination of Sediments...................................................................... 268
8.2.5.1 Some Case Studies of Sediment Contamination...................... 269
8.2.5.2 Sediment Quality Criteria............................................................ 270
8.3 London Convention and Protocol............................................................................ 271
8.4 Quality of Marine Sediments................................................................................... 272
8.4.1 Standards and Guidelines........................................................................... 273
8.4.1.1 Guidelines...................................................................................... 273
8.4.1.2 Chemicals....................................................................................... 273
8.4.2 Background and Bioconcentration............................................................. 273
8.4.2.1 Background Concentration.......................................................... 273
8.4.3 Sulfide and Its Effects on Marine Life....................................................... 276
8.4.3.1 Toxic Sulfide................................................................................... 276
8.4.3.2 Guidelines for Sulfide for Surface Water and Sediments........ 278
8.4.4 Connecting Problems of Geoenvironment and Bioenvironment.......... 278
8.4.5 Heavy Metals................................................................................................. 281
8.4.5.1 Profile of Heavy Metal Concentration........................................ 282
8.4.5.2 Minamata Disease......................................................................... 285
8.4.6 Organic Chemical Contaminants............................................................... 286
8.4.6.1 Organotins..................................................................................... 286
8.4.6.2 Chlorinated Organic Microcontaminants................................. 286
8.5 Rehabilitation of Coastal Marine Environment.................................................... 287
8.5.1 Removal of Contaminated Suspended Solids.......................................... 291
8.5.1.1 Confined Sea Areas....................................................................... 291
8.5.1.2 Large Bodies of Water................................................................... 292
8.5.1.3 Continuous Removal of Suspended Solids............................... 292
8.5.2 Sand Capping................................................................................................ 293
8.5.3 Removal of Contaminated Sediments by Dredging................................ 295
8.5.3.1 Dredging......................................................................................... 295
8.5.3.2 Treatment of Dredged Sediments............................................... 295
 Contents xi

8.5.4 Removal of Contaminated Sediments by Resuspension........................ 296

8.6 Creation of a Natural Purification System.............................................................. 297
8.6.1 Creation of Sand Beaches and Tidal Flats................................................. 297
8.6.2 Creation of Seaweed Swards....................................................................... 297
8.7 Sea Disposal of Waste................................................................................................ 299
8.8 Coastal Erosion...........................................................................................................300
8.9 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................. 302
References.............................................................................................................................. 303

9. Contaminants and Land Environment Sustainability Indicators............................. 307

9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 307
9.2 Indicators.....................................................................................................................308
9.2.1 Nature of Indicators......................................................................................308
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9.2.2 Contaminants and Geoenvironment Indicators...................................... 311

9.2.3 Prescribing Indicators.................................................................................. 311
9.3 Assessment of Interaction Impacts.......................................................................... 314
9.3.1 Sustainability Concerns............................................................................... 314
9.3.2 Surface Discharge: Hydrological Drainage, Spills, and Dumping........ 315
9.3.3 Subsurface Discharges................................................................................. 317
9.4 Contaminant Transport and Fate............................................................................ 319
9.4.1 Analytical and Predictive Tools.................................................................. 319
9.4.2 Basic Elements of Interactions between Dissolved Solutes and
Soil Fractions................................................................................................. 322
9.4.3 Elements of Abiotic Reactions between Organic Chemicals and
Soil Fractions................................................................................................. 323
9.4.4 Reactions in Porewater................................................................................. 325
9.5 Surface Complexation and Partitioning................................................................. 328
9.5.1 Partitioning of Inorganic Contaminants................................................... 328
9.5.2 Organic Chemical Contaminants............................................................... 331
9.6 Persistence and Fate................................................................................................... 335
9.6.1 Biotransformation and Degradation of Organic Chemicals and
Heavy Metals................................................................................................. 336
9.6.1.1 Alkanes, Alkenes, and Cycloalkanes......................................... 338
9.6.1.2 Polycyclic, Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons..................... 338
9.6.1.3 Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylene........................... 338
9.6.1.4 Methyl Tert-Butyl Ether................................................................ 338
9.6.1.5 Halogenated Aliphatic and Aromatic Compounds................. 339
9.6.1.6 Heavy Metals................................................................................. 339
9.7 Prediction of Transport and Fate of Contaminants.............................................. 339
9.7.1 Mass Transport..............................................................................................340
9.7.2 Transport Prediction....................................................................................344
9.7.2.1 Chemical Reactions and Transport Predictions.......................345
9.7.3 Geochemical Speciation and Transport Predictions...............................346
9.8 Concluding Remarks.................................................................................................348
References.............................................................................................................................. 349

