Significant Geologic Factors in Rock Slope Stability INTRODUCTION Many advances have been made in fecent years in. under- Standing the factors which affect the stability of rock slopes. ‘These advances include greater knowledge of the shear {reneth along rock discontinuities, development of improves Jncthods of stablity analysis and the recognition and descrip- tion of those geologic factors that play a special role in slope ‘stability studies, The advances in theory, analysis, and labora- tony testing have gone hand in hand with improvemests in field geological descriptions. The stability analysis of rock Slopes depends upon accurate and representative descriptions Of the pertinent” geological clements existing in the feld, While improvements in geological exploration and descrip- tions have been dependent upen increased knowledge of the Eniieal factors affecting the failure of rock masses, 'As more experience is gained in analyzing and predicting the stability of rock slopes, the almost overriding importance ‘of certain geological factors becomes more apparent. Piteau'* fas done a commendable job in critically analyzing and summarizing the unwieldy mass of Iiterature on these signif Cant geologic factors. We believe that we ean most effect Sontsibute to this symposium by indicating our impression ‘Of the relative significance that ought to be attached to the Yarious geologic factors discussed by Piteau, We find that in a few instances our experience and the information from four current research programmes would cause us to give a Somewhat different emphasis to certain geologic factors. ‘We will deseribe a framework for classifying the several types of slope stability problems encountered in open pit tines. which we have found useful. Next we will point out the principal geologie factors in slope stability problems in rock and coroment on how these factors distinguish problems ‘with the stability of rock slopes from those normally encoun- tered with soil slopes. Finally, we will touch upon several ‘lements in the stability of rock slopes which deserve special ‘consideration. THREE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF SLOPE STABILITY PROBLEMS Many different slope stability problems can be encountered in the excavation of an open pit mine. These problems have difterest ovigins and commonly have apprecubly different Significance in the design and operation of the pit. We have found it convenient 10 group the typical rock slope stability problem into one of three categories “Type 1 —Iocal slope failures involving a single bench, Type 2—largescale wedge failures involving, several benches, ‘Type 3 — failures in sheared and decomposed rock which may lavolve several benches. ‘These types of slope stability problems are illustrated in Fig. | and are described below. Local slope failures (Type 1) Local slope failures of small rock masses along one oF ‘more joint planes, 3Uch as the one illustrated in Fig, fo, are Common ln any large excavation. They are almost impossible By F. D, PATTON. PAD. and 0. U, DEERE} PRD. to climinate completely without the use of excessively fat slopes or a costly slope-support system such as gunite applied ver wire mesh that i secured To rock anchors. In most tases, ia few local flues did not occur, one might conclude that such a slope is overdesigned and is probably too flat. Fie, 1, Thee pricigal types of slope fllres in open pit mines. “These focal failures are considered to extend a vertical Gistance of less than the height of one beach. Such fallures| ‘would not usually appreciably influence the overall mining ‘operations for more than a few days at the most. The worst problem presented by these local failures is that of the hazard t0 men and equipment. However, in some present day mines the cost of a single piece of equipment may exceed 20 million dollars and in this case it would be possible for ‘local slope filure to appreciably changs the entice economics | ‘Of the mine operation. Local failures may also be significant ‘adjacent to conveyor bells, tunnel portals, or other relatively permanent mine structures. In general, good slope design will minimize local failures but itis unlikely that many mining operations could afford 0 eliminate all such illus, Safety considerations, may ‘require close observation and monitoring of the field slopes by field personnel during and following excavation. Ik is not ‘esential that one have extensive training in field geologic frethods to recognize the factors leading to these local failures. Experienced “Biase and aust their minine_operauons accordingly Large-scale wedge fur (Type 2) “The presence of two or more throushgoing discontinuities, such af a prominent bedding-plane joint or master joint combined with a fault, may lead to the situation ilusrated ib. This geologic condition js potentially much more Thsociate