10. Geoenvironment Impact Mitigation and Management.............................................. 353

10.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 353
10.1.1 Geoenvironmental Impacts......................................................................... 353
 xii Contents

10.1.1.1 Types of Stressors.......................................................................... 353

10.1.1.2 Impact Mitigation and Management.......................................... 353
10.2 Site Functionality and Restoration..........................................................................354
10.2.1 Site Functionality.......................................................................................... 355
10.2.1.1 Choice and Use of Attributes....................................................... 355
10.2.2 Site Restoration.............................................................................................. 356
10.3 Stressor Impacts and Mitigation.............................................................................. 357
10.3.1 Geo-Disaster Mitigation and Protection.................................................... 357
10.3.1.1 Naturally Occurring Events........................................................ 358
10.3.1.2 Anthropogenic Actions................................................................ 359
10.4 Chemical Stressors: Contaminants.......................................................................... 360
10.5 Soils for Contaminant Impact Mitigation and Management.............................. 361
10.5.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties.......................................................... 362
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10.5.1.1 Soil Microstructure Controls on Hydraulic Transmission...... 363

10.5.1.2 Microstructure, Wetted Surfaces, and Transport
Properties.................................................................................. 367
10.5.2 Chemical Properties..................................................................................... 368
10.5.2.1 Sorption.......................................................................................... 368
10.5.2.2 Cation Exchange............................................................................ 368
10.5.2.3 Solubility and Precipitation......................................................... 369
10.5.2.4 Speciation and Complexation...................................................... 371
10.5.3 Biological Properties..................................................................................... 371
10.5.3.1 Protozoa.......................................................................................... 371
10.5.3.2 Fungi............................................................................................... 371
10.5.3.3 Algae............................................................................................... 372
10.5.3.4 Viruses............................................................................................ 372
10.5.3.5 Bacteria........................................................................................... 372
10.6 Natural Attenuation Capability of Soils................................................................. 372
10.6.1 Natural Attenuation by Dilution and Retention...................................... 374
10.6.1.1 Dilution and Retention................................................................. 374
10.6.2 Biodegradation and Biotransformation..................................................... 376
10.6.2.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbons: Alkanes, Alkenes, and
Cycloalkanes.................................................................................. 377
10.6.2.2 Gasoline Components BTEX and MTBE.................................... 378
10.6.2.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons............................................ 378
10.6.2.4 Halogenated Aliphatic and Aromatic Compounds................. 378
10.6.2.5 Metals.............................................................................................. 379
10.6.2.6 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions.................................................. 380
10.7 Natural Attenuation and Impact Management..................................................... 381
10.7.1 Enhancement of Natural Attenuation Capability.................................... 383
10.7.1.1 Soil Buffering Capacity Manipulation....................................... 383
10.7.1.2 Biostimulation and Bioaugmentation.........................................384
10.7.1.3 Biochemical and Biogeochemical Aids......................................384
10.7.2 NA Treatment Zones for Impact Mitigation............................................. 385
10.7.2.1 Permeable Reactive Barriers and NA......................................... 386
10.8 Lines of Evidence....................................................................................................... 388
10.8.1 Organic Chemical Compounds.................................................................. 389
10.8.2 Metals............................................................................................................. 390
10.9 Evidence of Success.................................................................................................... 392
 Contents xiii

10.10 Engineered Mitigation–Control Systems............................................................... 394

10.10.1 Remediation as Control–Management...................................................... 396
10.11 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................. 397
References..............................................................................................................................400