Profesor of Geology, University of Iliis, Urbana. ‘Proesor of Civil Elnewring and of Geol, Universiy ‘Minis, Urbana, a on 3thzardous than the local failure. The hazard results because: (e) a much larger rock mass may become involved in the ise; and (0) the geologic conditions leading to the fellure {re often difficult to detect in advance. bens. theres less i "The ifieuly in Getection and prediction occurs where two adverse geologic SSructures are separated by hundreds of feet at the surface land where the influence of rock weathering may make them hard to detect. ,Coreful scolonic field work may be required these slricant structures; the structures must then SeAMS ened ie anicpte thar inuence on future mine slopes. Conditions conducive 10 a large-scale wedee fallure can ‘cause mine operators and workers to develop & Of security as there may be Title or no warning of an Tm ent slope failure until the Tine of interection of the wo feologic structures ts exposed or “dav-lighted”, In the &x- Emple shown in Fig. 1h the failure probably would not occur ntl the excavation had reached (0 within few feet of the Intersection of the fault and masier joint. A failure of su:h 1 rock wedge could stop mining operations for months and ‘ould conceivably change the economics of the entite opera- ton. Ea fi ame ables: ‘yoni of the project geolosist to locate the nrincinal {heoush- rueiures and 10 anticipate “Scour, Failures of sones of sheared and decomposed rock (Type 3) ‘Where the mine slopes encounter wide fault zones contain- ing sheared and decomposed rock, the slope desian used for the sound rock wil have 10 be modified to account for the ‘weaker materal. “The geologic evidence of such weak materials is usually easier 10 see than that for Type 2 failures. However, tke ‘Type 2 the slope may not fail until the excavation has proceeded considerably below the elevation where the weaker Imatetials Were first encountered. Failures of Types | and 2 are best analyzed by the tech hiques. developed in rock mechanics, whereas failures of ‘Type 3 as illustrated by Fig. le can be treated by the more ‘onventional methods developed in the field of soil mechanics. Summary of the principal types of stability problems Conditions leading to failures of Types 2 and 3 are im- portant enough t0 be major considerations in the layout of 'an open pit mine. Thus, the main objective of an exploration programme would be 16 identify and describe the major fault Jones, areas of weathered rock, and all through-soing joints, faults. and beds of weak rosks. The pit lxyout and slopes based upon the major peologic structures would then be ‘modified 10 whatever extent is possible by the characteristics (of the secondary discontinuties in order 10. minimize the ‘occurrence of the Type | failures Since a mine pit has several sides, the throush-going geologic structures are likely fo intersect more than one side, ‘Thotefore. the most favourable position and slope for one fide of the pit may gesult in stabikly problems for another Eide. In theve cases the slope stability problem becomes one ‘f optimization of the pit layout geometry. SIGNIFICANT GEOLOGIC FACTORS IN, SLOPE STABILITY PROBLEMS IN ROCK ‘There is @ long tradition jn seil mechanics of analyzing the ability of slopes and because many of the original staility Analyses of the slopes of open pit mines were attempted by’ means of soil mechanics techniques. it seems worthwhile 10 point out the diferences in the geological requirements for analysis ofthe two materials. The description of the principal differences has also turned out 10 be x description of what we believe to be the most significant geologic factors in ‘lope stability problems in rock. We wish 10 emphasize the increased significance of geologie factors in stability problems swith rock materials, and therefore the need for a greater {Quanity of geologic information in analyzing rock, siopes thae soit slopes. Yet, although many important differences do exist in the approaches to stability probiems in soll and rock mechanics, we have found these differences to be fewer With the passage of time. Often one is not conscious: of ‘explicitly Using the methods of either field — rather one is Attempting (o solve a problem tnvolving the strength and stability pC natural materials Oriemed planes and somes of weakness “The distinguishing feature of slope stability problems in rock is that the failure planes conform so closely to pre- fenisling planes of eakness, In the average slope stability problem in sil, but admitiedly notin all eases, one assumes {hat the sol has a relatively equal strength in all directions However, in rock the strength along a discontinuity may be ‘only # small fraction of the strength of the intact material Hence. the need to locate and establish the orientation and sirength properties of the critical discontinuities in rock