11. Remediation and Management of Contaminated Soil................................................ 403

11.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 403
11.2 Physical Remediation Technologies........................................................................404
11.2.1 Isolation..........................................................................................................404
11.2.2 Confined Disposal........................................................................................ 405
11.3 Extraction Processes.................................................................................................. 406
11.3.1 Physical Separation....................................................................................... 406
11.3.2 Soil Vapor Extraction.................................................................................... 406
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11.3.3 Fracturing...................................................................................................... 407

11.3.4 Soil Flushing..................................................................................................408
11.3.5 Soil Washing.................................................................................................. 409
11.4 Chemical/Thermal Remediation............................................................................. 411
11.4.1 Oxidation........................................................................................................ 411
11.4.2 Nanoremediation.......................................................................................... 412
11.4.3 Electrokinetic Remediation......................................................................... 413
11.4.4 Solidification/Stabilization.......................................................................... 414
11.4.5 Vitrification.................................................................................................... 416
11.4.6 Incineration.................................................................................................... 418
11.4.7 Thermal Extraction....................................................................................... 419
11.5 Biological Remediation.............................................................................................. 420
11.5.1 Slurry Reactors.............................................................................................. 420
11.5.2 Landfarming.................................................................................................. 421
11.5.3 Composting...................................................................................................423
11.5.4 Bioleaching..................................................................................................... 424
11.5.5 Bioconversion Processes..............................................................................425
11.5.6 Phytoremediation.........................................................................................425
11.5.7 In Situ Bioremediation................................................................................. 426
11.5.8 Bioventing...................................................................................................... 427
11.6 Comparison between Treatment Technologies..................................................... 428
11.6.1 Treatment Technologies Overview............................................................ 428
11.6.2 Design of a Remediation Process...............................................................430
11.6.3 Case Study Using a Sustainability Approach...........................................433
11.6.3.1 Case Study for a Benzene-Contaminated Site..........................434
11.7 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................. 437
References.............................................................................................................................. 437

12. Sustainable Ground Improvement Technique for Geo-Disaster Mitigation......... 441

12.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 441
12.2 Soil Origin and Stability........................................................................................... 441
12.2.1 Soft Soils and Stability.................................................................................443
12.2.2 Soft Soil Engineering and Ground Improvement....................................443
12.3 Carbonate Diagenesis: Carbonate as a Cementing Agent....................................444
12.3.1 Definition of Carbonate Diagenesis...........................................................444
12.3.2 Origin and Fate of Carbonates....................................................................444
 xiv Contents

12.3.2.1 Sea Bottoms and Ocean Floors....................................................444

12.3.2.2 Coral Reef and Shells in Coastal Areas......................................445
12.3.2.3 Microbially Induced Carbonates.................................................445
12.3.3 Formation of Sedimentary Rock due to Carbonate Diagenesis.............446
12.3.4 Formations of Carbonate Nodules and Sandstones................................448
12.3.5 Calcirudite..................................................................................................... 449
12.3.6 Carbonate Diagenesis Summary................................................................ 450
12.3.6.1 The Case for Using Diagenetic Process in Ground
Improvement.................................................................................. 450
12.4 Artificial Diagenesis.................................................................................................. 451
12.4.1 Microbes......................................................................................................... 452
12.4.2 Ureolytic Bacteria.......................................................................................... 452
12.4.3 Chemical Reactions in Artificial Diagenesis............................................ 452
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12.4.3.1 Urease Activity.............................................................................. 452

12.4.3.2 Carbonate Precipitation................................................................ 453
12.5 Definition and Measurement of Carbonate Content............................................ 453
12.6 Artificial Diagenesis for Geo-Disaster Mitigation.................................................454
12.6.1 Injection of Microbes and Reactive Solution.............................................454
12.6.2 Increased Strength due to Artificial Diagenesis...................................... 455
12.6.2.1 Unconfined Compressive Strength............................................. 455
12.6.2.2 Triaxial Compressive Strength.................................................... 456
12.6.2.3 Cone Penetration Resistance........................................................ 458
12.6.3 Concepts in Design....................................................................................... 459
12.7 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................. 459
References.............................................................................................................................. 460

13. Sustainable Geoenvironmental Engineering Practice................................................463

13.1 Introduction................................................................................................................463
13.1.1 Undeniable Facts...........................................................................................463
13.1.2 Geotechnical to Geoenvironmental Engineering Practice.....................464
13.2 Unsustainable Actions and Events..........................................................................464
13.2.1 Accidents and Unplanned Events.............................................................. 465
13.2.2 Wastes and Discharges................................................................................ 466
13.3 Renewable Geoenvironment Natural Resources.................................................. 468
13.3.1 Sustainability of Renewable Nonliving Natural Resources................... 469
13.3.2 Geoenvironmental Management of Soil and Water Resources............. 470
13.3.2.1 Adverse Stressor Impacts............................................................. 471
13.3.2.2 Management for Sustainability Goals........................................ 472
13.3.2.3 Protection of Soil and Water Resources..................................... 474
13.4 Water and Soil Quality Indicators........................................................................... 475
13.4.1 Quality and Index......................................................................................... 475
13.4.1.1 Example of SQI Development...................................................... 476
13.4.1.2 Water Quality Index WQI............................................................ 478
13.5 Sustainability Practice Examples............................................................................. 479
13.5.1 Rehabilitation of Airport Land................................................................... 479
13.5.1.1 Sustainability Indicators: Observations and Comments.........480
13.5.2 Sustainable Mining Land Conversion....................................................... 481
13.5.2.1 Sustainability Indicators: Observations and Comments.........483
13.5.3 Agriculture Sustainability Study............................................................... 483
 Contents xv

13.5.3.1 Sustainability Indicators: Observations and Comments......... 485

13.5.4 Petroleum Oil Well Redevelopment........................................................... 485
13.5.4.1 Sustainability Indicators: Observations and Comments......... 487
13.5.5 Mining and Geoenvironmental Sustainability........................................ 487
13.5.5.1 Sustainability Indicators: Observations and Comments......... 490
13.5.6 Organic Urban Waste Management in Europe........................................ 490
13.5.7 Sediment Reuse: Orion Project, Port of New York and New Jersey...... 492
13.6 A Case Study Scheme for Sustainable Geoenvironment Practice:
Remediation of Cesium-Contaminated Surface Soils.......................................... 492
13.6.1 Introduction and Problem Setting.............................................................. 492
13.6.2 Rehabilitation Schemes................................................................................ 493
13.6.3 Segregation of Particles in Water................................................................ 494
13.6.4 Technological Images................................................................................... 497
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13.6.4.1 Demonstration Pilot Tests on Contaminated Sediments

and Soils......................................................................................... 497
13.6.4.2 Full-Scale Application...................................................................500
13.6.4.3 Assessment of Sustainable Practice Success..............................500
13.7 Concluding Remarks: Sensible Practice for a Sustainable Geoenvironment.... 501
References.............................................................................................................................. 502
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 507
Downloaded by [149.200.129.254] at 11:30 12 February 2017
 Preface to the First Edition

There are many who would argue that sustainability is a fashionable word that has lost
its meaning when used in the context of society and the environment. They would fur-
ther say that the word has been overused and that it never had any cachet because of
one’s inability to properly define what sustainability means. There are also those who will
maintain that it is indeed foolhardy to attempt to write on the subject chosen for this book,
simply because of the very amorphous nature of the subject.
The above notwithstanding, we have chosen to focus our attention on the geoenviron-
ment and the need to protect the health and quality of the natural capital items that com-
prise the geoenvironment. We fully recognize that so long as continued depletion of the
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nonrenewable natural resources contained within the geoenvironment occurs, sustain-