is CObvious. There is seldom an equivalent need to establish the Tecation of a single plane in soil slopes. Unusual and complex groundwater conditions Unequal or directed fluid pressires—Flui pressures within ‘a rock mass act perpendicular to the surfaces of the discon- finaiies When there are many Joint sets with many different orientations and when the joint spacing is smo, the fhuid pressure within the rock mass can be treated in a similar Fashion to that used for soll slopes. However, when the distri- ‘bution of joint orientations is anisotropic and when the spac: ing between joints Is increased In rock masses its possible {0 have the fluid pressure and hence the shearing foxees change appreciably from one joint to the next. Fig. 2 illustrates this point for the water level is much Jower in joint a-a than in joint 6-6. As @ result, the magnitude of the force Pb due to the hydrostatic fuid pressure long the joint bb fs several times the force Pa acting normal to joint avg. Fig. 2 also illustrates the: importance and the ifculty of obtaining critical uid pressures in rock slopes. though we might have frequent and precise water levels Yecorded in pieuommeter | in joint axa, the records ae likely to be completely misleading with respect to the more critical ‘waler levels obtained from piezometer 2 in joint xb. > Large frat x growsbvoter levels Groundwater revs realy to futuate such more tn rook slopes than Invimany soll oper due to the araler percentage ot void ‘ace m rocks, Figs 3 shows the effects on the groundvater thbis Of 3 inch rainfall which entirely ifiates nto Potous sal slope and a ow porosty rock ste: In Fe. 3 The ine aia can produce a 3+ 10 10snch rise in the ‘roundvatr level assuming poroses of 33 1 100 perce feopecely; However in Fig 3 the same rainfall on @ Fock slope esl pracy jnceass in groundwatelevels oF the order of tens of feerSportnates the rock adacent © thany rock slopes becomes more permeable because of ois Serine due te blasting and see reisThs cone of more cpen inne serves to retard the development of high water prosnures near the slope sureie, rison of groundmater flctuations between soil and Figs, Comparson of ero fe Influence af geologic details on pore pressure distibution— ‘Minor detals of the geology, such as that illustrated in Fig. 4, can have an appreciable effect upon the distribution of pore pressures and hence upon the stability of the slope. ‘The only diflerence in geology between the two diagrams on Fig, 48 thatthe joint beneath the first block (No. 1) js open and drains frely in Fig. 4a, while the same joint in Fig. 4b is shown to be relatively tight, ig. 4, Effects of geolople detail on pore presses and sabia. ‘The distribution of the pore pressures acting against the submerged rock faces is shown in both eases. The following ‘assumptions were made: (a) is 35°, (b) the dry unit weight ‘of rock is 160 lb, (e) the inclination of the lower master Joint is 20", and (a) the blocks and water tables have the dimensions and are in the positions shown. On the basis of 135 these assumpions the faster of safety were computed for ‘ariovs combinations of blocks and ate summarized below the corresponding part of Fig. 4. In Fig. do, where the joint open, the factor of safety agains siding along the lower mate jun 19 for Block lone: Li for Bcks (1) and (an 1-2 Tor blocks (2, and (3). The computed actors of safety indicate that a Combinations of blocks sre stable. However, when a joins Telatvely tight cloie To the tock slopes atin Fi 4 the poresvater pressures can increase agaist the siden of blocks Civand (1. Now the factor of salty is reduced to 0. for block (1), 8 for blocks (1) and (2), and 9 for blocks (et and 6). Te may be pointed out tat should look (1) sar to move she volume ofthe crack behind it wil grea) crease and the water presse wil drop Off. Hence, such a slope misht tveotualy fai after sens of small forward movements ‘Ntemately,-dsplacements along. master joint PO. mish fess in the pore presnires along this joint ineeasing. Sach fn increase in pore water pretutes could cause the forward ‘movernent ofthe block toasters. “The prevows examples ilustate the important influence of porzwater pressure on the salty of rock slopes In Scion, they should begin to indicate Jost how complex of pote pressre canbe in rock slopes Casagrande, Miller, Pacher Louis and Lane’ have described other exaropies fhe elfect of pore presures onthe stability of rock Hopes “Cit is apparent that ii more dificult to obtin representa: lve orertcal tributions of pore prestotes in rock slopes and it i more dificult 10 enshre thgl remedial drainage is sffcive than in most slopes in soit>Moreover, the effects ‘ofthe Haid pressures may be greater than for sl slopes as the roc slopes are likely Yo be cat sesper. Large lasses of shear strength due to displacements The intact shear strength of rock is