ability of the geoenvironment cannot be attained. We also recognize that the physical,
chemical, and biological impacts to the geoenvironment from the various stress generators
(humans, industry, agriculture, forestry, mining, cities, etc.) create situations that do not
allow for sustainability goals to be achieved. If one combines all of the preceding impacts
and their outcome with the recent spate of natural catastrophic disasters such as the earth-
quakes, floods, hurricanes, slides, famine, etc., it will become all the more evident that
geoenvironmental sustainability is an impossible dream. Faced with all of these, one has
two simple choices: (a) to admit defeat and prepare to face the inevitable or (b) to correct,
ameliorate, mitigate, and even prevent those detrimental elements that can be corrected,
mitigated, and eliminated, and to find substitutes and alternatives that will replace the
depleting nonrenewable resources. The material in this book is a first step in adoption of
the second choice.
The subject addressed in this book is both an ambitious one and also a very difficult
one, not only from the viewpoint of the basic science–engineering relationships involved
in dealing with the various kinds of impacts on the geoenvironment, but as much or more
so from the fact that many crucial elements contributing to the generation of these same
impacts cannot be properly addressed. One part of the problem is that many of these ele-
ments are either not within the purview of this book (especially the critical subject of
biological diversity). The other part of the problem is that there are many elements that are
dictated by prominent forces. Among these are (a) social–economic factors and business–
industrial relationships, (b) public attitudes, awareness, sensitivity and commitment, and
(c) political awareness and will.
The terrestrial environment, which is a major part of the geoenvironment is the engine
that provides the base or platform for human sustenance—food, shelter, and clothing. By
all accounts, there is universal consensus that the stresses and demands imposed by soci-
ety on the ecosphere have far surpassed the capability of the world’s natural resources to
regenerate and replenish themselves to meet sustainability requirements. It is contended
that there are insufficient resources to meet the continued demands of the present world
population, and that collapse of society will inevitably occur. Some of the major factors
involved include (a) loss of biological diversity, (b) increasing discharge of greenhouse
gases to the atmosphere, (c) loss of soil quality, (d) increasing generation of wastes and pol-
lutants, (e) depletion of nonrenewable natural resources such as fossil fuels, and (f) deple-
tion of natural living resources such as fisheries and forests. Considerable attention is being
paid to many of these issues by researchers, policy makers, and other professionals well

xvii
 xviii Preface to the First Edition

versed in engineering, scientific, and socioeconomic disciplines to alleviate the stresses to

the geosphere and to seek sustainability and ways for society to live in harmony with the
environment.
The primary focus of this book is on the geoenvironment and its importance as a resource
base for life-support systems. Mankind depends on the ecosphere and in particular on the
geoenvironment, to provide the raw materials to support life. Because of the many threats
and negative impacts on the various life-support systems within the geoenvironment,
there is a pressing need for one to (a) develop a better appreciation of the stresses imposed
on the geoenvironment by mankind and (b) determine the requirements for sensible and
proper management of our environmental resources to achieve a sustainable society.
The basic elements that define the geoenvironment will be developed in systematic
detail and fashion, particularly in respect to their relationship to the five thematic areas:
(a) water and sanitation, (b) energy, (c) health, (d) agriculture, and (e) biodiversity known as
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WEHAB. These were identified as key areas of concern by the Johannesburg World Summit
on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002. Industrialization, urbanization, agriculture
(food production), and resource exploitation (including energy) are basic activities associ-
ated with a living and vibrant society. We consider these basic elemental activities to be
necessary to sustain life and also to be integral to development. In general terms, we con-
sider development to (a) embody the many sets of activities associated with the production
of goods and services, (b) reflect the economic growth of a nation, state, city, or society in
general, and (c) serve as an indication of the output or result of activities associated with
these four main elemental activities. Questions often arise as to how these activities accord
with the aims of sustainability (of a society), and how one structures and manages pro-
grams and activities that would provide for a sustainable society.
The first two chapters provide the basic background needed to address the assimilative
capacity of soils, particularly in the light of management of pollutants in the ground, and
also in the light of sustainable development and land use. The intent of Chapter 1 is to
provide an introduction to many of the basic issues that arise in respect to impacts and
assaults on the geoenvironment as a result of anthropogenic activities associated with the
production of goods and services. In Chapter 2, we will focus on contamination of the land
environment as one of the key issues in the need to protect the natural capital and assets
of the land environment. We will be paying particular attention to the various aspects of
ground contamination and land management requirements to meet sustainability goals
in this chapter.
In Chapter 3, the importance of water is also highlighted. The quality of the water can be
and is significantly impacted by all four components within “Sustenance and Development,”
“Industrialization,” “Urbanization,” “Resource Exploitation and Agriculture.” Adequate
quantities of good quality water are also essential for health, agriculture, energy, and bio-
diversity. We will examine the sources and impacts so that they can be controlled to main-
tain the water quality and supply for future generations.
Chapter 4 examines the built environment. Populations within cities require clean
water, sewage, and waste management systems, housing, and transportation. They con-
sume significant resources while polluting the air, land, and water. The increasing urban
population will increase pressures on the geoenvironment in the years to come. The dis-
cussion in Chapter 5 will be confined to industrial activities associated with the extraction
of nonrenewable mineral, nonmineral, and energy mineral natural resources (uranium
and tar sands). Activities associated with the mining, extraction, and on-site processing of
the extracted natural resource material (mineral and nonmineral) contribute significantly
to the inventory of potential impacts to the terrestrial ecosystem.
 Preface to the First Edition xix