much larger than the ‘undiseurbed’ strength of soil having the same mineralogic composition. However, the residual shear strength or the strength obtained after large displacements is roughly the same for the soi as for a relatively fat joint sueface in the ‘equivalent rock. Hence, the loss of strengti with displacements ‘can be several orders of magnitude greater for rock than for soil This relationship i shown in. Fig. 5. pee teen Denes a trem ote te Fit, 3. Comprizon beeen ol and rok ofthe oof srengh wth “ Shaun, ee Fig, Sa shows shear strength vs. displacement curves for 1 rock and a so with the same mineralogy which were tested ‘onder the stme normal stress om. It is obvious that the peak Strength for the rock will be many times that for the sol, yet as displacements continue the residual strength of bothmaterials is approximately the same. Fig. Sb is a summary plot that one could prepare from a series of shear strength {ests on a series of identical specimens of rock and a series ‘of identical specimens of soil, both series having the same ‘mineral composition. “The maximum and residual shear strengths are plotted for ‘each test at the appropriate level of nocmal stress. The results for the two tests from Fig. Sa are shown plotted along the ‘vertical line for on. Fig. Saand 5 are two ways of lustating theta las of stength pesiblengocks i os much greater Iagnitode than tat for mos soit She pelos ot scenh “The Jow residual strengths obtained along rock surfaces “which have undergone considerable displacement is one of the reasons why uncemented faults and shears are so signi- ‘int in slope stability problems. Fig. 6a is a cross section of 's rock slope with an iregular joint and an uncemented Cavlt, both with unfavourable orientations. In this example pore water pressures are assumed to be negligible. Fis. 6b shows the shear strength diagram for the irregular joint. Since the shearing strength at stall displacements fs shown to exceed the shesring stresses, the joint will remain stable. However, Fig. Ge shows that when the pit is excavated deeper to expose the uncemented fault the shearing strength at all dsplace- ‘ments will not be siffiient to resist the shearing stresses and 4 failure of the slope will result. Fle. 6. Significance of revising dsplocements along ful Faults or shear zones are charactristially associated with particular geologic environments. These include: (@) faults subparallel to or in secondary or conjugate Alignment to regional faults, (8) bedding plane faults in shales where they are inter- bedded with other rock types, (6) foliation shears in schists and slates, and (Gf foliation shears along micaceous bands within gneisses, “The faults oF shears deseribed in iiems (b) and (6) above are particulaely common in folded or inclined sediments and ‘adjacent t0 thick layers of a relatively ess deformable rock such as sandstone. basalt, quartzite, or amphibolite. Examples of faults or shear zones in several of the geolowic situations described sbove are shown on Fig. 7. Once a fault ie found and its aligaments established, its influence on slope ‘stability must be assessed. Many faults exist which have litle ‘oF no ifiuence on the stability ofthe slopes. yet other faults {and combinations of faults can be the mos! significant geologic factors in the analysis and prediction of the slope stability problem, Fig. . Typical occurrence of shear zones layered rock Variations in strength due 10 Irregularities along rock discon. sinuiies Seldom does one have to consider the nature of the irregu- tarities alone failure surfaces in soils. Yer in rock the irregu= ies along a fault or Joint surface can mean the difference Delvieen stability and failure of a mine slope. The presence ‘of irregular rock surfaces (such as those shown in Fig. 6 and ® can result in the possibility of different modes of failure along the same rock surface. Depending upon the normal stress level the irregularities can be overridden or sheared (Off. Thus, different shear strengttoormal stress relationships ‘exist at diferent stress levels for the same rock surface. These land other effets have been described by Patton ** and by Deere eta LM Fig. B. Detals ond effects of irregularities om faa surface Irregularities essoeiated with faults and shear zones— Different types of iregular surfaces are commonly associated ‘with diferent sete of joints and faults (Patton). In addition, the nature and effect of the irregularities may be different In diferent directions on the same rock surface due to an ‘oriented structure developed on the surface. These differences Can have the effect of changing the equivalent angle of shearing ‘sistance of rock surface by 15° er more. Hence, the orienta tion of the isregolartis is important in the field, in the laboratory. and in in-situ testing procedures. ‘The role of such oriented irregularities