In Chapter 6, we are concerned with the land environment and sustainability of the land
ecosystem in relation to food production. We do not focus on food production from an
agriculture engineering or soils science point of view since all the subjects and aspects of
food production are well covered by soil science and agriculture engineering. Instead, the
focus is from a geoenvironmental perspective on the results of activities in food produc-
tion and in agroindustry on the geoenvironment itself. Chapter 7 directs its attention to
the impacts on the geoenvironment in relation to industrial ecology. We consider the inter-
actions on the geoenvironment by activities associated with manufacturing and service
industries. Insofar as geoenvironmental resources are concerned, and in respect to sustain-
ability goals, the primary concerns are (a) use of natural resources both as raw materials
and energy supply and (b) emissions and waste discharges. Since the purview of this book
addresses resource use from the geoenvironment framework and not from the industry
perspective, we acknowledge the fundamental fact that the consequences of depletion of
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nonrenewable natural resources to society is a problem that must be confronted, and that
the solution is not within the scope of this book. Accordingly, from the geoenvironmental
protection point of view, we concentrate our attention on the impacts resulting from the
discharge of liquid and solid wastes and waste products into the environment.
In Chapter 8, we discuss (a) the threats to the health of the coastal sediments realized
from discharge of pollutants and other hazardous substances from anthropogenic activi-
ties, (b) the impacts already observed, and (c) the necessary remediation techniques devel-
oped to restore the health of the coastal sediments. A healthy coastal marine ecosystem
ensures that aquatic plants and animals are healthy and that these do not pose risks to
human health when they form part of the food chain.
Chapter 9 addresses the subject of land environment sustainability as it pertains to
its interaction with the various waste discharges originating from industrial and urban
activities. We focus our attention on developing concepts that involve the natural capital
of the land environment. Chapter 10 discusses the magnitude of the problem of urbaniza-
tion and industries. Particular attention is paid to the example of sites contaminated with
hazardous wastes and other material discards. The discussion in this chapter recognizes
that the impact from the presence of pollutants in the ground need to be mitigated and
managed—as a beginning step toward protection of the resources in the environment and
also as a first step toward achievement of a sustainable geoenvironment. The emphasis
will be on using the properties and characteristics of the natural soil–water system as the
primary agent for such purposes. Finally in Chapter 11, we (a) discuss the case of nonre-
newable nonliving renewable natural resources, (b) look at some typical case histories and
examples of sustainability actions, and (c) present the geoenvironmental perspective of the
present status of “where we are in the geoenvironmental sustainability framework,” with
a view that points toward “where we need to go.”
Given the nature and scope of the multidisciplinary material covered in this book, the
limitations, and given the need to present the information to highlight the importance of
the land environment and sustainability of the land ecosystem in relation to food produc-
tion etc., we have had to make some difficult decisions as to the amount and level of “basic
theory” needed to support the discussions presented. It was not our intent to develop or
present extensive basic theories in any one discipline area of this multidisciplinary prob-
lem—except as is necessary to support the discussion from the sustainability viewpoint.
There are basic textbooks that will provide the background theories for the various parts
of the multidisciplinary problem treated in this book.
In the preparation of this book, the authors have benefited from the many interactions
and discussions with their colleagues and research students, and most certainly with the
 xx Preface to the First Edition