along a fault surface i shown in Fis. 8. Two faults are shown in Fig. 82, booth inclined with an unfavourable orientation towards the slope. The direction of movement in past geologic history‘along fault No, | was north-south resulting ia Auings i this direction, whereas the ditection of movement along fault No. 2 was eastwest resulting ia eastnest osented futings. Fig. 8 is close-up sketch of a portion of one of the fault surfaces shown in Fis. 8a, The shear strength in the diretion Of faull movements, siriations, and deep Muting is shown as or ws while the shear strength in the fault plane perpen- icolar to the Mutings i =+0F =. ‘The shear srengih in the direction +, may differ somewhat from 7, due 10 the presence of small Riedel shears which fare sometimes observed along fault surfaces. The Riedel Shears. are generally observed 0 be inclined downward at fan angle 4/2 in the opposite direction to the sense of mover tment of the particular fault block being examined. ‘The value of the shearing resistance =, and = in the dite tion perpendicular to = and % may be appreciably higher because the deep tings must be overridden. For relatively sound rock at moderately tow siress levels, the angle of Shearing resistance in the direction of =, or =, will be the Sum of the angle of sheating resistance for a fat plane plus the angle / shown on Fig. 8. ‘The mechanical significance of the different orientations : ‘in Fig. Se, The shear strength- ‘of previous feult move- iment are given by curves = and %, while tbe shear strength in the direction perpendicular is given by the curves x, and “« Superimposed on Fig. 8 isa horizontal line approximat- ing the magnitude of shearing stresses (assumed to be roughly the same for both faults) acting on the two faults inthe field. ‘The position of ths line with respect to the shear strength =, and ‘sndicates that fault plane No. | would fil, while fault plane No. 2 would not slip downhill perpendicular to the flutings because the shear strength 7 is areater than the magnitude of the shear stress. Different sizes of irrezularities~As Piteau"” pointed out jin his discussions in Section 4 on surface asperities and in his Appendix No. #_and 9, there can be several orders of ‘magnitude of the surfce irregularities Fig. 9 (from Patton") is an actual trace of a bedding plane in limestone which is ‘approximately $ 1 long and illustrates how complex iregu- iarities can become in nature. This figure shows a discon- tinuity having iregularities of two diferent orders of magni- {de A series of smaller second-order irregularities with larger angles of inclination from the overall dip of the surface ‘Ghown in part a) is superimposed upon & series of larger first-order irregularities (shown in pact b). Both ofthese ses of iregularities can influence the shear strength of the daestu rock mass Fig 10h illustrates the opposite case wherein the inclination of the irregularities affecting the laboratory specimen would bbe nepligible. There would be a small é-valie affecting the results of the larger isin specimen, whereas the actual Shear strength developed alone the failure surface in the Field problem may be an appreciable Sto 10 degrees or more In this case the results from the laboratory and su tests ‘would underestimate the shear strength actually available in| the field along the potential failure surace i the larger Held irregularities were not accounted for. Weathering and hydrothermal alteration When geologic weathering occurs in soil the adverse effects are usually minor in comparison with the effects of ‘weathering in rocks. [a fac. in many instances the weathered sols are also dessicated and are stronger than the pre-existinguumweathered soils. The effect of weatheting on a rock mass is 10 greatly deprade its strength, to appreciably change its deformability and permeability characteristics, and to develop complex three-dimeasional arrangement of residual soil ‘weathered roek, and unweathered rock. In addition to being influenced by the results of surface weathering processes, ‘mine slopes often contain decomposed rock due 10 hydro- ‘thermal alicration, particularly in association with fauling and igneous intrusions. Fie, 10, Seale efects with icregslritiet (Deere et. Large areas of weathered or hydrothermally altered rock ‘may be found along side fault zones such as was shown in the Type 3 slope failure given in Fig, le, Such zones often have a major influence on the groundwater flow and for this reason may cause excess pore pressures within and adjacent to the fault zone. The influence of weathering in open pit mites is likely 10 be felt in the upper benches. However, in some instances, here open pit mines are cut into the sides of large hills oF ‘mountains, the stability of the upper weathered zone ean ‘appreciably influence the entire pit operation. Such a com, dition is illustrated in Fig. 11. PM, Mine Soe afected by shiity oft end withered ‘Siope failures in residual soils and weathered rocks are often ‘closely relsted to relict discontinuities that remain {rom joints and faults in the original rock. The influence of Joint ircegularities is diminished as the strength of the materials orming the interior of the irregularities ie reduced, thus focreasing the possibility that they are sheared off rather 148 than overridden, West materials with iffere ies, which are abgned parallel to natural sur layering of lower permeabili layers over higher permeability layers parallel fo slope can re- sult in the development of artesian or excess pore-water pres sures in weathered slopes which may precede a slope [allure > Variety of geologic conditions relevant 10 rock slope stability Many ditferent geologic conditions can be present in local areas so as 10 result in (2) a variety of slope failures each with 9 diferent geologic origin, oF (®) large slides in which 8 variety of geologic factors are operative to contribute to complex sliding history. Whether one & required to antich- pale the variety of geologic conditions that could lead 10 ‘ock slides or 10 attempt 10 understand the origin of a com Blex rock slide, experienced field geologists are essential for ‘obiaining meaningful conclusions from such studies. The variety of geologic detalls that are significant in a study of rock slopes in a given locality is likely to far exceed those encountered in soil slopes ina similar area, We shal illustrate these points with examples of rock slides fram two localities; the fst, from the Muskingum open pit coal mine near Zanesville, Ohio; the second, from highway cut slopes in faster Pers, Muskingum Mine. Zanesville, Ohio—The Muskingum Mine Of the Central Ohio Coal Company has recently placed in ‘operation @ 14.000 ton, 220 cubic yard. capacity walking iragline called “Big Muskie’. The dragline hs the ability 10 {Work from benches exceeding 120 ft in height and can exce- vate about 1 000 lineal feet of new bench every week ‘The mine is located in the Appalachian Plateau Physio- inraphie Province and the bedrock consists of Upper Penn. Sylvanian shales, sandstones, limestones, and coal Which are almost horizontally bedded. The overburden is preblasted prior to excavation by the drapline. No severe slope stability problems had been encountered with the sialler slopes and ‘smaller draglines previously used, but it seemed prudent to estigate the stability of the rock slopes before testing em with the 24 raillion dollar dragline. ‘The study was largely an engineering geology review of the seolopic strata and structures present in the area and an evaluation of their influence on the setback distance of the Sragline from the toe and crest of the excavated Slopes. tn spite of the simple regional geologic structure, we encountered ‘number of geologic conditions which we felt to be siznificant in recommending the setback requirements for the drasline ‘These conditions included: (2) inclined clay-filled master joints; () stessreief, faulted, aticlinal struct (©) inclined clay: seams along the base of old channel fillings; (2) solution of limestone layers leading to disturbance and increased thickness of adjacent shale beds; (6) inclined slickensided fissures in the shales; and ) inclined clay layers in erass-bedded sandstones. A ross section of one of the failures associated with Inclined, clayfiled master joints is shown in Fig. 12. The slope had Taied after the oa was removed from the toe of the slope sometime after ‘most of the rock face was ex} ince the joint surface ‘as not exposed by the rock eut, the propagation Of the toe Of the failure surface was aided by’ the additional slope seformations accompanying the removal of the coal ‘Severs anticlinal structures, which appeared to be assoeia- fed with river channel erosion during. Pennsylvamian mes, Were located in the existing mine. Wall. Fig. 13, shows an example of such a strveture and ite associated faults, Theorientation of the stike of the faults and inclined strata (perpendicular to the existing cut slope) was such that it did ier appreciably affect theie stability, However. it would not be possible to predict in advance the positions or orsentations fof such structures with respect (0 those of the new mine Slopes. Therefore, it became necessary to assume that Such Structures would be encountered with an unfavourable ‘Onentation. In a similar fashion other detailed. geologic Conditions were located in the feld and their influence on the setback distances considered. ‘ig 13, fost ste lie ele bedding planes aor fat ‘planes of deformed rocks Muskingum Mine, Ohio. Rock slides along the new Marginal Highway, Eastern Pera— In 1968 the contractor for a portion of the new marginal highway on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Peru