professionals in the field who face the very daunting task of educating the public, indus-
try, and the political bodies on the need for conservation and protection of our natural
resources. We have identified the sources of various kinds of noxious emissions in our dis-
cussions in the various chapters and have discussed the serious impact and consequences
of such discharges. We have made mention in many chapters on the excess consumption of
renewable resources and the significant problems of depleting nonrenewable resources—
especially the energy resources. We have not embarked on detailed discussions on the
kinds of alternate and/or substitute energy sources and the very pressing need for such
sources to be found (researched and developed). That the need exists is eminently obvi-
ous. It was felt that this subject of depleting energy resources, together with the subject
of climate change deserve full attention from books dedicated specifically to these very
important subjects.
It is well understood that there is considerable effort directed toward alleviating many
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of the impacts described by industry, consumers, legislative bodies, the general public,
and the professionals responsible for developing and implementing solutions. We wish to
acknowledge these efforts and to remind all that much greater effort is needed. Finally, the
first author wishes to acknowledge the very significant support and encouragement given
by his wife Florence in this endeavor.

Raymond N. Yong
Catherine N. Mulligan
Masaharu Fukue
 Preface to the Second Edition

Much has happened in the past 7 years since publication of the first edition of this book
(Geoenvironmental Sustainability). Since that time, the combination of population growth
and increased exploitation of both renewable and nonrenewable natural resources have
added increased stresses on the quality and health of the geoenvironment. This is espe-
cially true when viewed in the context of the growing demand for food and shelter, and
particularly for energy and mineral resources and their resultant effects on the natural
capital of the geoenvironment. There is considerable need for governments, stakehold-
ers, and geoenvironmental scientists and engineers to develop and implement measures
needed to manage the natural capital and resources of the geoenvironment to ensure that
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future generations of humankind are not compromised because of the lack of availability
of geoenvironmental resources.
As we have pointed out in the preface for the first edition of this book, continued har-
vesting or exploitation of the nonrenewable geoenvironmental natural resources means
that we will never be able to achieve geoenvironment sustainability. We recognize this
and acknowledge that the means and measures to diminish the depletion rate of the non-
renewable resources (conservation?) lie with industry. That being said, it is the renewable
natural resources and the natural capital of the geoenvironment that need to be managed
to ensure their sustainability. This means the development and implementation of tech-
nology and practices that seek to protect the quality and health of the natural resources
and capital in the face of chemical, mechanical, hydraulic, thermal, and biogeochemical
stressors originating from natural and anthropogenic sources.
The material in this new edition focuses on the application of geoenvironmental engi-
neering procedures and practice to mitigate and ameliorate the adverse impacts gener-
ated by stressors imposed on and in the geoenvironment from anthropogenic sources.
Although industry and society have made considerable efforts in recent years to adopt
practices and procedures to “protect the environment” (i.e., to go “green”), there are still
many activities that generate geoenvironment stressors, the impacts of which are seen to
be adverse to the quality and health of the geoenvironment. What is needed is a set of tools
and/or procedures and concrete examples that can be used by competent professionals to
minimize and perhaps even eliminate the adverse consequences of the stressor impacts.
For this to happen, it is necessary to identify the sources of the geoenvironment stressors
and also the nature of the stressors (Chapters 3 through 9). With this knowledge, it then
becomes possible to structure and/or develop technological and engineering tools and
procedures to eliminate, where possible, or alleviate the adverse impacts to the geoenvi-
ronment (Chapters 10 through 13). We have chosen to call these engineering procedures
and practices sustainable practices in geoenvironmental engineering.
In short, sustainable practices in geoenvironmental engineering is the application of geo­
environmental engineering practice to manage (control, alleviate, mitigate, etc.) stressor
impacts on the geoenvironment from natural and anthropogenic sources in a manner
that protects the quality and health of the natural resources and capital of the geoenvi-
ronment and ensures that these geoenvironmental natural resources and capital remain
available for future generations (i.e., sustainability of the natural resources and capital).
Geoenvironmental engineers and scientists have the knowledge and the various sets of
tools to provide regulators, stakeholders and other interested parties with the capability to