ex- perienced over 40 large rock slides in a short mountainous Section of the highway. As there is seldom any major difference between the mechanics of rock sides along highways and those along the sides of an open pit mine, we have selected fone of these slides to ilusirate a complex rock slide. Im this example the road cut was constructed along a stesp side of a narrow ridge whose top extended over 600 ft above the road grade. The design cuts were 4:1 (honzontal : verucal) And were approximttely $01 high. As construction began, Slides developed fo a beight of over 300 Me above the road for a distance of a thitd of a mile, Fig. 14 is a geological ‘ross section made in the centre of the slide and shows the Aifferent geologic factors contributing to the slide. ‘The bedrock consisted of interbedded sandstones and shales that had been steeply inclined and faulted. The faults ‘were confined {0 the weaker shale layers resulting in the Bresence of several nearvertcal bedding plane faults Ww road cot at dips of 3$ to 60". In addition, the near-surface rocks had been weathered under jungle conditions so that the upper part of the cemented sandstone forming the crest of the ridge lost much of i cement and converted to a sandy residual sil. Fig, 14. Typical section of side—Marginal Highway, Pert Once this geologic history had been developed by field work, the following sequence of events in the development fof the rock side could be deduced: (i) Stides began in the deformed surface layers of rocks whose joints were inclined towards the road cut at 35 10.60". (W) Collapse of the fault debris followed leaving a hish —Si of weathered sandstone i) Lost of support by the weathered sandstone resulted fa the delayed collapse of these upper cliffs which even tually Sent cascades of sand over the lower slopes. ‘This sand debris covered up most ofthe rock exposures in the slide area. fn adjacent rock cuts where the surface rocks ad pot crept downhill the original design slopes were found 10 be quite stable. OTHER ELEMENTS IN ROCK SLOPE ANALYSIS In addition to the geologic factors described in the previous sections of this paper, we would like 10 discuss certain other ements which enter into the analysis of the stability of rock slopes. The first (wo of these eloments concerns recent research of the authors and their associates on the shear frength Of rock. The last to elements concern the role of ‘groundwater flow systems and regional stresses in rock slope analysis. Shear strength along rock interfaces with sil and grow ‘Strength problems involving interfaces between rock and soil are relatively common in nature, Clay filed joints, clay ‘gouge in fault zones in rock, weathered rock against un- ‘weathered rock, and alternating beds of sedimentary rocks Of clay and sandstone or limestone are some examples of this geologic situation. When these situations have. been encountered in the field in-situ tests have sometimes. been le wherein the material was sheared along the rock-soi feface. However, in other instances the soil alone has been tested and it was assumed that these results would provide the minimum strengths applicable to the field problem. Ey ah aie“Tests made by Kanji? at the University of Iiinois suggest that when the rock is limestone lower strengths may. be ‘Obtained along the sollrock contact than when the soil is {ested alone. Fig, 15 illustrates this effect for a remoulded Kaolinite soi. In Fig. 18 the heavy upper lines indicate the maximum and minimum attained values for the kaolinite ‘lone, while the lighter lines indicate the respective values for Soilpolished rock. It may be seen that the minimum valves ‘Obisined from roueh-saven rock surfaces are similar to those for soil against polished tock. Similar results were obtained for illie= and montmorilionite-rich soils Ik would appear that the low strengths obtained along the soil-rock contact fare similar to of somewhat lower than the residual strengths Obtained along 2 pre-cut failure surface in the soil alone. In addition, the minimum strengths are obtained with much Smaller displacements than are required with the soil alone. ‘The tet conditions represented by Kanii’s test are not unlike those present in natute between fault gouge and a slicken- ‘sided fault surface ® 15, Shear sirenth deeram Jor Georgia Rolie and inerfaces ce wi ed ete * ‘From time to time the possibilty of grouting a rock slope to improve its stability may be considered. Direct shear {ests on. prouted rock joints were reported by Deere and Coulson’ and Coulson® The results of their tests indicate ‘routing can produce some modest improvements in_ the fobesion at low stress levels, but the principal effec of the [grout may be to greatly decrease the residual angle of shearing. Fesistance below that obtained forthe rock alone. In the tests ‘by Decre and Coulson the residual angle of shearing resistance ‘was reduced by grouting fo. 16 10 22° from the 348° for the Ungrouted granite surfaces, These results sugsest that cement grouting is not a foolproof method of increasing the stability Of a rok slope and it could have the opposite effct. Influence of roundwoter flow systems "The complete view of the influence of uid pressures on the stability of mine slopes may not be available until the fnature of the repional groundwater flow system is known. “The principal reason for studying the regional flow system is to’ determine (f the mine will be located in a regional [groundwater recharge area, a discharge area, or in some intermediate area (see Fig, 16). The presence of a ground- water discharge area (Fig. 16a) indicates a ereater possibi that excess poreswater pressures may be found in the wal find beneath the floor of the mine. In such cases the slope easily problems are Tel 1 be auzzaatedFanermore. ‘without ‘some Knowledge of the regional Sow pattern erroneous conclusions can be drawn with respect to the Suitability of drainage fs ies an oer redial measures 150) ‘Fg. 16. Open pit mines in diferent pars of groundwater low ‘salen. ~However, ues Gnrivourable pre-enisting strictures are present in the pit Slopes. these events should not appreciably affect slope Reeional stresses may or may not be included asa causative following force acting 10 produce failure of a rock mass ‘The elfestiveness of such a force would depend upon (a) the Critical shear strength vs. displacement characteristics, (b) the magnitude of the displacements. caused. by the regional Sirestes, and (e) the strength required fo maintain stability Tn most cases i€ seems unlikely that displacements due to regional stresses would be sufficient to reach a strength at Iyhich the rock would fail however, several exceptions to this ‘penerality can be imagined, For these reasons the principal effect of regional stresses in slope stability problems generally is to cause displacements along. pre-existing planes of nt (hrovgh limited arsas of intact rock. The displacements ‘ould help to reduce The strength of the rock mass if the Potential sliding surfaces had not already reached residual Walues of shear strength, CONCLUSIONS ‘Of all the geologic factors influencing the stability of rock slopes, there is litle doubt that the through-going faulls and shear zones and the intersections of sueh structures are the ‘most significant, Becduse oftheir continuity they can influence large areas of a pit slope and often affect more than one side ‘of pit, In addition, geologic displacements along faults and Shear zones bave led (0 the crushing or overriding of most irregularities in at least one direction so that low residual shear strengths are often applicable rather than the higher Strengths associated ‘with more Irregular rock surfaces. CChemicat alteration of the surrounding rock and the fre- ‘quent presence of breccia and clay gouge are also commonly associated with faults and shear zones. These factors lead 10 a decrease in the influence of surface icregularties as the Jntact material is more readily sheared off. Finally, the presence of clay gouge adjacent 10 the polished or smooth Fock surfaces of faults can mean that the unusually tow ‘Strengths encountered in the laboratory for sollerock surfaces nd which are developed at small displacements are appli ableto the field problem. In spite oftheir sizeand continuity, ‘and their interections are not always after the slope failure develops. In a paper of this length itis not possible to describe all the geologic conditions that can affect slope stability analysis, land we have only attempted to describe some of the more important factors as they appear to us in the light of our ‘experience. We hope 10 have made it apparent that to find land accurately document all those geologic actors that are Siimificant requires an extremely thorough geologic investiga= tion. In addition, we believe we have Indicated the overriding ‘control of geology and geologic considerations inthe analysis ‘of rock slopes. 11 REFERENCES 1. CasaGRaNDs, A. ‘Control of sepage through foundations ScahsRitens of dams! Greene, th NO. 1 1963 2. Couson, J. H. “The effects of suiface roughness on the shear Srengih of joints in rock Ph.D. Thesis Dept, of Cnt Eng ‘ering, Universy of Hinois, Urbana, 1970, 283, 3. Detne, D. Un and Covson J. H. The effects of water and ‘cement yroul'on the shear strength of natural and arial amtinrand ules Grante, US, Bure of Rectaraton, ver, Colo. Contract 18-06-D, 1989. 113 p. @ dure, DU. and Partoy. F. D. “Effect of pore pressures ‘nthe sabi of slopes. Paper presented at Join GSA Sc Soph the Site of Ba ines, New Oran: Now 5. Duan, D, Us Hexoaos, A 3-Je, Paros. ED, and Cono- SiS. ced Eat aol See (Rae Fnirhurse ed Pro, 81h Stmpontum on Rack. 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