xxi
 xxii Preface to the Second Edition

protect the geoenvironment from stressor impacts. What is needed now is a deeper inte-
gration of the various disciplines such as soil physics and chemistry, microbiology, hydro-
geology, and geochemistry, into the encompassing field of geoenvironmental engineering.
As we have indicated before, to provide the kinds of technology and solutions needed to
safeguard the quality and health of the geoenvironment, it is necessary for one to utilize
all the pertinent science from the other disciplines.
The new concepts brought into the discussions on sustainability requirements include
(a) the nature of indicators and how one specifies the different types of indicators, (b) site
functionality and restoration and the choice and use of attributes, (c) remediation and
management of contaminated soil, (d) techniques for remediation that include chemi-
cal, biological, chemical–thermal, and biological, (e) sustainable ground improvement
using carbonate and artificial diagenetic processes, (f) exploitation and state of renewable
resources, and (g) sustainable assessment tools. We are grateful to our many colleagues
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from the different disciplines for their invaluable input throughout our many discussions
on the problem of geoenvironmental sustainability.

Raymond N. Yong
Catherine N. Mulligan
Masaharu Fukue
 Authors

Raymond N. Yong, BA, BSc, MSc, MEng, PhD, is the William Scott professor emeritus
at McGill University, Canada, and professor emeritus at the University of Wales Cardiff
(Cardiff University), UK. He has authored and coauthored 11 other textbooks, more than
500 refereed papers in the various journals in the disciplines of geoenvironmental engi-
neering and earth science, and holds 52 patents. He is a fellow of the Royal Society (Canada)
and a Chevalier de l’Ordre National du Québec. He and his students were among the early
researchers in geoenvironmental engineering engaged in research on the physicochemical
properties and behavior of soils, their use in buffer/barriers for HLW (high-level radio-
active waste) and HSW (hazardous solid waste) containment and isolation and restora-
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tion/remediation of contaminated sites. He and his colleagues are currently engaged in

research on geo­environmental sustainability.
Catherine N. Mulligan, BSc, MEng, PhD, holds a Concordia research chair in geoen-
vironmental sustainability (tier I) and is full professor and associate dean, Research
and Graduate Studies of the Faculty of Engineering and Computer Science of Concordia
University, Canada. She has authored more than 80 refereed papers in various journals,
authored, coedited, or coauthored five other books, holds three patents, and has supervised
to completion more than 40 graduate students. She is the director of the new Concordia
Institute of Water, Energy and Sustainable Systems. The new institute trains students in
sustainable development practices and performs research into new systems, technologies,
and solutions for environmental sustainability.
Masaharu Fukue, BEng, MEng, PhD, is a full professor at Tokai University, Japan. He has
studied and taught geoenvironmental engineering and geotechnical engineering for 36
years, since 1978, in Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University. He has coauthored
two other textbooks, more than 100 refereed papers in various journals, and holds six
patents. He has recently established the Japanese Geotechnical Association for Housing
Disaster Prevention to apply the theory and practice of innovative microbial cementing
process (one of his patented processes). In addition, another of his Japanese patents (resus-
pension technique for sediment rehabilitation) is currently being applied in Fukushima,
Japan, in the aftermath of the March 2011 East Japan great earthquake and accompany-
ing tsunami. Both projects demonstrate the interdependencies between geoenvironmental
engineering and geotechnical engineering and the need to apply sustainability principles
in the practice of both disciplines.

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